. Doboviek, N. Samec, F.

Kokalj

Razvoj motora...

elimir Doboviek, Niko Samec, Filip Kokalj

ISSN 0350-350X GOMABN 42, 1, 5 -27 Pregledni rad/Review UDK 621.434 : 621.436 : 621.43.018.2 : 665.733.5 : 665.753.4.001.6.009

RAZVOJ MOTORA S UNUTARNJIM IZGARANJEM I KVALITETA GORIVA

Saetak Me usobna ovisnost razvoja motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem i kvalitetom goriva/maziva postojala je sve od ro enja prvog motora. Upravo je prvi motor bio izumljen i konstruiran za koritenje samo odre ene vrste goriva. To je zahtijevalo neprekidnu i tijesnu suradnju izme u inenjera, istraivaa i drugih eksperata iz obje grane industrije. U lanku je dat prvo kratak pregled razvoja motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem (MUIZ) u toku prolog stoljea i navedeni su zahtjevi za performance motora u blioj budunosti. Dalje su analizirana i prodiskutirana neka najvanija fizika i kemijska svojstva goriva koja odre uju kvalitetu goriva za motore: oktanski i cetanski broj, kemijski sastav, prisutnost elementarnog S, N, P i kemijski vezanog N u gorivu, prvenstveno s gledita njihovog utjecaja na efektivne parametre, radne performance motora i emisiju polutanata.

1 Uvod
Svojstva goriva i njihova kakvoa imali su dominantnu ulogu u razvoju motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem. U sutini su motori UIZ, s prinudnim paljenjem ili paljenjem sabijanjem smjese gorivo/zrak bili zamiljeni i konstruirani da koriste odre enu vrstu goriva, ime je bio definiran termodinamiki ciklus pretvorbe energije, efektivni parametri i ostale radne performance motora/vozila. S druge strane, rafinerije i kompanije za distribuciju i prodaju goriva su nale u sektoru transporta, industriji, kao i u sektoru koritenja motora i vozila za izvancestovne djelatnosti, iroko i vrlo isplativo trite za prodaju svojih produkata (goriva i maziva), to je posljedino zahtijevalo vrlu tijesnu, redovitu i efikasnu suradnju izme u istraivaa, laboratorija, ekonomista i dr. iz obje industrijske grane, motorne i naftne.

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Slika 1: Shematski prikaz imbenika koji su uticali na razvoj motora i transportnih vozila Figure 1: A schematic presentation of factors influencing IC engine/transport vehicle development

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Velik broj vrlo razliitih imbenika utjecao je na tehniki razvoj, proizvodnju, uporabu i primjenu motora s unutranjim izgaranjem i transportnih vozila, a time i na kvalitetu motornih goriva. Izme u njih smo izabrali tri kao najvanja, to prikazuje slika 1: ovjek sa svojim aktivnostima, eljama i zahtjevima, drutvena zajednica i zatita okolia s odredbama, standardima i zakonskom regulativom goriva s neprekinutim usavravanjem irokog spektra fiziko-kemijskih svojstava i podizanjem kvalitete prerade, s mogunou koritenja velikih koliina po pristupanoj cijeni, pogodnoj za masovno koritenje prijevoza. Slika 2 pokazuje trend poveanja specifine (odnosno litarske) snage motora od 1876. godine dalje, tj. od pronalaska benzinskog ili Otto motora. Slika 2: Trend poveanja gustoe snage benzinskih motora vozila UIZ u toku 1876.2000. [1] * Figure 2: Trend of growth of vehicular IC engine power density during 1876-2000 [1]*

Brojevi u zagradama oznauju literaturu na kraju lanka / Numbers in parentheses designate references at the end of the paper 7

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Kao to slijedi iz trenda poveanja litarske snage motora za osobne automobile, pratimo u toku 20. stoljea ogroman porast efektivnog stupnja iskoritenja, smanjenja mase i dr., to potvr uje uspore enje prosjenih vrijednosti nekih energetskih parametara motora na poetku i kraju 20. stoljea. Tablica 1: Uspore enje nekoliko karakteristika MUIZ (prosjene vrijednosti) za osobna benzinska vozila Table 1: A comparison of performance data of reference vehicular gasoline engine MUIZ na kraju / The reference engine at the end of 20. stoljea / 19. stoljea / the 20th century the 19th century 2 47 5 1 20 35 700 5500 1-3 1-8

Karakteristika / Characteristic specifina snaga / power density [kW/l] specifina masa / specific weight [kg/kW] stupanj iskoritenja / brake overall efficiency [%] brzina vrtnje / RPM broj cilindara / number of cylinders

Sadanja konvencionalna motorna goriva se pojavljaju u irokom spektru, bilo kao benzini, dizelska goriva ili benzini s oksigenatima kao dodacima, alternativna goriva kao metan (CNG) ili propan (LPG), isti metanol, etanol, bio goriva. Vodik se isto tako koristi danas, ali jo u ogranienim koliinama. Me utim, masovno koritenje vozila s gorivnim lancima na vodik kao pogonskim agregatom moe se oekivati tek pri kraju drugog desetljea Cilj rada je prikazati i raspraviti ovisnost izme u kakvoe goriva i performanci motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem, uzimajui u obzir zahtjeve za zatitu okolia i zahtjeve modernog drutva.

2 Opi pregled razvoja motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem

Motori s unutarnjim izgaranjem i motorizirana vozila su najutjecajnije tehnoloko otkrie naeg vremena. Oni su doslovno promijenili na ivot, nain razmiljanja, bavljenja i uivanja. Ta grana industrije je, zajedno sa cestovnim transportom, vrlo brzo postala vaan imbenik u gospodarstvu drave, napretku puanstva, te prema tome bitno utjee na blagostanje nacije. Da bi pravilno ocijenili i raspravili zahtjeve koji se postavljaju na kvalitetu goriva, koja se koriste u suvremenim motorima vozila, ukazat emo ukratko na bitne znaajke koje odre uju sadanji i budui razvoj motora:

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. Doboviek, N. Samec, F. Kokalj 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

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dravna regulativa, pogotovo ona koja se odnosi na emisije i ekonominost potronje goriva; zahtjevi trita, pogotovo trokovi proizvodnje i cijena finalnog produkta; poveanje i poboljanje svih parametara performance motora; emisija CO2 ukljuujui razvoj motora s "nultom" emisijom; propisi koji se odnose na isparavanje goriva; emisija buke motora/vozila problemi vezani s recikliranjem vozila/motora, goriva/maziva.

3 Goriva
Teoretsko razmatranje realnog ciklusa motora s ottovim procesom, daje izraz za snagu na jedan litar stapajnog volumena u sljedeem konanom obliku:

Pl =

Pe 1 1 = pe N = 1 n 1 g v k N Vh a

(1)

gdje oznaava: Pl litarska snaga (gustina snage), kW/l, Vh stapajni volumen, l, pe efektivni tlak, bar, N brzina vrtnje, stupanj kompresije, n eksponent politrope, g stupanj savrenosti ciklusa, v stupanj punjenja, k gustoa svjeeg punjenja, a pretiak zraka, iz kojeg slijedi, da je upravo utjecaj stupnja kompresije (SK) najdominantniji. Porast stupnja kompresije definira iskoristivost goriva i ekonominost motora i on se, kako slijedi iz slike 3, sve vrijeme postupno poveavao. Porast je ovisio o konstrukciji motora, kvaliteti materijala, tehnologiji izrade, osobinama goriva i maziva.

3.1 Oktanski broj

Benzin je kompleksna smjesa ugljikovodika, ije se fizike i kemijske osobine mijenjaju u irokom rasponu. Osobine benzina se normalno uravnoteuju tako, da zadovoljavaju performance motora u irokom podruju radnih uvjeta, kao to su promjene klime, nadmorske visine, temperature, naina vonje, promjene sustava za gorivo, temperature motora i tlaka. Oktanski broj benzina je jedna od njegovih primarnih osobina i mjera za njegovu sposobnost, da sprjeava pojavu lupanja zbog samozapaljenja jo neizgorjelog plina goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003. 9

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ispred fronta plamena. Primarni imbenik, koji odre uje razinu potrebnog oktanskog broja je konstrukcija motora odnosno stupanj kompresije. U sredini dvadesetih godina (kad je stupanj kompresije postao vei od etri) pojava udarnog izgaranja postala je ozbiljan problem. Sveobuhvatna istraivanja su dovela, osim do saznanja o novim idejama u konstrukciji motora, i do zahtjeva za kvalitetom goriva za motore s unutarnjim izgaranjem s paljenjem gorive smjese iskrom. Pronali su novu skalu, po kojoj su gorivu odre ivali oktanski broj, kao standardno mjerilo karakteristike benzina. Slika 3: Prikaz porasta stupnja kompresije [2] Figure 3: Time history of the average compression ratio growth [2]

Na slici 3 moe se uoiti porast stupnja kompresije izme u 1920. do priblino 1963. godine i stagnacija izme u 1960. do poetka 1970. Lagani pad stupnjakompresije primjeuje se nakon 1972. godine, kada poinje naputanje olovnog tetra etila kao aditiva benzinu, da bi se mogao koristiti u automobilima katalizator za kontrolu emisije. 10 goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003.

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3.2 Cetanski broj (CB)

Cetanski broj nije temeljna, pa ak ni nezavisna osobina goriva, jer ovisi od nekoliko drugih osobina goriva. Ipak izme u CB i zakanjenja paljenja (ZP) postoji me usobna veza, koja bolje odraava fiziko-kemijske osobine goriva. CB je mjerilo za paljivost, kvalitetu goriva za samopaljenje u dizelovim motorima. CB je kompleksna funkcija veeg broja fizikih i kemijskih osobina goriva. I CB i ZP su bili podruje intenzivnih analitikih i eksperimentalnih istraivanja. Iz pregleda veeg broja literaturnih izvora [7, 8, 9] moe se predloiti sljedea zavisnost CB: CB = F (AP, DIST, DE, VIS, n-par, ISO-par, aro, S,) gdje oznaava: AP - anilinska toka, DIST - temperature destilacije, 0C, DE - gustoa, VIS - viskoznost, mm/s2 par - parafini (normalni i izo- ), aro - aromati, S - sumpor. Definicija CB je grafiki predstavljena na slici 4. Gradijent porasta tlaka dp/dt je poznat kao mjera udarnog rada dizelovog motora i primarni izvor buke. Na njega najvie utjee trajanje ZP, vremenski tok ubrizgavanja, nain stvaranja smjese, konstrukcija prostora izgaranja. Mogue je zakljuiti, da gradijent porasta tlaka definira kvalitetu dizelskog goriva, karakteristiku izgaranja i u znaajnoj mjeri stupanj termodinamikih i emisijskih znaajki motora. Sa stajalita ocjene efektivnosti parametara motora sa samopaljenjem smjese, vanije od CB je vrijeme zakanjenja paljenja (ZP), prikazano na slici 4, intervalom izme u toaka AC. To je prema definiciji vremenski interval izme u trenutaka poetka ubrizgavanja goriva (A) i poetka efektivnog osloba anja topline (C), odnosno na liniji tlaka izme u toaka (A') in (C'). Procesi u toku ZP su teoretski podijeljeni u dvije faze, fiziko ZP (AB slika 4) i kemijsko ZP (BC). Konceptualno fiziko ZP ukljuuje procese rasprivanja, grijanja, isparavanja ubrizganog goriva i mijeanje para goriva sa zrakom i znaajno ovisi o fizikim svojstvima goriva. Kemijsko ZP je temeljno svojstvo goriva, uvjetovano kemijskim sastavom i obuhvaa vrijeme potrebno da se zavre reaktivno spore pretplamene kemijske reakcije.[6] Naelni redoslijed utjecaja pojedinanih ugljikovih komponenti u dizelskom gorivu na ZP (odnosno CB) prikazan je na slici 5. goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003. 11 (2)

Razvoj motora... Slika 4: Prikaz zakanjenja palenja (tID) Figure 4: Presentation of ignition delay (tID)

. Doboviek, N. Samec, F. Kokalj

hNL hod igle brizgaljke / injector needle lift, QCHR krivulja kumulativnog osloba anja topline / cumulative heat release, tID ukupno vrijeme ZP / total ID time, tp fiziko ZP / physical ID, tc kemijsko ZP / chemical ID, GMT / TDC (tc/tp=1/7 approx.)

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Slika 5: Shematski prikaz veliine utjecaja C-H frakcija u dizelskom gorivu na ZP Figure 5: Shematic presentation of influence of fuel HC composition on ID duration

Osobine zapaljivosti benzina, alkohola, prirodnog plina upravo su suprotne dizelskom gorivu, tj. visoki OB oznaava nizak CB i gorivo se nee zapaliti samo tlaenjem te se zato ne moe direktno koristiti u dizelovom motoru. Iz rezultata nedavnih istraivanja kvalitete dizelskog goriva [10] slijedi da je utvr ena znaajna razlika izme u cetanskog broja i cetanskog indeksa u dravama gdje se dizelsko gorivo proizvodi po specifikaciji EN 590, slika 6. Trend krivulje CB za 1998. i 2000. godinu ukazuje na efikasno i brzo prilago avanje rafinerija zahtjevima modernih dizelovih motora i vladinim propisima.

3.3 Utjecaj sastava (strukture) goriva

Tijekom posljednjih trideset godina prolog stoljea sastav goriva je postao izrazito vaan parametar kvalitete goriva zbog utjecaja: na kemijski mehanizam i kinetiku procesa paljenja, na aktivacijsku energiju goriva u poetnim fazama izgaranja, na razinu koncentracija i sastav polutanata u produktima izgaranja, goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003. 13

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na puteve i iskoristivost procesa naknadne obrade produkata izgaranja, na postojanost ure aja (opreme) za naknadnu obradu ispunih plinova, na stvaranje naslaga na otvorima brizgaljki za ubrizgavanje goriva, na zidovima komore u cilindru motora i paljenjem iskrom, na isparivost goriva i emisiju para ugljikovodika.

Slika 6: Usporedba opih trendova CB CI (cetanski indeks) za europske drave koje proizvode dizelsko gorivo po specifikaciji EN 590: 2000 Figure 6: Comparison of average trends of cetane index versus cetane number for European countries producing diesel fuel to EN 590:2000 specification

Ukratko emo se osvrnuti na neke utjecaje pojedinanih komponenti na kvalitetu motornih goriva. Poveavanjem sadraja aromata smanjuje se CB, ZP se produuje, a gustoa, viskoznost, temperatura destilacije T50 i konana temperatura isparavanja su u porastu. Statistika analiza emisija ispuha ukazuje da najjai utjecaj na emisiju estica ima gustoa goriva, a zatim slijede maseni omjer C/H, temperatura T50 i viskoznost. Sadraj aromata, elementarnog sumpora i duika u motornom benzinu poveavaju podruje frakcijske destilacije i njezin zavrni dio, odnosno poveava se sadraj tekih oksidiranih lanastih spojeva ugljikovodika, koji su potencijalni prethodnici stvaranja naslaga. 14 goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003.

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Rezultati nedavnih istraivanja [11] potvr uju da uinak aromata u gorivu na emisiju ispuha motora nije jednoznaan. Monoaromati (sadraj izme u 0 i 27 postotka) korelira dobro s emisijom dima i NOx u ispuhu. Diaromati u gorivu pomalo poveavaju emisiju ispuha u usporedbi s monoaromatima kod istog sadraja u gorivu. Kao primjer je na slici 7 prikazan utjecaj aromata u gorivu na emisije ispuha. Oigledno je da je utjecaj aromata na emisiju dima vrlo jak, jer do njega dolazi usprkos poveanju zakanjenja zapaljenja, to dovodi do toga da se poveava onaj dio koliine ubrizganog goriva, koje izgara prethodno ve izmijeano sa zrakom. Slika 7: Utjecaj aromata u gorivu na emisije ispuha i zakanjenje paljenja CFR motora [11] Figure 7: Influence of fuel aromatics on CFR engine exhaust emissions and ignition delay [11]

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Doprinos aromata emisiji aldehida (formaldehida, acetaldehida, akroleina) analiziran je npr. u literaturi [12]. Na osnovi eksperimentalnih rezultata zakljuuje se da je ovisnost izme u sadraja aromata u motornom benzinu i emisija aldehida jednoznana, to nije sluaj kod dizelskog goriva. Izgleda da aromatska struktura (poliaromati) ima vrlo vaan utjecaj. Aldehidi u ispuhu se obino primjeuju kada teka dizelska goriva izgaraju pri niskim brzinama vrtnje rada u motorima visokih snaga. Osim sadraja aromata u gorivu, temperature kemijskih reakcija u toku procesa izgaranja imaju znaajan utjecaj. Tvorba aldehida se pojaava pri niskotemperaturnom izgaranju, kada motor radi neoptereen. Konano, kao primjer je prikazan integralni utjecaj osobina goriva na tvorbu naslaga na vrhu brizgaljke modernog benzinskog motora sa sustavom za direktno ubrizgavanje goriva pod visokim tlakom. Izvrena su bila opsena istraivanja [13]. Rezultati su sumirani na slici 8 i prikazuju kvalitativni utjecaj osobine goriva na tvorbu naslage. Slina pojava je primijeena pri izuavanju tvorbe naslage na zidu prostora za izgaranje na motorima s ubrizgavanjem goriva kroz usisne kanale. Slika 8: Utjecaj sastava goriva na zaepljenje brizgaljke za direktno ubrizgavanje benzina pod visokim tlakom [13] Figure 8: Effect of fuel composition on high pressure gasoline direct injection injector plugging (European 2000 fuel specification) [13]

Dodavanje oksigenata (metanol, etanol, heptanol) benzinu se pokazalo kao vrlo efikasan nain za poveavanje oktanskog broja goriva i smanjenje emisija CO i HC. Odre eni udio oksigenata u motornom benzinu poboljava isparivost, ubrzava izgaranje i umanjuje emisiju CO zbog prisutnog kisika i HC u ispuhu motora s 16 goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003.

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paljenjem iskrom. Dodaci oksigenata dizelskom gorivu uzrokuju smanjenje emisije NOx i dima (tvrdih estica), to se djelomino moe pojasniti produenjem zakanjenja paljenja.

3.4 Elementarni S, N i P u gorivu

Sumpor u gorivu ima vrlo jak utjecaj na emisiju estica i produenje intervala trajnosti ure aja za kontrolu emisije. tovie, umanjenje emisije sulfata i sumpornih oksida, sniava troenje i produava interval zamjene ulja. Sumpor u gorivu nema direktan utjecaj na tvorbu estica, ipak oksidi sumpora i talog sulfata na esticama poveavaju njihovu emisiju u ispuhu motora. Slika 9: Prilog sumpora u gorivu emisiji estica [14] Figure 9: Contribution of fuel S to PM emission [14]

Utjecaj sumpora u gorivu prikazuje slika 9 [14], u kojoj je ucrtana granina vrijednost sadraja S (30 ppm) koja jo omoguuje, da dizelov motor udovolji EU emisijske standarde. Strogi europski i ameriki emisijski standardi su traili stalno, postupno i brzo smanjivanje sadraja sumpora u gorivima za motore vozila. tovie, ovi zahtjevi e postati ubudue jo stroi, to prikazuje slika 10. Tragovi olova, fosfora, sumpora i drugih otrovnih supstancija u gorivu imaju znaajan utjecaj na oteenje katalizatora i kilometarsku postojanost katalizatora, s obzirom na zahtjev da bi se ouvala njegova funkcionalnost tijekom normalnog koritenja vozila u trajanju do 5 godina ili 80.000 km.

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Slika 10: Zahtjevani i preporueni sadraj sumpora u dizelskom gorivu i motornom benzinu Figure 10: Time history of required sulphur levels in diesel and gasoline fuels

3.5 Duik u gorivu

Kemijski vezan duik u gorivu tijekom izgaranja konvertira u NOx,conv te je pored termalnog NOx prisutan u ispuhu i tako uveava emisiju NOx. Pored udjela duika u gorivu, na njegovu konverziju utjeu uvjeti izgaranja, lokalni omjer zrak/gorivo, intenzitet mijeanja reaktanata, temperatura i prisutnost dima (a e) u zoni izgaranja. [15]

4 Zakljuci
1. Razvoj motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem za vozila i motora za izvancestovnu uporabu znakovito ovisi o utjecaju: ovjeka i njegovih aktivnosti kao pronalazaa, istraivaa, inenjera, kupca ili prodavaa, vozaa i dravljanina, okolia sa zahtjevima za zatitu prirode, prihvaanjem zakona, standarda, potrebama prijevoza, gospodarstva, trita, ...,

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3.

goriva njihovom kvalitetom, proizvodnjom, infrastrukturom, mogunou raspolaganja u velikim koliinama i cijenom. Brzi razvoj i masovna proizvodnja motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem i transportnih vozila u proteklom stoljeu je bila znaajno ovisna o raspolaganju kvalitetnim gorivima na tritu, to je za uzvrat zahtijevalo trajnu i vrlo efikasnu suradnju istraivakih institucija, inenjera svih profila i ostalih visokostrunih kadrova naftne industrije i proizvo aa motora i transportnih vozila. U 21. stoljee stupamo sa zahtjevima za: nultom emisijom polutanata i raspolaganje istim gorivima, smanjenom, odnosno vrlo niskom emisijom plinova staklenika, posebno CO2, niskom potronjom goriva,

4.

5.

dugotrajnom kilometarskom postojanou opreme za obradu ispunih plinova. Svi ti zahtjevi su kritino ugroeni razinom u gorivu prisutnog elementarnog sumpora, fosfora, kemijski vezanog duika, sadraja benzena, aromata, aldehida aromatskih kancerogenih spojeva, oksigenata i drugih otrovnih frakcija. Nastojanja da se smanje ti sastojci u gorivu u stalnom su porastu. Raspolaganje gorivima vrlo visoke kvalitete omoguuje uvo enje novih tehnologija, ime postaje mogue da se "isti" benzinski i dizelovi motori ugra uju u transportna vozila, gradske autobuse, lagana dostavna vozila i motore za izvancestovnu uporabu. Mogue je pretpostaviti da e se isti vodik koristiti u motornim vozilima 21. stoljea. Me utim, masovno koritenje vozila s gorivnim lancima kao pogonskim agregatom moe se oekivati tek pri kraju drugog desetljea.

Zahvala: Autori se zahvaljuju gospodinu Primou Pogorevcu, dipl.ing. i gospodinu mr.sc. Martinu Volmajeru za pomo kod pripreme dijagrama.

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. Doboviek, N. Samec, F. Kokalj

PROGRESS IN VEHICULAR IC ENGINES AND FUELS QUALITY

Abstract The interdependence between IC engine development and fuel/lubricant quality has existed, ever since the first engine was born. In fact the first engine was invented and designed for using explicitly only a definite type of fuel. This has required a continuous and strong cooperation between engineers, researchers and other experts of both branches of industries. In this paper a short review of IC engine development during the last century is presented first, and the requirements on IC engine performance in the near future are listed. In continuation only a few of most important physical and chemical properties determining the quality of vehicular engine fuels have been analyzed and discussed: octane and cetane number, fuel chemical composition, fuel S, N, P and N, mainly from the stand point of their influence on IC engine effective parameters, operating engine performance and pollutant emissions.

1 Introduction
Fuel properties and their quality have played a dominant role in Internal combustion (IC) engines development. In fact IC engine, either with forced/spark ignition (SI engine) or compression ignition (CI engine) of fuel/air mixture, were invented and designed for the use of a definite kind of fuel, which was defining its thermodynamic energy conversion cycle, effective output parameters and other engine/vehicle operating performances. From the other side refineries and oil-companies have found in road transport sector, industry, and in their off -road engine application sectors, a large and most profitable market to sell their products (fuels and lubricants), what in turn have required a close, permanent and successful cooperation between researchers, laboratories, economists and others of fuel and automobile industries. A great number of factors have influenced over the years IC engine and transport vehicle development, production, usage and application as shown in Figure 1. Three of them are most important: the man with his activity, goals and demands, the society and environment with requirements, standards and legislation and fuels with their properties, recourses, availability in great quantities and price.

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. Doboviek, N. Samec, F. Kokalj

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Today's conventional automotive fuels can be broadly categorized as consisting of either gasoline, diesel fuel or gasoline oxygenate blends. Alternative fuels such as methane (CNG) propane (LPG) and neat methanol, ethanol, vegetable oils, H2 are also used today, but still in a limited extent the large scale use of vehicles with fuel cell power train will probably not happen earlier, than at the end of the second decade. The goal of this paper is to present and discuss the relationship between fuel quality and IC engine performances respecting environmental protection requirements and modern society demands.

2 A general view on IC engine development

Internal combustion (IC) engines and motorised vehicles are the most influential technological inventions of our time. They literally changed our lives, the way of thinking, working and enjoying. This branch of industry together with road transport have become very soon important factors of state economy, people's prosperity and consequently influencing wealth of nation. A trend of growth of "engine performance quality" expressed here with engine power density (Pe/Vh [kW/l], rated engine power per one litre of displacement volume) and representing engine development during the last century, is shown in Figure 2. Additionally a comparison of selected data of a reference vehicular Otto engine at the threshold of the 20th and the 21st century are shown in Table 1, proving a tremendous progress achieved during the 20th century. In order to evaluate and discuss properly the requirements imposed on the quality of fuels used in up - to - date vehicular IC engines, essential features governing present and future engine development will be shortly pointed out: 1. government regulation, particularly those regarding emissions and fuel economy, 2. market requirement, concerning manufacturing cost and final product price, 3. demands to increase and improve engine performance parameters, 4. emission of CO2 connected with development of engines with "zero emission", 5. government directive concerning evaporation losses, 6. vehicle / power train noise emission and 7. problems concerning vehicle / engine fuel/lubricant re-cyclability.

3 Fuels
From the thermodynamic theory of Otto IC engine cycle follows a strong dependence of power density and overall cycle efficiency on engine compression ratio, given in final form:

Pl =

Pe 1 1 = pe N = 1 n 1 g v k N Vh a

(1)

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where designates: Pl power density, Vh cylinder displacement volume, Pe effective (break) engine power, pe break mean effective pressure, N RPM, - compression ratio, n polytropic exponent, g degree of engine cycle perfection, v charging efficiency (volumetric), k fresh charge density, a equivalence air/fuel ratio, which shows that the compression ratio has predominant effect on Pl. Compression ratio directly influences fuel efficiency and engine economy as well.

3.1 Octane number

Gasoline is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which vary widely in their physical and chemical properties. The properties of gasoline are normally balanced to give satisfactory engine performance over a wide range of operating conditions, such as variation in climate, altitude, temperature and driving pattern, as well as variation in the fuel system, engine temperature and pressure. Octane level of gasoline is one of its primary quality and it is a measure of gasoline ability to resist knock (the autoignition of the unburned gas ahead of the flame). The primary factor in determining octane need has been engine design. Figure 3 shows a steady trend of increase of compression ratio (which is in turn an important factor of engine design). In the mid twenties (when the compression ratio become greater than four) appearance of knock was a serious problem. The extensive investigations have provided besides several new ideas on engine design, also requirements for SI fuel quality, and a scale has been devised in which fuels are assigned an octane number, as a standard measure of a fuel characteristic. On the figure 3 the compression number history shows an increase from 1920 to about 1963 and stagnation throughout the 1960s and into the early 1970s. A slight drop of compression ratio can be observed after 1972, as the additive tetraethyl lead began to be phased out so that catalytic reactors could be used on automobiles for emission control.

3.2 Cetane number (CN)

Cetane number is not a fundamental property of fuel. It is not even an independent property, since it depends on other properties of fuel. However there exists a relationship between CN and ignition delay (ID), which reflects better physical and chemical properties of fuels. CN is a measure of fuel ability and quality for 22 goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003.

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spontaneous ignition in compression ignition (CI, diesel) engines. CN is a complex function of several physical and chemical properties of fuel. Both CN and ID have historically been an area of intensive analytical and experimental investigation. From a broad survey of the literature [7,8,9] the following dependence of CN may be suggested: CN = F (AP, DIST, DE, VIS, n-par, ISO-par, aro, S) where designates: AP - aniline point DIST - distillation temperature DE - density, VIS - viscosity, n-par, iso-par - where par designates paraffins, aro - aromatics, S sulphur. ID in diesel engine is by definition the time period from the start of fuel injection (point A) to the onset of combustion (point C) resulting in a steep increase of cylinder pressure, point C' in Figure 4. The rate of cylinder pressure increase dp/dt is known as diesel knock and it is a primary source of diesel engine noise and it is mostly influenced by engine combustion chamber design, fuel injection time history, mixture formation. It may be pointed out that ID characterises diesel fuel quality, combustion characteristics and, to a considerable degree the thermodynamic and emission performance of the engine. Ignition processes are theoretically divided in physical and chemical delay. Conceptually the physical delay (AB) includes processes as spray atomisation (drop diameter, penetration length) heating and boiling of injected fuel, mixing of fuel vapours with air, and strongly depends on fuel physical properties. The chemical delay (BC) is a fuel fundamental property, influenced by fuel chemical composition and consists of the time required for completion of relatively slow preflame reactions.[6] The magnitude of effect of several HC fractions in fuel on ID duration is qualitatively presented in Figure 5. The ignition properties of gasoline, alcohol, natural gas are virtually the opposite of diesel fuel, i.e.; higher octane fuel exhibits lower cetane number, and can not be ignited by pure compression and used directly in diesel engines. According to a world-wide fuel quality survey [10], a substantial difference was found between cetane number and cetane index in the countries where diesel fuel is produced to meet EN 590 specification, Figure 6. Trends of CB curves for the years (2)

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1998 and 2000 demonstrate an efficient and rapid reaction of refineries to satisfy demands of up-to-date diesel engines government regulations.

3.3 Fuel composition

During the last three decades of the past century, the composition of vehicular fuel has become very important, due to its direct effect: on chemical mechanism and kinetics of ignition processes, on activation energy in early stages of combustion, on concentration levels and composition of pollutants in combustion products, on exhaust gas aftertreatment routes and their conversion efficiency, on durability of aftertreatment devices, on the deposit formation on injector tip and combustion chamber wall in air assist direct injection spark ignition (DISI) engines. Increasing the content of aromatics in diesel fuel the cetane number tends to decrease and ID to increase, density, viscosity and final boiling point all tend to increase. A statistical analysis of exhaust emissions suggested that the greatest influence on smoke (PM) emissions has the fuel density followed by carbon/hydrogen mass ratio, 50 percent distillation temperature (T50) and viscosity. The content of aromatics, sulphur and nitrogen in automotive gasoline increase the fraction distillation range and gasoline tail/or oxygen bearing long - chain heavy hydrocarbons which are also potential deposit precursors. The results of recent investigations [11] confirm that the effect of aromatics in fuel on engine exhaust emission is not unique. The monoaromatics (the content changes between 0 and 27 per cent) correlated highly with exhaust smoke and NOx emission. Diaromatics in fuel increase slightly exhaust emissions in comparison to monoaromatics of the same content in the fuel. As an example, the effect of aromatic content in the fuel on exhaust emissions is shown in Figure 7. It is evident, that the effect of aromatics on smoke emission increase is very strong, because it occurs despite the increase in ignition delay and, thereby the increased amount of premixed fuel burned. The contribution of aromatics to aldehyde (Formaldehyd, Acetaldehyd, Acrolein) emission is reported in Reference [12]. It is concluded, based on experimental results, that the relationship between aromatic content in SI fuels and aldehyd emission shows a unique characteristic, what is not the case with CI fuels. It seems that the aromatic structure (polyaromatics) has an important influence. Aldehydes in engine exhaust are usually monitored, when heavy diesel fuels are burned at medium and low RPM in heavy duty CI engines. Besides aromatic content in the fuel, reaction temperatures during combustion process have significant effect. The aldehyde formation is intensified by the low combustion temperatures when engine is operated at idle regimes. 24 goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003.

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Finally the integrated influence of fuel properties on injector tip deposit formation in a modern SI engine with a high pressure direct injection system is demonstrated as an example. Comprehensive research of this phenomenon has been carried out [13]. The results are summarised in Figure 8, showing qualitatively the effect of each fuel property on deposit formation. A similar phenomenon has been observed in combustion chamber deposit studies of conventional port injection engines. The addition of oxygenates (methanol, ethanol, heptanol,...) to gasoline has proved to be an effective method in fuel octane enhancement and reduction of engine CO and HC emissions. A certain part of oxygenates in gasoline will improve fuel volatility, enhance combustion and decrease exhaust CO owing to the oxygen available and minimise exhaust HC in SI engine [11]. Oxygenated blends in diesel fuel cause reduction in NOx and smoke (PM) emissions, which can only partially be explained by increase in ignition delay.

3.4 Fuel S, N and P

Fuel S has a strong influence on particulates (PM) emission and mileage durability performance of exhaust emission control devices. Furthermore, reduced sulphate and sulphur oxides emissions reduce engine wear and less frequent oil changes. Fuel S does not imply a direct effect on PM formation, however S oxides and sulphates sediment on particulates and increase PM emission [14]. The effect of fuel S on PM emission is shown in Figure 9 [14] and the limit of S level (30 ppm) is indicated, required for the diesel engine to satisfy EU emission standards. Severe (EU, US) emission standards have required a steady, gradual drop of fuel S level in fuels for vehicular engines. However, these requirements become even more severe for the future, as demonstrated in Figure 10. Trace of lead, phosphorous, sulphur and other poisoning elements in fuels have a significant impact on the catalyst deterioration and mileage durability i.e. preserving catalyst performance up to 5 years or 80.000 km (both are a matter of farther requirements).

3.5 Chemically bound N

During combustion, chemically bound nitrogen in the fuel is converted into NOx, and it is present in the engine exhaust besides thermal NOx (the conversion NOx, NOx,conv). The concentration of NOx,conv in combustion products depends on fuel - N content, burning conditions, local air/fuel ratio, mixing intensity of reactants, temperature and soot present in the combustion zone. [15]

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4. Conclusions
1. Development of Internal combustion engines and transport vehicles and engines for non - road application have been strongly influenced by: man in his activities as inventor, researcher, engineer, purchaser and seller, driver and citizen, environment with nature and human life protection, legislation and standards, transport needs, with world economy and market, country political system and government policy, and fuels by their availability, quality, production, infrastructure. 2. Rapid development and mass production of IC engines and transport vehicles during the past century was highly dependent on the availability of high quality fuels, what in turn required a permanent and close collaboration of refineries and oil companies and their research laboratories with engine/vehicle manufactures and their research institutions. 3. First decade 21st century IC engines and motorised transport vehicles are required to satisfy: "zero" pollutant emission, reduced or very low emissions of green - house gases, specifically CO2 emission, low specific fuel consumption, high mileage durability performance of exhaust treatment devices. All of these demands are critically affected by trace levels of sulphur, phosphorus, chemically bound nitrogen, levels of benzene, aromatics, aldehydes, aromatic carcinogen compounds, oxygenates and other poisoning fractions. Trends to reduce all these fuel blends are continuously increasing. 4. The availability of extremely high quality fuels means promising, new advanced technologies for clean SI and CI engines become available for all sizes of highway transport vehicles, city buses, cleaner diesel and gasoline passenger cars, light - duty trucks and engines in non - road application. 5. One may suppose that pure H2 will also be used as fuel in motorised vehicles of the 21st century. However, the large scale use of vehicles with fuel cell power train will probably not happen earlier, than at the end of the second decade. Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank Mr. Primo Pogorevc, uni.dipl.ing. and Mr. Martin Volmajer, M. Sc. for their assistance in preparing the diagrams.

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. Doboviek, N. Samec, F. Kokalj Literatura / References:

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

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Retracing the Puch Track, International Symposium, Proceedings, str. 16 - 23, University of Maribor, 2001; International Journal of Vehicle Design, Vol. 2, No 1/2, UK 1986; Autotechnology, Volume 1, February 2001, str. 74 - 77, 82; Automotive Engineer (UK), February 2002, str. 78 - 80, 82, 83; th 11 International Symposium Transport and Air Pollution, Proceedings, Graz, June 2002; Colin R. Ferguson, Internal Combustion Engines, John Wiley & Sons, 1986, str. 441; Y. Q. Xia, R. C. Flanegan, SAE Paper 870591; J. R. Needham, D. M. Doyle, SAE Paper 852101; Goriva i maziva 25(1986)3, str. 119 - 123; Global, Issue 12, April 2001, str. 28 - 33; Automotive Engineering, Vol. 214, Part D, str. 779 - 794, 341 - 346; MTZ 58(1997)6, str. 318 - 325; Autotechnology 5 (October) 2001, str. 62 - 64; Goriva i maziva 17(1978)1, str. 3 - 11, Goriva i maziva 39(2000)6, str. 357 - 367

Kljune rijei / Key words:

621.434 benzinski motor 621.436 dizelski motor 621.43.018.2 uinak i radna obiljeja motora 665.733.5 motorni benzin 665.753.4 dizelsko gorivo .001.6 gledite razvoja .009 gledite me usobnih odnosa gasoline engines diesel engine engine efficiency and performance motor gasoline diesel fuel development viewpoint relations viewpoint

Autori / Authors: prof. dr. elimir Doboviek, dipl. ing., e-mail: zelimir.dobovisek@uni-mb.si doc. dr. Niko Samec, dipl. ing., e-mail: niko.samec@uni-mb.si mr.sc. Filip Kokalj, dipl. ing., e-mail: filip.kokalj@uni-mb.si Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za strojnitvo, SI-2000 Maribor, Smetanova 17, Slovenija Primljeno / Recieved: 06.3.2003. goriva i maziva, 42, 1 : 5-27, 2003. 27