Space Traveler

1st WikiBook!

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Fri, 25 Jan 2013 01:31:25 UTC

Contents
Articles
Centaurus A Andromeda Galaxy Pleiades Orion (constellation) Orion Nebula Eta Carinae Comet HaleBopp Alvarez hypothesis 1 7 20 26 37 47 55 64

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 67 69

Article Licenses
License 71

Centaurus A

Centaurus A
Centaurus A

Centaurus A (NGC 5128) Observation data (J2000 epoch) Constellation Right ascension Declination Redshift Distance Type Apparent dimensions(V) Apparent magnitude(V) Notable features Centaurus 13h25m27.6s -430109 [1]

[1]

[1] 547 5 km/s 10-16 Mly (3-5 Mpc) S0 pec [1] or Ep [1] [6] [2][1][3][4][5]

25.7 20.0 6.84 [7][8]

Unusual dust lane Other designations

NGC 5128,

[1]

Arp 153,

[1]

PGC 46957,

[1]

4U 1322-42,

[9]

Caldwell77

Centaurus A (also known as NGC 5128 or Caldwell 77) is a prominent galaxy in the constellation of Centaurus. There is considerable debate in the literature regarding the galaxy's fundamental properties such as its Hubble type (lenticular galaxy or a giant elliptical galaxy)[6] and distance (10-16 million light-years).[2][1][3][4][5] NGC 5128 is one of the closest radio galaxies to Earth, so its active galactic nucleus has been extensively studied by professional astronomers.[10] The galaxy is also the fifth brightest in the sky,[10] making it an ideal amateur astronomy target,[11] although the galaxy is only visible from low northern latitudes and the southern hemisphere. The center of the galaxy contains a supermassive black hole weighing in at 55 million solar masses,[12] which ejects a relativistic jet that is responsible for emissions in the X-ray and radio wavelengths. By taking radio observations of the jet separated by a decade, astronomers have determined that the inner parts of the jet are moving at about one half of the speed of light. X-rays are produced farther out as the jet collides with surrounding gases resulting in the creation of highly energetic particles. The radio jets of Centaurus A are over a million light years long.[13] Like other starburst galaxies, a collision is suspected to be responsible for the intense burst of star formation. Spitzer Space Telescope studies have confirmed that Centaurus A is colliding with and devouring a smaller spiral galaxy.

Centaurus A

Morphology
Centaurus A may be described as having a peculiar morphology. As seen from Earth, the galaxy looks like a lenticular or elliptical galaxy with a superimposed dust lane.[14] The peculiarity of this galaxy was first identified in 1847 by John Herschel, and the galaxy was included in the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies (published in 1966) as one of the best examples of a "disturbed" galaxy with dust absorption.[15] The galaxy's strange morphology is generally recognized as the result of a merger between two smaller galaxies.[16] The bulge of this galaxy is composed mainly of evolved red stars.[14] The dusty disk, however, has been the site of more recent star formation;[10] over 100 star formation regions have been identified in the disk.[17]

Supernovae
One supernova has been detected in Centaurus A.[18] The supernova, named SN 1986G, was discovered within the dark dust lane of the galaxy by R. Evans in 1986.[19] It was later identified as a type Ia supernova,[20] which forms when a white dwarf's mass grows large enough to ignite carbon fusion in its center, touching off a runaway thermonuclear reaction, as may happen when a white dwarf in a binary star system strips gas away from the other star. SN 1986G was used to demonstrate that the spectra of type Ia supernovae are not all identical, and that type Ia supernovae may differ in the way that they change in brightness over time.[20]

Distance
Distance estimates to NGC 5128 established since the 1980s typically range between 3-5 Mpc.[2][1][3][4][5][21] Classical Cepheids discovered in the heavily-obscured dust lane of NGC 5128 yield a distance between ~3-3.5 Mpc, depending on the nature of the extinction law adopted and other considerations.[3][4] Mira variables[21] and Type II Cepheids[3][4] were also discovered in NGC 5128, the latter being rarely detected beyond local group.[22] The distance to NGC 5128 established from several indicators such as Mira variables and planetary nebulae favour a more distant value of ~3.8 Mpc.[6][5]

Nearby galaxies and galaxy group information

Centaurus A is at the center of one of two subgroups within the Centaurus A/M83 Group, a nearby group of galaxies.[23] Messier 83 (the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy) is at the center of the other subgroup. These two groups are sometimes identified as one group[24][25] and sometimes identified as two groups.[26] However, the galaxies around Centaurus A and the galaxies around M83 are physically close to each other, and both subgroups appear not to be moving relative to each other.[27] The Centaurus A/M83 Group is located in the Virgo Supercluster.

Amateur astronomy information

Centaurus A is located approximately 4 north of Omega Centauri (a globular cluster visible with the naked eye).[11] Because the galaxy has a high surface brightness and relatively large angular size, it is an ideal target for amateur astronomy observations. The bright central bulge and dark dust lane are visible even in finderscopes and large binoculars,[11] and additional structure may be seen in larger telescopes.[11] Centaurus A is visible to the naked eye under exceptionally good conditions.[28]

Centaurus A

Gallery

The radio galaxy Centaurus A, as seen by ALMA

Image taken by the Wide Field Imager attached to the MPG/ESO 2.2-meter telescope at the La Silla Observatory.

"Hubble's panchromatic vision... reveals the vibrant glow of young, blue star [29] clusters..."

A Hubble Space Telescope (HST) image of the dust disk in front of the nucleus of Centaurus A. Credit: HST/NASA/ESA.

This image of the central parts of Centaurus A reveals the parallelogram-shaped remains of a smaller galaxy that was absorbed about 200 to 700 million years ago.

The heavily-obscured inner (barred?) spiral disk at 24 m as shown by the Spitzer IR telescope

Chandra X-Ray view of Cen A in X Rays showing one relativistic jet from the central black hole

Centaurus A

Video about Centaurus A jets.

"False-colour image of the nearby radio galaxy Centaurus A, showing radio (red), 24-micrometre infrared (green) and 0.5-5 keV X-ray emission (blue). The jet can be seen to emit synchrotron emission in all three wavebands. The lobes only emit in the radio frequency range, and so appear red. Gas and dust in the galaxy emits thermal radiation in the infrared. Thermal X-ray radiation from hot gas and non-thermal emission from relativistic electrons can be seen in the blue 'shells' around the lobes, particularly to the [30] south (bottom)."

References
[1] "Distance Results for NGC 5128" (http:/ / nedwww. ipac. caltech. edu/ cgi-bin/ nDistance?name=NGC+ 5128). NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. . Retrieved 2010-04-26. [2] J. L. Tonry, A. Dressler, J. P. Blakeslee, E. A. Ajhar, A. B. Fletcher, G. A. Luppino, M. R. Metzger, C. B. Moore (2001). "The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. IV. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances". Astrophysical Journal 546 (2): 681693. arXiv:astro-ph/0011223. Bibcode2001ApJ...546..681T. doi:10.1086/318301. [3] Ferrarese Laura, Mould Jeremy R., Stetson Peter B., Tonry John L., Blakeslee John P., Ajhar Edward A. (2007). "The Discovery of Cepheids and a Distance to NGC 5128". The Astrophysical Journal 654: 186. arXiv:astro-ph/0605707. Bibcode2007ApJ...654..186F. doi:10.1086/506612. [4] Majaess, D. (2010). "The Cepheids of Centaurus A (NGC 5128) and Implications for H0". Acta Astronomica 60: 121. arXiv:1006.2458. Bibcode2010AcA....60..121M. [5] Harris, Gretchen L. H.; Rejkuba, Marina; Harris, William E. (2010). "The Distance to NGC 5128 (Centaurus A)". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 27 (4): 457462. arXiv:0911.3180. Bibcode2010PASA...27..457H. doi:10.1071/AS09061. [6] Harris, Gretchen L. H. (2010). "NGC 5128: The Giant Beneath". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 27 (4): 475. arXiv:1004.4907. Bibcode2010PASA...27..475H. doi:10.1071/AS09063. [7] "SIMBAD-A" (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=Centaurus+ A). SIMBAD Astronomical Database. . Retrieved 2009-11-29. [8] Armando, Gil de Paz; Boissier; Madore; Seibert; Boselli et al. (2007). "The GALEX Ultraviolet Atlas of Nearby Galaxies". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 173 (2): 185255. arXiv:astro-ph/0606440. Bibcode2007ApJS..173..185G. doi:10.1086/516636. [9] 4U catalog browse version. (http:/ / heasarc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ W3Browse/ uhuru/ uhuru4. html)

Centaurus A
[10] F. P. Israel (1998). "Centaurus A - NGC 5128". Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 8 (4): 237278. arXiv:astro-ph/9811051. Bibcode1998A&ARv...8..237I. doi:10.1007/s001590050011. [11] D. J. Eicher (1988). The Universe from Your Backyard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-36299-7. [12] "Radio Telescopes Capture Best-Ever Snapshot of Black Hole Jets" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ topics/ universe/ features/ radio-particle-jets. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2012-10-02. [13] "Astronomy Picture of the Day - Centaurus Radio Jets Rising" (http:/ / apod. nasa. gov/ apod/ ap110413. html). NASA. 2011-04-13. . Retrieved 2011-04-16. [14] A. Sandage, J. Bedke (1994). Carnegie Atlas of Galaxies. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington. ISBN0-87279-667-1. [15] H. Arp (1966). "Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 14: 120. Bibcode1966ApJS...14....1A. doi:10.1086/190147. [16] W. Baade, R. Minkowski (1954). "On the Identification of Radio Sources". Astrophysical Journal 119: 215231. Bibcode1954ApJ...119..215B. doi:10.1086/145813. [17] P. W. Hodge, R. C. Kennicutt Jr. (1982). "An atlas of H II regions in 125 galaxies". Astrophysical Journal 88: 296328. Bibcode1983AJ.....88..296H. doi:10.1086/113318. [18] "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database" (http:/ / nedwww. ipac. caltech. edu/ ). Results for extended name search on Centaurus A. . Retrieved 2007-03-07. [19] R. Evans, R. H. McNaught, C. Humphries; McNaught; Humphries (1986). "Supernova 1986G in NGC 5128". IAU Circular 4208: 1. Bibcode1986IAUC.4208....1E. [20] M. M. Phillips, A. C. Phillips, S. R. Heathcote, V. M. Blanco, D. Geisler, D. Hamilton, N. B. Suntzeff, F. J. Jablonski, J. E. Steiner, A. P. Cowley, P. Schmidtke, S. Wyckoff, J. B. Hutchings, J. Tonry, M. A. Strauss, J. R. Thorstensen, W. Honey, J. Maza, M. T. Ruiz, A. U. Landolt, A. Uomoto, R. M. Rich, J. E. Grindlay, H. Cohn, H. A. Smith, J. H. Lutz, R. J. Lavery, A. Saha (1987). "The type 1a supernova 1986G in NGC 5128 - Optical photometry and spectra". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 99: 592605. Bibcode1987PASP...99..592P. doi:10.1086/132020. [21] Rejkuba, M. (2004). "The distance to the giant elliptical galaxy NGC 5128". Astronomy and Astrophysics 413 (3): 903. arXiv:astro-ph/0310639. Bibcode2004A&A...413..903R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034031. [22] Majaess, D.; Turner; Lane (2009). "Type II Cepheids as Extragalactic Distance Candles". Acta Astronomica 59: 403. arXiv:0909.0181. Bibcode2009AcA....59..403M. [23] I. D. Karachentsev, M. E. Sharina, A. E. Dolphin, E. K. Grebel, D. Geisler, P. Guhathakurta, P. W. Hodge, V. E. Karachetseva, A. Sarajedini, P. Seitzer (2002). "New distances to galaxies in the Centaurus A group". Astronomy and Astrophysics 385 (1): 2131. Bibcode2002A&A...385...21K. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020042. [24] R. B. Tully (1988). Nearby Galaxies Catalog. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-35299-1. [25] P. Fouque, E. Gourgoulhon, P. Chamaraux, G. Paturel; Gourgoulhon; Chamaraux; Paturel (1992). "Groups of galaxies within 80 Mpc. II The catalogue of groups and group members". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement 93: 211233. Bibcode1992A&AS...93..211F. [26] A. Garcia (1993). "General study of group membership. II - Determination of nearby groups". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement 100: 4790. Bibcode1993A&AS..100...47G. [27] I. D. Karachentsev (2005). "The Local Group and Other Neighboring Galaxy Groups". Astronomical Journal 129 (1): 178188. arXiv:astro-ph/0410065. Bibcode2005AJ....129..178K. doi:10.1086/426368. [28] http:/ / astronomy-mall. com/ Adventures. In. Deep. Space/ aintno. htm [29] "Firestorm of Star Birth in Galaxy Centaurus A" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ multimedia/ imagegallery/ image_feature_2192. html). NASA. . Retrieved 27 September 2012. [30] Wikipedia editors. "Radio Galaxy" (https:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Radio_galaxy). English Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. . Retrieved 25 November 2012.

STScI. Hubble Provides Multiple Views of How to Feed a Black Hole (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ newsdesk/archive/releases/1998/14/text/). Press release: Space Telescope Science Institute. March 14, 1998. Chandra X-Ray Observatory Photo Album Centaurus A Jet (http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/cenajet/)

Centaurus A

External links
Helmut Steinle Centaurus A project (http://www.mpe.mpg.de/Cen-A/) SEDS: Peculiar Galaxy NGC 5128 (http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/ngc/n5128.html) ESA/Hubble images of Centaurus A (http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/archive/freesearch/5128/ viewall/1) NASA's APOD: The Galaxy Within Centaurus A (3/4/06) (http://apod.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060304.html) NASA's APOD: X-Rays from an Active Galaxy (7/5/03) (http://apod.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap030705.html) High-resolution image of Centaurus A (http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/07/ ngc5128.jpg) showing the discrete elements of galactic core Centaurus A (http://www.universetoday.com/?s=Centaurus) at UniverseToday.com NGC5128 Centaurus A (http://www.dsi-astronomie.de/Centaurus.html) NGC 5128 (http://www.docdb.net/show_object.php?id=ngc_5128) at DOCdb (Deep Sky Observer's Companion) Centaurus A on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=Centaurus+A)

Andromeda Galaxy

Andromeda Galaxy
Andromeda Galaxy

The Andromeda Galaxy Observation data (J2000 epoch) Pronunciation Constellation Right ascension Declination Redshift pron.: /ndrmd/ Andromeda 00h42m44.3s +41169 [1]

[1]

z = 0.001 (minus sign indicates blueshift) 301 1 km/s [2]

Helio radial velocity Distance

2.54 0.06 Mly [2][3][4][5][6][7] (778 17 kpc) SA(s)b [1] [2][8] M [9]

Type Mass Number of stars Apparent dimensions(V) Apparent magnitude(V) Absolute magnitude(V)

~11012

1 trillion (1012) 190 60 3.44 [1]

[10][11] [12][4]

20.0

Other designations M31, NGC 224, UGC 454, PGC 2557, 2C 56 (Core), [1] LEDA 2557

The Andromeda Galaxy (/ndrmd/) is a spiral galaxy approximately 2.5 million light-years (2.41019km) from Earth[4] in the Andromeda constellation. Also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224, it is often referred to as the Great Andromeda Nebula in older texts. The Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest spiral galaxy to our Milky Way galaxy, but not the closest galaxy overall. It gets its name from the area of the sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda, which was named after the mythological princess Andromeda. The Andromeda Galaxy is the largest galaxy of the Local Group, which also contains the Milky Way, the Triangulum Galaxy, and about 30 other smaller galaxies. Although the largest, the Andromeda Galaxy may not be the most massive, as recent findings suggest that the Milky Way contains more dark matter and could be the most massive in the grouping.[13] The 2006 observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope revealed that M31 contains one trillion (1012) stars:[9] at least twice the number of stars in the Milky Way galaxy, which is estimated to be 200400 billion.[14]

Andromeda Galaxy The Andromeda Galaxy is estimated to be 7.11011 solar masses.[2] In comparison a 2009 study estimated that the Milky Way and M31 are about equal in mass,[15] while a 2006 study put the mass of the Milky Way at ~80% of the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy. The two galaxies are expected to collide in 3.75 billion years, eventually merging to form a giant elliptical galaxy.[16] At an apparent magnitude of 3.4, the Andromeda Galaxy is notable for being one of the brightest Messier objects,[17] making it visible to the naked eye on moonless nights even when viewed from areas with moderate light pollution. Although it appears more than six times as wide as the full Moon when photographed through a larger telescope, only the brighter central region is visible to the naked eye or when viewed using binoculars or a small telescope.

Observation history
The Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi wrote a tantalizing line about the chained constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars around 964, describing it as a "small cloud".[18][19] Star charts of that period have it labeled as the Little Cloud.[19] The first description of the object based on telescopic observation was given by German astronomer Simon Marius on December 15, 1612.[20] Charles Messier catalogued it as object M31 in 1764 and incorrectly credited Marius as the discoverer, unaware of Al Sufi's earlier work. In 1785, the astronomer William Great Andromeda Nebula by Isaac Roberts Herschel noted a faint reddish hue in the core region of the M31. He believed it to be the nearest of all the "great nebulae" and based on the colour and magnitude of the nebula, he incorrectly guessed that it was no more than 2,000 times the distance of Sirius.[21] William Huggins in 1864 observed the spectrum of M31 and noted that it differed from a gaseous nebula.[22] The spectra of M31 displayed a continuum of frequencies, superimposed with dark absorption lines that help identify the chemical composition of an object. The Andromeda nebula was very similar to the spectra of individual stars, and from this it was deduced that M31 had a stellar nature. In 1885, a supernova (known as S Andromedae) was seen in M31, the first and so far only one observed in that galaxy. At the time M31 was considered to be a nearby object, so the cause was thought to be a much less luminous and unrelated event called a nova, and was named accordingly "Nova 1885".[23] The first photographs of M31 were taken in 1887 by Isaac Roberts from his private observatory in Sussex, England. The long-duration exposure allowed the spiral structure of the galaxy to be seen for the first time.[24] However, at the time this object was still commonly believed to be a nebula within our galaxy, and Roberts mistakenly believed that M31 and similar spiral nebulae were actually solar systems being formed, with the satellites nascent planets. The radial velocity of this object with respect to our solar system was measured in 1912 by Vesto Slipher at the Lowell Observatory, using spectroscopy. The result was the largest velocity recorded at that time, at 300 kilometres per second (190mi/s), moving in the direction of the Sun.[25]

Andromeda Galaxy

Island universe
In 1917, American astronomer Heber Curtis observed a nova within M31. Searching the photographic record, 11 more novae were discovered. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred elsewhere in the sky. As a result he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 500,000 light-years (3.21010AU). He became a proponent of the so-called "island universes" hypothesis, which held that spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies.[26] In 1920, the Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Curtis took Location of M31 in the Andromeda constellation place, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula (M31) was an external galaxy, Curtis also noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in our own Galaxy, as well as the significant Doppler shift. In 1922 Ernst pik presented a very elegant and simple astrophysical method to estimate the distance of M31. His result put the Andromeda Nebula far outside our Galaxy at a distance of about 450,000 parsec, which is about 1,500,000 ly.[27] Edwin Hubble settled the debate in 1925 when he identified extragalactic Cepheid variable stars for the first time on astronomical photos of M31. These were made using the 2.5-metre (100-in) Hooker telescope, and they enabled the distance of Great Andromeda Nebula to be determined. His measurement demonstrated conclusively that this feature was not a cluster of stars and gas within our Galaxy, but an entirely separate galaxy located a significant distance from our own.[28] M31 plays an important role in galactic studies, since it is the nearest spiral galaxy (although not the nearest galaxy). In 1943 Walter Baade was the first person to resolve stars in the central region of the Andromeda Galaxy. Based on his observations of this galaxy, he was able to discern two distinct populations of stars based on their metallicity, naming the young, high velocity stars in the disk Type I and the older, red stars in the bulge Type II. This nomenclature was subsequently adopted for stars within the Milky Way, and elsewhere. (The existence of two distinct populations had been noted earlier by Jan Oort.)[30] Dr. Baade also discovered that there were two types of Cepheid variables, which resulted in a doubling of the distance estimate to M31, as well as the remainder of the Universe.[31] Radio emission from the Andromeda Galaxy was first detected by Hanbury Brown and Cyril Hazard at Jodrell Bank Observatory using the 218-ft Transit Telescope, and was announced in 1950[32] (Earlier observations were made by radio astronomy pioneer Grote Reber in 1940, but were inconclusive, and were later shown to be an order of magnitude too high). The first radio maps of the galaxy were made in the 1950s by John Baldwin and collaborators at the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group.[33] The core of the Andromeda Galaxy is called 2C 56 in the 2C radio astronomy catalogue. In 2009, the first planet may have been discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy. This candidate was detected using a technique called microlensing, which is caused by the deflection of light by a massive object.[34]
[29] Stars in the Andromeda Galaxy's disc

Andromeda Galaxy

10

General
The measured distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid. In the 1990s, measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the Hipparcos satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances.[35][36]

Formation and History

According to a team of astronomers reporting in 2010, M31 was formed out of the collision of two smaller galaxies between 5 and 9 billion years ago.[37] A paper published in 2012 has outlined M31's basic history since its birth. According to it, Andromeda was born roughly 10 billion years ago from the merger of many smaller protogalaxies, leading to a galaxy smaller than the one we see today.
[38] The Andromeda Galaxy as seen by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

The most important event in M31's past history was the merger mentioned above that took place 8 billion years ago. This violent collision formed most of its (metal-rich) galactic halo and extended disk and during that epoch Andromeda's star formation would be very high, to the point of becoming a Luminous infrared galaxy for roughly 100 millon years. 24 billion years ago, M31 and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33) had a very close passage. This event produced high levels of star formation across the Andromeda Galaxy's disk - even some globular clusters - and disturbed M33's outer disk. While there has been activity during the last 2 billion years, this has been much lower than during the past. There have been interactions with satellite galaxies like M32, M110, or others that have already disappeared absorbed by M31 that have formed structures like Andromeda's Giant Stellar Stream and a merger roughly 100 million years ago that is behind a counter-rotating disk of gas found in the center of M31 as well as the presence there of a relatively young (100 million years) stellar population. During this epoch, star formation through M31's disk decreased to the point of nearly shutting down to increasing again relatively recently.

Andromeda Galaxy

11

Recent distance estimate

At least four distinct techniques have been used to measure distances to the Andromeda Galaxy. In 2003, using the infrared surface brightness fluctuations (I-SBF) and adjusting for the new period-luminosity value of Freedman et al. 2001 and using a metallicity correction of 0.2 mag dex1 in (O/H), an estimate of 2.570.06 megalight-years (79018kpc) was derived. Using the Cepheid variable method, an estimate of 2.51 0.13 Mly (770 40 kpc) was reported in 2004.[2][3] In 2005 Ignasi Ribas (CSIC, Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC)) and colleagues announced the discovery of an eclipsing binary star in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary star, designated M31VJ00443799+4129236,[39] has two luminous and hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, which occur every 3.54969days, the astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure the absolute magnitude of the stars. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance to the star can be measured. The stars lie at a distance of 2.520.14Mly (77043kpc) and the whole Andromeda Galaxy at about 2.5Mly (770kpc).[4] This new value is in excellent agreement with the previous, independent

The Andromeda Galaxy pictured in ultraviolet light by GALEX

Cepheid-based distance value. M31 is close enough that the Tip of the Red Giant Branch (TRGB) method may also be used to estimate its distance. The estimated distance to M31 using this technique in 2005 yielded 2.560.08Mly (78025kpc).[5] Averaged together, all these distance measurements give a combined distance estimate of 2.540.06Mly (78018kpc).[7] Based upon the above distance, the diameter of M31 at the widest point is estimated to be 1413kly (43,000920pc).[40] Applying trigonometry (arctangent), that figures to extending at an apparent 3.18 angle in the sky.

Mass and luminosity estimates

Mass estimates for the Andromeda Galaxy's halo (including dark matter) give a value of approximately 1.231012M[8] (or 1.2 trillion solar masses) compared to 1.91012M for the Milky Way. Thus M31 may be less massive than our own galaxy, although the error range is still too large to say for certain. Even so, the masses of the Milky Way and M31 are comparable, and M31's spheroid actually has a higher stellar density than that of the Milky Way.[41] In particular, M31 appears to have significantly more common stars than the Milky Way, and the estimated luminosity of M31, ~2.61010L, is about 25% higher than that of our own galaxy.[42] However the rate of star formation in the Milky Way is much higher, with M31 producing only about one solar mass per year compared to 35 solar masses for the Milky Way. The rate of supernovae in the Milky Way is also double that of M31.[43] This suggests that M31 once experienced a great star formation phase, but is now in a relative state of quiescence, whereas the Milky Way is experiencing more active star formation.[42] Should this continue, the luminosity in the Milky Way may eventually overtake that of M31.

Andromeda Galaxy

12

Local group (clickable map)

Structure
Based on its appearance in visible light, the Andromeda Galaxy is classified as an SA(s)b galaxy in the de VaucouleursSandage extended classification system of spiral galaxies.[1] However, data from the 2MASS survey showed that the bulge of M31 has a box-like appearance, which implies that the galaxy is actually a barred spiral galaxy like the Milky Way, with the Andromeda Galaxy's bar viewed almost directly along its long axis.[44] In 2005, astronomers used the Keck telescopes to show that the tenuous sprinkle of stars extending outward from the galaxy is actually part of the main disk itself.[45] This means that the spiral disk of stars in M31 is three times larger in diameter than previously estimated. This constitutes evidence that there is a vast, extended stellar disk that makes the galaxy more than 220,000 light-years (67,000pc) in diameter. Previously, estimates of the Andromeda Galaxy's size ranged from 70000 to 120000 light-years (21,000 to 37,000 pc) across. The galaxy is inclined an estimated 77 relative to the Earth (where an angle of 90 would be viewed directly from the side). Analysis of the cross-sectional shape of the galaxy appears to demonstrate a pronounced, S-shaped warp, rather than just a flat disk.[46] A possible cause of such a warp could be gravitational interaction with the satellite galaxies near M31. The galaxy M33 could be responsible for some warp in M31's arms, though more precise distances and radial velocities are required. Spectroscopic studies have provided detailed measurements of the rotational velocity of M31 at various radii from the core. In the vicinity of the core, the rotational velocity climbs to a peak of 225 kilometres per second (140mi/s) at a radius of 1,300 light-years (82,000,000 AU), then descends to a minimum at 7,000 light-years (440,000,000 AU) where the rotation velocity may be as low as 50 kilometres per second (31mi/s). Thereafter the velocity steadily climbs again out to a radius of 33,000 light-years (2.1109 AU), where it reaches a peak of 250 kilometres per second (160mi/s). The velocities slowly decline beyond that distance, dropping to around 200 kilometres per second (120mi/s) at 80,000 light-years (5.1109 AU). These velocity measurements imply a concentrated mass of about 6109M in the nucleus. The total mass of the galaxy increases linearly out to 45,000 light-years (2.8109 AU), then more slowly beyond that radius.[47]
A Swift Tour of Andromeda Galaxy

The Andromeda Galaxy seen in infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope, one of NASA's four Great Space Observatories

Image of the Andromeda Galaxy taken by Spitzer in infrared, 24 micrometres (Credit:NASA/JPLCaltech/K. Gordon, University of Arizona)

Andromeda Galaxy The spiral arms of M31 are outlined by a series of H II regions that Baade described as resembling "beads on a string". They appear to be tightly wound, although they are more widely spaced than in our galaxy.[48] Rectified images of the galaxy show a fairly normal spiral galaxy with the arms wound up in a clockwise direction. There are two continuous trailing arms that are separated from each other by a minimum of about 13,000 light-years (820,000,000 AU). These can be followed outward from a distance of roughly 1,600 light-years (100,000,000 AU) from the core. The most likely cause of the spiral pattern is thought to be interaction with galaxy M32. This can be seen by the displacement of the neutral hydrogen clouds from the stars.[49] In 1998, images from the European Space Agency's Infrared Space Observatory demonstrated that the overall form of the Andromeda Galaxy may be transitioning into a ring galaxy. The gas and dust within M31 is generally formed into several overlapping rings, with a particularly prominent ring formed at a radius of 32,000 light-years (2.0109 AU) from the core.[50] This ring is hidden from visible light images of the galaxy because it is composed primarily of cold dust. Close examination of the inner region of M31 showed a smaller dust ring that is believed to have been caused by the interaction with M32 more than 200million years ago. Simulations show that the smaller galaxy passed through the disk of the galaxy in Andromeda along the latter's polar axis. This collision stripped more than half the mass from the smaller M32 and created the ring structures in M31.[51] Studies of the extended halo of M31 show that it is roughly comparable to that of the Milky Way, with stars in the halo being generally "metal-poor", and increasingly so with greater distance.[41] This evidence indicates that the two galaxies have followed similar evolutionary paths. They are likely to have accreted and assimilated about 1200 low-mass galaxies during the past 12billion years.[52] The stars in the extended halos of M31 and the Milky Way may extend nearly one-third the distance separating the two galaxies.

13

Nucleus
M31 is known to harbor a dense and compact star cluster at its very center. In a large telescope it creates a visual impression of a star embedded in the more diffuse surrounding bulge. The luminosity of the nucleus is in excess of the most luminous globular clusters.

HST image of the Andromeda Galaxy core showing possible double structure. NASA/ESAphoto

Andromeda Galaxy

14

In 1991 Tod R. Lauer used WFPC, then on board the Hubble Space Telescope, to image M31's inner nucleus. The nucleus consists of two concentrations separated by 1.5 parsecs (4.9ly). The brighter concentration, designated as P1, is offset from the center of the galaxy. The dimmer concentration, P2, falls at the true center of the galaxy and contains a black hole measured at 35 107 M in 1993,[53] and at 1.12.3 108 M in 2005.[54] The velocity dispersion of material around it is measured to be 160km/s.[55] Scott Tremaine has proposed that the observed double nucleus could be explained if P1 is the projection of a disk of stars in an eccentric orbit around the central black Chandra X-ray telescope image of the center of M31. A number of X-ray sources, likely X-ray binary stars, within Andromeda's central region appear as yellowish hole.[56] The eccentricity is such that stars dots. The blue source at the center is at the position of the supermassive black hole. linger at the orbital apocenter, creating a concentration of stars. P2 also contains a compact disk of hot, spectral class A stars. The A stars are not evident in redder filters, but in blue and ultraviolet light they dominate the nucleus, causing P2 to appear more prominent than P1.[57] While at the initial time of its discovery it was hypothesized that the brighter portion of the double nucleus was the remnant of a small galaxy "cannibalized" by M31,[58] this is no longer considered a viable explanation, largely because such a nucleus would have an exceedingly short lifetime due to tidal disruption by the central black hole. While this could be partially resolved if P1 had its own black hole to stabilize it, the distribution of stars in P1 does not suggest that there is a black hole at its center.[56]

Discrete sources
Apparently, by late 1968, no X-rays had been detected from the Andromeda Galaxy.[59] A balloon flight on October 20, 1970, set an upper limit for detectable hard X-rays from M31.[60] Multiple X-ray sources have since been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy, using observations from the ESA's XMM-Newton orbiting observatory. Robin Barnard et al. hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or neutron stars, which are heating incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X-rays. The spectrum of the neutron stars is the same as the hypothesized black holes, but can be distinguished by their masses.[61]

There are approximately 460 globular clusters associated with the Andromeda Galaxy.[62] The most massive of these clusters, identified as Mayall II, nicknamed Globular One, has a greater luminosity than any other known globular cluster in the local group of galaxies.[63] It contains several million stars, and is about twice as luminous as Omega Centauri, the brightest known globular cluster in the Milky Way. Globular One (or G1)

Artist's concept of the Andromeda Galaxy core showing a view across a disk of young, blue stars encircling a supermassive black hole. NASA/ESAphoto

Andromeda Galaxy has several stellar populations and a structure too massive for an ordinary globular. As a result, some consider G1 to be the remnant core of a dwarf galaxy that was consumed by M31 in the distant past.[64] The globular with the greatest apparent brightness is G76 which is located in the south-west arm's eastern half.[19] Another massive globular cluster -named 037-B327-, discovered in 2006 as is heavily reddened by the Andromeda Galaxy's interstellar dust, was thought to be more massive than G1 and the largest cluster of the Local Group;[65] however other studies have shown is actually similar in properties to G1.[66] Unlike the globular clusters of the Milky Way, that show a relatively low age dispersion, Andromeda's globular clusters have a much larger range of ages: from systems as old as the galaxy itself to much younger systems, with ages between a few hundred million years to five billion years[67] In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in M31. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number of stars that can be found in globular clusters. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much largerseveral hundred light-years acrossand hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters.[68] In the year 2012, a microquasar, a radio burst emanating from a smaller black hole, was detected in the Andromeda Galaxy. The progenitor black hole was located near the galactic center and had about 10 . Discovered through a data collected by the ESA's XMM-Newton probe, and subsequently observed by NASA's Swift and Chandra, the Very Large Array, and the Very Long Baseline Array, the microquasar was the first observed within the Andromeda Galaxy and the first outside of the Milky Way Galaxy.[69]

15

Satellites
Like the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy has satellite galaxies, consisting of 14 known dwarf galaxies. The best known and most readily observed satellite galaxies are M32 and M110. Based on current evidence, it appears that M32 underwent a close encounter with M31 (Andromeda) in the past. M32 may once have been a larger galaxy that had its stellar disk removed by M31, and underwent a sharp increase of star formation in the core region, which lasted until the relatively recent past.[70] M110 also appears to be interacting with M31, and astronomers have found in the halo of M31 a stream of metal-rich stars that appear to have been stripped from these satellite galaxies.[71] M110 does contain a dusty lane, which may indicate recent or ongoing star formation.[72] In 2006 it was discovered that nine of these galaxies lie along a plane that intersects the core of the Andromeda Galaxy, rather than being randomly arranged as would be expected from independent interactions. This may indicate a common tidal origin for the satellites.[73]

Future collision with the Milky Way

The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way at about 100 to 140 kilometres per second (62 to 87 mi/s) which is about 1.96 billion to 2.74 billion miles per year,[74] making it one of the few blueshifted galaxies. The Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way are thus expected to collide in about 4.5billion years, although the details are uncertain since Andromeda's tangential velocity with respect to the Milky Way is known to only within about a factor of two.[75] A likely outcome of the collision is that the galaxies will merge to form a giant elliptical galaxy.[76] Such events are frequent among the galaxies in galaxy groups. The fate of the Earth and the Solar System in the event of a collision is currently unknown. If the galaxies do not merge, there is a small chance that the Solar System could be ejected from the Milky Way or join M31.[77]

Andromeda Galaxy

16

Notes
[1] "Results for Messier 31" (http:/ / nedwww. ipac. caltech. edu/ ). NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. NASA/IPAC. . Retrieved 2006-11-01. [2] Karachentsev, I. D.; Kashibadze, O. G. (2006). "Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field". Astrophysics 49 (1): 318. Bibcode2006Ap.....49....3K. doi:10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6. [3] Karachentsev, I. D. et al. (2004). "A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies". Astronomical Journal 127 (4): 20312068. Bibcode2004AJ....127.2031K. doi:10.1086/382905. [4] Ribas, I. et al. (2005). "First Determination of the Distance and Fundamental Properties of an Eclipsing Binary in the Andromeda Galaxy". Astrophysical Journal Letters 635 (1): L37L40. arXiv:astro-ph/0511045. Bibcode2005ApJ...635L..37R. doi:10.1086/499161. [5] McConnachie, A. W. et al. (2005). "Distances and metallicities for 17 Local Group galaxies". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 356 (4): 979997. arXiv:astro-ph/0410489. Bibcode2005MNRAS.356..979M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08514.x. [6] Jensen, J. B. et al. (2003). "Measuring Distances and Probing the Unresolved Stellar Populations of Galaxies Using Infrared Surface Brightness Fluctuations". Astrophysical Journal 583 (2): 712726. arXiv:astro-ph/0210129. Bibcode2003ApJ...583..712J. doi:10.1086/345430. [7] average(787 18, 770 40, 772 44, 783 25) = ((787 + 770 + 772 + 783) / 4) ((182 + 402 + 442 + 252)0.5 / 4) = 778 17. [8] Evans, N. W.; Wilkinson, M. I. (2000). "The mass of the Andromeda Galaxy". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 316 (4): 929942. arXiv:astro-ph/0004187. Bibcode2000MNRAS.316..929E. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03645.x. [9] Young, K. (June 6, 2006). "The Andromeda galaxy hosts a trillion stars" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn9282-andromeda-galaxy-hosts-a-trillion-stars. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2006-06-08. [10] "SIMBAD-M31" (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=M31). SIMBAD Astronomical Database. . Retrieved 2009-11-29. [11] Armando, G. P. et al. (2007). "The GALEX Ultraviolet Atlas of Nearby Galaxies". Astrophysical Journal 173 (2): 185255. arXiv:astro-ph/0606440. Bibcode2007ApJS..173..185G. doi:10.1086/516636. [12] Apparent Magnitude of 4.36 distance modulus of 24.4 = 20.0. [13] Amos, J. (February 5, 2006). "Dark matter comes out of the cold" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4679220. stm). BBC News. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060621195247/ http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4679220. stm) from the original on 21 June 2006. . Retrieved 2006-05-24. [14] Frommert, H.; Kronberg, C. (August 25, 2005). "The Milky Way Galaxy" (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ more/ mw. html). SEDS. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070512093341/ http:/ / seds. org/ MESSIER/ more/ mw. html) from the original on 12 May 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-09. [15] "Milky Way a Swifter Spinner, More Massive, New Measurements Show" (http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ press/ 2009/ pr200903. html). CfA Press Release No. 2009-03. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. January 5, 2009. . [16] "NASA's Hubble Shows Milky Way is Destined for Head-On Collision" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ hubble/ science/ milky-way-collide. html). NASA. 31 May 2012. . Retrieved 12 July 2012. [17] Frommert, H.; Kronberg, C. (August 22, 2007). "Messier Object Data, sorted by Apparent Visual Magnitude" (http:/ / seds. lpl. arizona. edu/ messier/ dataMag. html). SEDS. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070712184703/ http:/ / seds. lpl. arizona. edu/ messier/ dataMag. html) from the original on 12 July 2007. . Retrieved 2007-08-27. [18] Henbest, N.; Couper, H. (1994). The guide to the galaxy (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=-TI4AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA31& dq& q=). p.31. ISBN978-0-521-45882-5. . [19] Kepple, G. R.; Sanner, G. W. (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. Vol. 1. Willmann-Bell. p.18. ISBN978-0-943396-58-3. [20] Davidson, Norman (1985). Astronomy and the imagination: a new approach to man's experience of the stars. Routledge Kegan & Paul. p.203. ISBN978-0-7102-0371-7. [21] Herschel, W. (1785). "On the Construction of the Heavens". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 75 (0): 213266. doi:10.1098/rstl.1785.0012. [22] Huggins, W.; Miller, W. A. (1864). "On the Spectra of Some of the Nebulae". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 154 (0): 437444. Bibcode1864RSPT..154..437H. doi:10.1098/rstl.1864.0013. [23] Backhouse, T. W. (1888). "nebula in Andromeda and Nova, 1885". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 48: 108. Bibcode1888MNRAS..48..108B. [24] Roberts, I. (1899). A Selection of Photographs of Stars, Star-clusters and Nebulae. II. London: Universal Press. [25] Slipher, V. M. (1913). "The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula". Lowell Observatory Bulletin 1: 5657. Bibcode1913LowOB...1b..56S. [26] Curtis, H. D. (1988). "Novae in Spiral Nebulae and the Island Universe Theory". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 100: 6. Bibcode1988PASP..100....6C. doi:10.1086/132128. [27] pik, E. (1922). "An estimate of the distance of the Andromeda Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 55: 406410. Bibcode1922ApJ....55..406O. doi:10.1086/142680. [28] Hubble, E. P. (1929). "A spiral nebula as a stellar system, Messier 31". Astrophysical Journal 69: 103158. Bibcode1929ApJ....69..103H. doi:10.1086/143167. [29] "Four Unusual Views of the Andromeda Galaxy" (http:/ / www. spacetelescope. org/ news/ heic1112/ ). ESA/Hubble. 21 July 2011. . Retrieved 21 July 2011.

Andromeda Galaxy
[30] Baade, W. (1944). "The Resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central Region of the Andromeda Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 100: 137. Bibcode1944ApJ...100..137B. doi:10.1086/144650. [31] Gribbin, J. R. (2001). The Birth of Time: How Astronomers Measure the Age of the Universe. Yale University Press. p.151. ISBN978-0-300-08914-1. [32] Brown, R. Hanbury; Hazard, C. (1950). "Radio-frequency Radiation from the Great Nebula in Andromeda (M.31)". Nature 166 (4230): 901. Bibcode1950Natur.166..901B. doi:10.1038/166901a0. Brown, R. Hanbury; Hazard, C. (1951). "Radio emission from the Andromeda nebula". MNRAS 111: 357. Bibcode1951MNRAS.111..357B. [33] van der Kruit, P. C.; Allen, R. J. (1976). "The Radio Continuum Morphology of Spiral Galaxies". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 14 (1): 417445. Bibcode1976ARA&A..14..417V. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.14.090176.002221. [34] Ingrosso, G. et al. (2009). "Pixel-lensing as a way to detect extrasolar planets in M31". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 399 (1): 219228. arXiv:0906.1050. Bibcode2009MNRAS.399..219I. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15184.x. [35] Holland, S. (1998). "The Distance to the M31 Globular Cluster System". Astronomical Journal 115 (5): 19161920. arXiv:astro-ph/9802088. Bibcode1998astro.ph..2088H. doi:10.1086/300348. [36] Stanek, K. Z.; Garnavich, P. M (1998). "Distance to M31 With the HST and Hipparcos Red Clump Stars". Astrophysical Journal Letters 503 (2): 131141. arXiv:astro-ph/9802121. Bibcode1998ApJ...503L.131S. doi:10.1086/311539. [37] Moskvitch, Katia (25 November 2010). "Andromeda 'born in a collision'" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-11833356). BBC News. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20101126042510/ http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-11833356) from the original on 26 November 2010. . Retrieved 25 November 2010. [38] Davidge, T. J.; Connachie, A. W.; Fardal, M. A.; Fliri, J.; Valls-Gabaud, D.; Chapman, S. C.; Lewis, G. F.; Rich, R. M. (2012). "The Recent Stellar Archeology of M31The Nearest Red Disk Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal 751 (1). arXiv:1203.6081. Bibcode2012ApJ...751...74D. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/751/1/74. [39] J00443799+4129236 is at celestial coordinates R.A. 00h44m37.99s, Dec. +412923.6. [40] distance tan( diameter_angle = 190 ) = 141 3 kly diameter. [41] Kalirai, J. S. et al. (2006). "The Metal-Poor Halo of the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy (M31)". Astrophysical Journal 648 (1): 389404. arXiv:astro-ph/0605170. Bibcode2006astro.ph..5170K. doi:10.1086/505697. [42] van den Bergh, S. (1999). "The local group of galaxies". Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 9 (34): 273318. Bibcode1999A&ARv...9..273V. doi:10.1007/s001590050019. [43] Liller, W.; Mayer, B. (1987). "The Rate of Nova Production in the Galaxy". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 99: 606609. Bibcode1987PASP...99..606L. doi:10.1086/132021. [44] Beaton, R. L. et al. (2006). "Unveiling the Boxy Bulge and Bar of the Andromeda Spiral Galaxy". Astrophysical Journal Letters 658 (2): L91. arXiv:astro-ph/0605239. Bibcode2006astro.ph..5239B. doi:10.1086/514333. [45] Chapman, S. C. et al. (2006). "A kinematically selected, metal-poor spheroid in the outskirts of M31". Astrophysical Journal 653 (1): 255. arXiv:astro-ph/0602604. Bibcode2006ApJ...653..255C. doi:10.1086/508599. Also see the press release, "Andromeda's Stellar Halo Shows Galaxy's Origin to Be Similar to That of Milky Way" (http:/ / pr. caltech. edu/ media/ Press_Releases/ PR12801. html) (Press release). Caltech Media Relations. February 27, 2006. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060509072644/ http:/ / pr. caltech. edu/ media/ Press_Releases/ PR12801. html) from the original on 9 May 2006. . Retrieved 2006-05-24. [46] "Astronomers Find Evidence of an Extreme Warp in the Stellar Disk of the Andromeda Galaxy" (http:/ / www. ucsc. edu/ news_events/ press_releases/ archive/ 00-01/ 01-01/ andromeda. html) (Press release). UC Santa Cruz. January 9, 2001. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060519081929/ http:/ / www. ucsc. edu/ news_events/ press_releases/ archive/ 00-01/ 01-01/ andromeda. html) from the original on 19 May 2006. . Retrieved 2006-05-24. [47] Rubin, V. C.; Ford, W. K. J. (1970). "Rotation of the Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission". Astrophysical Journal 159: 379. Bibcode1970ApJ...159..379R. doi:10.1086/150317. [48] Arp, H. (1964). "Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission". Astrophysical Journal 139: 1045. Bibcode1964ApJ...139.1045A. doi:10.1086/147844. [49] Braun, R. (1991). "The distribution and kinematics of neutral gas, HI region in M31". Astrophysical Journal 372: 5466. Bibcode1991ApJ...372...54B. doi:10.1086/169954. [50] "ISO unveils the hidden rings of Andromeda" (http:/ / sci. esa. int/ science-e/ www/ object/ index. cfm?fobjectid=12748) (Press release). European Space Agency. October 14, 1998. . Retrieved 2006-05-24. [51] "Busted! Astronomers Nab Culprit in Galactic Hit-and-Run" (http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ press/ pr0628. html). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. October 18, 2006. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061029224944/ http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ press/ pr0628. html) from the original on 29 October 2006. . Retrieved 2006-10-18. [52] Bullock, J. S.; Johnston, K.V. (2005). "Tracing Galaxy Formation with Stellar Halos I: Methods". Astrophysical Journal 635 (2): 931949. arXiv:astro-ph/0506467. Bibcode2005ApJ...635..931B. doi:10.1086/497422. [53] Lauer, T. R. et al. (1993). "Planetary camera observations of the double nucleus of M31". Astronomical Journal 106 (4): 14361447, 17101712. Bibcode1993AJ....106.1436L. doi:10.1086/116737. [54] Bender, Ralf et al. (2005). "HST STIS Spectroscopy of the Triple Nucleus of M31: Two Nested Disks in Keplerian Rotation around a Supermassive Black Hole". Astrophysical Journal 631 (1): 280300. arXiv:astro-ph/0509839. Bibcode2005ApJ...631..280B. doi:10.1086/432434.

17

Andromeda Galaxy
[55] Gebhardt, Karl; Bender, Ralf; Bower, Gary; Dressler, Alan; Faber, S. M.; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Green, Richard; Grillmair, Carl et al. (June 2000). "A Relationship between Nuclear Black Hole Mass and Galaxy Velocity Dispersion" (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 1538-4357/ 539/ 1/ L13/ pdf/ 005511. web. pdf) (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal (Chicago, Illinois, USA: The University of Chicago Press) 539 (1): L13L16. arXiv:astro-ph/0006289. Bibcode2000ApJ...539L..13G. doi:10.1086/312840. . Retrieved March 10, 2010. [56] Tremaine, S. (1995). "An Eccentric-Disk Model for the Nucleus of M31". Astronomical Journal 110: 628633. arXiv:astro-ph/9502065. Bibcode1995AJ....110..628T. doi:10.1086/117548. [57] "Hubble Space Telescope Finds a Double Nucleus in the Andromeda Galaxy" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ newsdesk/ archive/ releases/ 1993/ 18/ text/ ) (Press release). Hubble News Desk. July 20, 1993. . Retrieved 2006-05-26. [58] Schewe, Phillip F.; Stein, Ben (July 26, 1993). "The Andromeda Galaxy has a Double Nucleus" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 1993/ split/ pnu138-2. htm). Physics News Update (American Institute of Physics). . Retrieved 2009-07-10. [59] Fujimoto, M.; Hayakawa, S.; Kato, T. (1969). "Correlation between the Densities of X-Ray Sources and Interstellar Gas". Astrophysics and Space Science 4 (1): 6483. Bibcode1969Ap&SS...4...64F. doi:10.1007/BF00651263. [60] Peterson, L. E. (1973). "Hard Cosmic X-Ray Sources". In Bradt, H.; Giacconi, R.. X- and Gamma-Ray Astronomy, Proceedings of IAU Symposium no. 55 held in Madrid, Spain, 1113 May 1972. International Astronomical Union. pp.5173. Bibcode1973IAUS...55...51P. [61] Barnard, R.; Kolb, U.; Osborne, J. P. (2005). "Timing the bright X-ray population of the core of M31 with XMM-Newton". arXiv:astro-ph/0508284[astro-ph]. [62] Barmby, P.; Huchra, J. P. (2001). "M31 Globular Clusters in the Hubble Space Telescope Archive. I. Cluster Detection and Completeness". Astronomical Journal 122 (5): 24582468. arXiv:astro-ph/0107401. Bibcode2001AJ....122.2458B. doi:10.1086/323457. [63] "Hubble Spies Globular Cluster in Neighboring Galaxy" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ newsdesk/ archive/ releases/ 1996/ 11/ ) (Press release). Hubble news desk STSci-1996-11. April 24, 1996. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060701083419/ http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ newsdesk/ archive/ releases/ 1996/ 11/ ) from the original on 1 July 2006. . Retrieved 2006-05-26. [64] Meylan, G. et al. (2001). "G1 in M31 Giant Globular Cluster or Core of a Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy?". Astronomical Journal 122 (2): 830841. arXiv:astro-ph/0105013. Bibcode2001AJ....122..830M. doi:10.1086/321166. [65] Ma, J.; de Grijs, R.; Yang, Y.; Zhou, X.; Chen, J.; Jiang, Z.; Wu, Z.; Wu, J. (2006). "A `super' star cluster grown old: the most massive star cluster in the Local Group" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2006MNRAS. 368. 1443M). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. . [66] Cohen, Judith G. (2006). "The Not So Extraordinary Globular Cluster 037-B327 in M31" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2006ApJ. . . 653L. . 21C). The Astrophysical Journal 653: L21-L23. . [67] Burstein, David; Li, Yong; Freeman, Kenneth C.; Norris, John E.; Bessell, Michael S.; Bland-Hawthorn, Joss; Gibson, Brad K.; Beasley, Michael A.; Lee, Hyun-chul; Barbuy, Beatriz; Huchra, John P.; Brodie, Jean P.; Forbes, Duncan A. (2004). "Globular Cluster and Galaxy Formation: M31, the Milky Way, and Implications for Globular Cluster Systems of Spiral Galaxies" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2004ApJ. . . 614. . 158B). Astrophysical Journal 614: 158166. . [68] Huxor, A. P. et al. (2005). "A new population of extended, luminous, star clusters in the halo of M31". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 360 (3): 9931006. arXiv:astro-ph/0412223. Bibcode2005MNRAS.360.1007H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09086.x. [69] Prostak, Sergio (2012-12-14). "Microquasar in Andromeda Galaxy Amazes Astronomers" (http:/ / www. sci-news. com/ astronomy/ article00779. html). Sci-News.com. . [70] Bekki, K. et al. (2001). "A New Formation Model for M32: A Threshed Early-type Spiral?". Astrophysical Journal Letters 557 (1): L39L42. arXiv:astro-ph/0107117. Bibcode2001ApJ...557L..39B. doi:10.1086/323075. [71] Ibata, R. et al. (2001). "A giant stream of metal-rich stars in the halo of the galaxy M31". Nature 412 (6842): 4952. doi:10.1038/35083506. PMID11452300. [72] Young, L. M. (2000). "Properties of the Molecular Clouds in NGC 205". Astronomical Journal 120 (5): 24602470. arXiv:astro-ph/0007169. Bibcode2000AJ....120.2460Y. doi:10.1086/316806. [73] Koch, Andreas; Grebel, Eva K. (March 2006). "The Anisotropic Distribution of M31 Satellite Galaxies: A Polar Great Plane of Early-type Companions". Astronomical Journal 131 (3): 14051415. arXiv:astro-ph/0509258. Bibcode2005astro.ph..9258K. doi:10.1086/499534. [74] Malik, T. (May 7, 2002). "Crash Course: Simulating the Fate of Our Milky Way" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ astronomy/ galaxy_collides_020507-1. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-09-18. [75] "The Grand Collision". The Sky At Night. November 5, 2007. [76] Cox, T. J.; Loeb, A. (2008). "The collision between the Milky Way and Andromeda". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 461474. Bibcode2008MNRAS.tmp..333C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x. [77] Cain, F. (2007). "When Our Galaxy Smashes Into Andromeda, What Happens to the Sun?" (http:/ / www. universetoday. com/ 2007/ 05/ 10/ when-our-galaxy-smashes-into-andromeda-what-happens-to-the-sun/ ). Universe Today. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070517021426/ http:/ / www. universetoday. com/ 2007/ 05/ 10/ when-our-galaxy-smashes-into-andromeda-what-happens-to-the-sun/ ) from the original on 17 May 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-16.

18

Andromeda Galaxy

19

References External links

StarDate: M31 Fact Sheet (http://blackholes.stardate.org/directory/factsheet.php?p=M31) Simbad data on M31 (http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?Ident=M+31) Messier 31, SEDS Messier pages (http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m031.html) Astronomy Picture of the Day

A Giant Globular Cluster in M31 (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap981017.html) 1998 October 17. M31: The Andromeda Galaxy (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap040718.html) 2004 July 18. Andromeda Island Universe (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap051222.html) 2005 December 22. Andromeda Island Universe (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap100109.html) 2010 January 9. WISE Infrared Andromeda (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap100219.html) 2010 February 19 M31 and its central Nuclear Spiral (http://www.beskeen.com/gallery/galaxy/m31/m31.shtml) Amateur photography M31 (http://www.starpointing.com/ccd/m31.html) Globular Clusters in M31 (http://astro.neutral.org/imagehtml/20050903_m31.html) at The Curdridge Observatory First direct distance to Andromeda (http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=a&id=3640) Astronomy magazine article Andromeda Galaxy (http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/andromeda.htm) at SolStation.com Andromeda Galaxy at The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, & Spaceflight (http://www.daviddarling. info/encyclopedia/A/Andromeda.html) M31, the Andromeda Galaxy (http://www.nightskyinfo.com/archive/m31_galaxy) at NightSkyInfo.com Than, Ker (January 23, 2006). "Strange Setup: Andromeda's Satellite Galaxies All Lined Up" (http://space.com/ scienceastronomy/060123_andromeda_plane.html). Space.com. The Andromeda Galaxy on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=Andromeda+Galaxy) Hubble Finds Mysterious Disk of Blue Stars Around Black Hole (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/ releases/2005/26/full/) Hubble observations (Sep 20 2005) put the mass of the Andromeda core black hole at 140 million solar masses M31 (Apparent) Novae Page (http://cbat.eps.harvard.edu/CBAT_M31.html) (IAU) Multi-wavelength composite (http://herschel.esac.esa.int/Images/2011/M31_COMPO_A.jpg) Andromeda Project (http://www.andromedaproject.org) (crowd-source)

Pleiades

20

Pleiades
Pleiades

A color-composite image of the Pleiades from the Digitized Sky Survey Credit: NASA/ESA/AURA/Caltech Observation data (J2000 epoch) Constellation Right ascension Declination Distance Apparent magnitude (V) Apparent dimensions (V) Taurus 3h47m24s +247 [1] [2][3][4][5] ) [1]

390460 ly (120140 pc 1.6 [6] [6]

110' (arcmin.)

Physical characteristics Other designations M45, [1] Seven Sisters, [1] Melotte 22 [1]

In astronomy, the Pleiades (pron.: /pla.diz/ or /pli.diz/), or Seven Sisters (Messier object 45 or M45), is an open star cluster containing middle-aged hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus. It is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky. The name Pleiades comes from Greek mythology; it has several meanings in different cultures and traditions. The cluster is dominated by hot blue and extremely luminous stars that have formed within the last 100 million years. Dust that forms a faint reflection nebulosity around the brightest stars was thought at first to be left over from the formation of the cluster (hence the alternate name Maia Nebula after the star Maia), but is now known to be an unrelated dust cloud in the interstellar medium that the stars are currently passing through. Computer simulations have shown that the Pleiades was probably formed from a compact configuration that resembled the Orion Nebula.[7] Astronomers estimate that the cluster will survive for about another 250 million years, after which it will disperse due to gravitational interactions with its galactic neighborhood.

Observational history
The Pleiades are a prominent sight in winter in the Northern Hemisphere and in summer in the Southern Hemisphere, and have been known since antiquity to cultures all around the world, including the Mori, Aboriginal Australians, the Persians, the Chinese, the Japanese, the Maya, the Aztec, and the Sioux and Cherokee. In Tamil culture this star cluster is attributed to Lord Murugan (Lord Murugan raised by the six sisters known as the Krththikai Pengal and thus came to be known as Krtikeyan), in Sanskrit he is noted as Skanda.

Pleiades

21

The Babylonian star catalogues name them MUL.MUL or "star of stars", and they head the list of stars along the ecliptic, reflecting the fact that they were close to the point of vernal equinox around the 23rd century BC. The earliest known depiction of the Pleiades is likely a bronze age artifact known as the Nebra sky disk, dated to approximately 1600 BC. Some Greek astronomers considered them to be a distinct constellation, and they are mentioned by Hesiod, and in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. They are also mentioned three times in the Bible (Job 9:9 and 38:31, as well as Amos 5:8). The Pleiades (Krittika) are particularly revered in Hindu mythology as the six mothers of the war god Murugan, who developed six faces, one for each of them. Some scholars of Islam suggested that the Pleiades (Ats-tsuraiya) are the Star in Najm, which is mentioned in the Quran.

The Nebra sky disk, dated c. 1600 BC. The cluster of dots near the upper right portion of the disk is believed to be the Pleiades.

In Japan, the constellation is mentioned under the name Mutsuraboshi ("six stars") in the 8th century Kojiki and Manyosyu documents. The constellation is also known in Japan as Subaru (unite) and is depicted in the logo of the Subaru automobile company. The Persian equivalent is Nahid (pronounced "Naheed"). The rising of the Pleiades is mentioned in the Ancient Greek text Geoponica.[8] The Greeks oriented the Hecatompedon temple of 1150 BC and the Parthenon of 438 BC to their rising.[9] They have long been known to be a physically related group of stars rather than any chance alignment. The Reverend John Michell calculated in 1767 that the probability of a chance alignment of so many bright stars was only 1 in 500,000, and so correctly surmised that the Pleiades and many other clusters of stars must be physically related.[10] When studies were first made of the stars' proper motions, it was found that they are all moving in the same direction across the sky, at the same rate, further demonstrating that they were related. Charles Messier measured the position of the cluster and included it as M45 in his catalogue of comet-like objects, published in 1771. Along with the Orion A Spitzer image of the Pleiades in Nebula and the Praesepe cluster, Messier's inclusion of the Pleiades has been infrared, showing the associated dust (Merope Nebula). Credit: noted as curious, as most of Messier's objects were much fainter and more easily NASA/JPL-Caltech confused with cometssomething that seems scarcely possible for the Pleiades. One possibility is that Messier simply wanted to have a larger catalogue than his scientific rival Lacaille, whose 1755 catalogue contained 42 objects, and so he added some bright, well-known objects to boost his list.[11] Edme-Sbastien Jeaurat then drew in 1782 a map of 64 stars of the Pleiades from his observations in 1779, which he published in 1786.[12][13][14]

Pleiades

22

Distance
The distance to the Pleiades can be used as an important first step to calibrate the cosmic distance ladder. As the cluster is so close to the Earth, its distance is relatively easy to measure and has been estimated by many methods. Accurate knowledge of the distance allows astronomers to plot a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for the cluster, which, when compared to those plotted for clusters whose distance is Comet Machholz appears to pass near the Pleiades in early 2005 not known, allows their distances to be estimated. Other methods can then extend the distance scale from open clusters to galaxies and clusters of galaxies, and a cosmic distance ladder can be constructed. Ultimately astronomers' understanding of the age and future evolution of the universe is influenced by their knowledge of the distance to the Pleiades. Yet some authors argue that the controversy over the distance to the Pleiades discussed below is a red herring, since the cosmic distance ladder can (presently) rely on a suite of other nearby clusters where consensus exists regarding the distances as established by Hipparcos and independent means (e.g., the Hyades, Coma Berenices cluster, etc.).[3] Measurements of the distance have elicited much controversy. Results prior to the launch of the Hipparcos satellite generally found that the Pleiades were about 135 parsecs away from Earth. Data from Hipparcos yielded a surprising result, namely a distance of only 118 parsecs by measuring the parallax of stars in the clustera technique that should yield the most direct and accurate results. Later work consistently argued that the Hipparcos distance measurement for the Pleiades was erroneous.[3][4][5][15][16] In particular, distances derived to the cluster via the Hubble Space Telescope and infrared color-magnitude diagram fitting favor a distance between 135140 pc.[3][15] However, the author of the 20072009 catalog of revised Hipparcos parallaxes reasserted that the distance to the Pleiades is ~120 pc, and challenged the dissenting evidence.[2] Recently, Francis and Anderson[17] proposed that a systematic effect on Hipparcos parallax errors for stars in clusters biases calculation using the weighted mean, and gave a Hipparcos parallax distance of 126 pc, and photometric distance 132 pc based on stars in the AB Doradus, Tucana-Horologium moving group and Beta Pictoris moving groups, which are similar in age and composition to the Pleiades. Those authors note that the difference between these results can be attributed to random error.

Composition
The cluster core radius is about 8 light years and tidal radius is about 43 light years. The cluster contains over 1,000 statistically confirmed members, although this figure excludes unresolved binary stars.[18] It is dominated by young, hot blue stars, up to 14 of which can be seen with the naked eye depending on local observing conditions. The arrangement of the brightest stars is somewhat similar to Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. The total mass contained in the cluster is estimated to be about 800 solar masses.[18] The cluster contains many brown dwarfs, which are objects with less than about 8% of the Sun's mass, not heavy enough for nuclear fusion reactions to start in their cores and become proper stars. They may X-ray images of the Pleiades reveal the stars with constitute up to 25% of the total population of the cluster, although the hottest atmospheres. Green squares indicate they contribute less than 2% of the total mass.[19] Astronomers have the seven optically brightest stars. made great efforts to find and analyse brown dwarfs in the Pleiades and other young clusters, because they are still relatively bright and observable, while brown dwarfs in older clusters have faded and are much more difficult to study.

Pleiades

23

Age and future evolution

Ages for star clusters can be estimated by comparing the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for the cluster with theoretical models of stellar evolution. Using this technique, ages for the Pleiades of between 75 and 150 million years have been estimated. The wide spread in estimated ages is a result of uncertainties in stellar evolution models, which include factors such as convective overshoot, in which a convective zone within a star penetrates an otherwise non-convective zone, resulting in higher apparent ages. Another way of estimating the age of the cluster is by looking at the lowest-mass objects. In normal main sequence stars, lithium is rapidly destroyed in nuclear fusion reactions. Brown dwarfs can retain their lithium, however. Due to lithium's very low ignition temperature of 2.5 million kelvin, the highest-mass brown dwarfs will burn it eventually, and so determining the highest mass of brown dwarfs still containing lithium in the cluster can give an idea of its age. Applying this technique to the Pleiades gives an age of about 115 million years.[20][21] The cluster is slowly moving in the direction of the feet of what is currently the constellation of Orion. Like most open clusters, the Pleiades will not stay gravitationally bound forever. Some component stars will be ejected after close encounters with other stars; others will be stripped by tidal gravitational fields. Calculations suggest that the cluster will take about 250 million years to disperse, with gravitational interactions with giant molecular clouds and the spiral arms of our galaxy also hastening its demise.

Reflection nebulosity
Under ideal observing conditions, some hint of nebulosity may be seen around the cluster, and this shows up in long-exposure photographs. It is a reflection nebula, caused by dust reflecting the blue light of the hot, young stars. It was formerly thought that the dust was left over from the formation of the cluster, but at the age of about 100 million years generally accepted for the cluster, almost all the dust originally present would have been dispersed by radiation pressure. Instead, it seems that the cluster is simply passing through a particularly dusty region of the interstellar medium. Studies show that the dust responsible for the nebulosity is not uniformly distributed, but is concentrated mainly in two layers along the line of sight to the cluster. These layers may have been formed by deceleration due to radiation pressure as the dust has moved towards the stars.[22]

Hubble Space Telescope image of reflection nebulosity near Merope (IC 349)

Brightest stars
The nine brightest stars of the Pleiades are named for the Seven Sisters of Greek mythology: Sterope, Merope, Electra, Maia, Taygeta, Celaeno, and Alcyone, along with their parents Atlas and Pleione. As daughters of Atlas, the Hyades were sisters of the Pleiades. The English name of the cluster itself is of Greek origin, though of uncertain etymology. Suggested derivations include: from plen, to sail, making the Pleiades the "sailing ones"; from pleos, full or many; or from peleiades, flock of doves. The following table gives details of the brightest stars in the cluster:

Pleiades

24

A map of the Pleiades

The location of the Pleiades on the constellation Taurus.

Pleiades Bright Stars

Name Alcyone Atlas Electra Maia Merope Taygeta Pleione Celaeno Pronunciation (IPA & respelling) /lsa.ni/ al-SY--nee /tls/ AT-ls /lktr/ i-LEK-tr /me/, /ma/ MAY-, MY- /mrpi/ MERR--pee /tedt/ tay-IJ-i-t /pla.ni/ PLY--nee /slino/ s-LEE-noh Designation Eta (25) Tauri 27 Tauri 17 Tauri 20 Tauri 23 Tauri 19 Tauri 28 (BU) Tauri 16 Tauri Apparent magnitude Stellar classification 2.86 3.62 3.70 3.86 4.17 4.29 5.09 (var.) 5.44 B7IIIe B8III B6IIIe B7III B6IVev B6V B8IVpe B7IV B8Ve/B9V B8V

Sterope, Asterope /strpi/, /strpi/ ()-STERR--pee 21 and 22 Tauri 5.64;6.41 18 Tauri 5.65

Possible planets
Analyzing deep-infrared images obtained by the Spitzer Space Telescope and Gemini North telescope, astronomers discovered that one of cluster's star - HD 23514, which has a mass and luminosity a bit greater than those of the sun, is surrounded by an extraordinary number of hot dust particles. This could be an evidence for planets formation around HD 23514.[23]

References
[1] "SIMBAD Astronomical Database" (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ Simbad). Results for M45. . Retrieved 2007-04-20. [2] van Leeuwen, F. "Parallaxes and proper motions for 20 open clusters as based on the new Hipparcos catalogue" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2009A& A. . . 497. . 209V), A\&A, 2009 [3] Majaess, D.; Turner, D.; Lane, D.; Krajci, T. "Deep Infrared ZAMS Fits to Benchmark Open Clusters Hosting delta Scuti Stars" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ bib_query?arXiv:1102. 1705), JAAVSO, 2011 [4] Percival, S. M.; Salaris, M.; Groenewegen, M. A. T. (2005). "The distance to the Pleiades. Main sequence fitting in the near infrared". Astronomy and Astrophysics 429: 887. arXiv:astro-ph/0409362. Bibcode2005A&A...429..887P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041694. [5] Zwahlen, N.; North, P.; Debernardi, Y.; Eyer, L.; Galland, F.; Groenewegen, M. A. T.; Hummel, C. A. (2004). "A purely geometric distance to the binary star Atlas, a member of the Pleiades". Astronomy and Astrophysics Letters 425: L45. arXiv:astro-ph/0408430. Bibcode2004A&A...425L..45Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400062. [6] Messier 45 (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ m/ m045. html) [7] Kroupa, P., Aarseth, S.J., Hurley, J. 2001, MNRAS, 321, 699, "The formation of a bound star cluster: from the Orion nebula cluster to the Pleiades" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2001MNRAS. 321. . 699K) [8] http:/ / www. ancientlibrary. com/ geoponica/ 0028. html

Pleiades
[9] On the Rising of the Pleiades (http:/ / evols. library. manoa. hawaii. edu/ bitstream/ handle/ 10524/ 105/ JL27179. pdf?sequence=2) [10] Michell J. (1767). "An Inquiry into the probable Parallax, and Magnitude, of the Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of Light which they afford us, and the particular Circumstances of their Situation". Philosophical Transactions 57: 234264. Bibcode1767RSPT...57..234M. doi:10.1098/rstl.1767.0028. [11] Frommert, Hartmut (1998). "Messier Questions & Answers" (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ m-q& a. html#why_M42-45). . Retrieved 2005-03-01. [12] A New review: with literary curiosities and literary intelligence, page 326, Paul Henry Maty, Printed for the author, 1783. [13] Mmoires de l'Acadmie des sciences de l'Institut de France, page 289, Didot frres, fils et cie, 1786. [14] Edme-Sbastien Jeaurat, Carte des 64 Principales Etoiles des Playades par M. Jeaurat, pour le 1.er Janvier 1786. [15] Soderblom D. R., Nelan E., Benedict G. F., McArthur B., Ramirez I., Spiesman W., Jones B. F. (2005). "Confirmation of Errors in Hipparcos Parallaxes from Hubble Space Telescope Fine Guidance Sensor Astrometry of the Pleiades". Astronomical Journal 129: 16161624. arXiv:astro-ph/0412093. Bibcode2005AJ....129.1616S. doi:10.1086/427860. [16] Turner, D. G. (1979). "A reddening-free main sequence for the Pleiades cluster". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 91: 642647. Bibcode1979PASP...91..642T. doi:10.1086/130556. [17] Francis C., Anderson E., (2012). "XHIP II: clusters and associations". Astronomy Letters. arXiv:1203.4945. Bibcode2012arXiv1203.4945F. [18] Adams, Joseph D.; Stauffer, John R.; Monet, David G.; Skrutskie, Michael F.; Beichman, Charles A. (2001). "The Mass and Structure of the Pleiades Star Cluster from 2MASS". Astronomical Journal 121: 2053. arXiv:astro-ph/0101139. Bibcode2001AJ....121.2053A. doi:10.1086/319965. [19] Moraux, E.; Bouvier, J.; Stauffer, J. R.; Cuillandre, J.-C. (2003). "Brown in the Pleiades cluster: Clues to the substellar mass function". Astronomy and Astrophysics 400: 891. arXiv:astro-ph/0212571. Bibcode2003A&A...400..891M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021903. [20] Basri G., Marcy G. W., Graham J. R. (1996). "Lithium in Brown Dwarf Candidates: The Mass and Age of the Faintest Pleiades Stars". Astrophysical Journal 458: 600. Bibcode1996ApJ...458..600B. doi:10.1086/176842. [21] Ushomirsky, G., Matzner, C., Brown, E., Bildsten, L., Hilliard, V., Schroeder, P. (1998). "Light-Element Depletion in Contracting Brown Dwarfs and Pre-Main-Sequence Stars". Astrophysical Journal 497: 253. arXiv:astro-ph/9711099. Bibcode1998ApJ...497..253U. doi:10.1086/305457. [22] Gibson, Steven J.; Nordsieck, Kenneth H. (2003). "The Pleiades Reflection Nebula. II. Simple Model Constraints on Dust Properties and Scattering Geometry". Astrophysical Journal 589: 362. Bibcode2003ApJ...589..362G. doi:10.1086/374590. [23] ScienceDaily (2007). "Planets Forming In Pleiades Star Cluster, Astronomers Report" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2007/ 11/ 071114203718. htm). . Retrieved 2012-11-15.

25

External links
The Pleiades (M45) At the astro-photography site of Mr. T. Yoshida. (http://ryutao.main.jp/english/stl_m45. html) Photos and information on the Pleiades from the University of Calgary (http://www.ras.ucalgary.ca/~gibson/ pleiades/) Information on the Pleiades from SEDS (http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m045.html) Information and images from the Anglo-Australian Observatory (http://www.aao.gov.au/images.html/ captions/uks018.html) NightSkyInfo.com: The Pleiades (http://www.nightskyinfo.com/archive/pleiades/) Maya Astronomy (http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_astronomy.htm) Doppler Imaging: Results (http://www.aip.de/groups/activity/DI/results.html) first Doppler image of a Pleiades solar-type G dwarf HII314, Strassmeier & Rice 2001, A&A 377, 264 Dark Atmospheres Photography (deep nebulosity exposure) (http://www.darkatmospheres.com/astro/gallery/ nebulae/enlarge.php?fileBase=nebulae_1) not available november 24, 2012: Pleiades in Hungarian and Middle Asian culture (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=0lyvX7KUIA8&feature=related) The Pleiades on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=Pleiades) WEBDA open cluster database webpage on Pleiades cluster (http://www.univie.ac.at/webda/cgi-bin/ ocl_page.cgi?dirname=mel022) E. Pauzen (Univ. Vienna)

Orion (constellation)

26

Orion (constellation)
Orion
Constellation

List of stars in Orion Abbreviation Genitive Pronunciation Symbolism Right ascension Declination Quadrant Area Main stars Bayer/Flamsteed stars Stars with planets Stars brighter than 3.00m Ori Orionis /ra.n/ Orion, the Hunter 5h +5 NQ1 594 sq. deg. (26th) 7 81

8 8

Stars within 10.00 pc (32.62 ly) 8 Brightest star Nearest star Rigel ( Ori)(0.12m) GJ 3379 (17.51ly,5.37pc) 3 Orionids Chi Orionids Gemini Taurus Eridanus Lepus Monoceros

Messier objects Meteor showers

Bordering constellations

Orion (constellation)

27
Visible at latitudes between +85 and 75. Best visible at 21:00 (9 p.m.) during the month of January.

Orion, sometimes subtitled The Hunter, is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous, and most recognizable constellations in the night sky.[1] Its name refers to Orion, a hunter in Greek mythology. Its brightest stars are Beta (Rigel) and Alpha (Betelgeuse), a blue-white and red supergiant respectively. Many other of the brightest stars in the constellation are hot blue supergiant stars.

Characteristics
In artistic renderings, the surrounding constellations are sometimes related to Orion: he is depicted standing next to the river Eridanus with his two hunting dogs Canis Major and Canis Minor, fighting Taurus the bull. He is sometimes depicted hunting Lepus the hare. He also sometimes is depicted to have a lion's hide in his hand. There are alternative ways to visualise Orion. From the Southern Hemisphere, Orion is oriented south-upward, and the belt and sword are sometimes called the saucepan or pot in Australia and New Zealand. Orion's Belt is called Drie Konings (Three Kings) or the Drie Susters (Three Sisters) by Afrikaans speakers in South Africa[3] and are referred to as les Trois Rois (the Three Kings) in Daudet's Lettres de Mon Moulin (1866). The appellation Driekoningen (the Three Kings) is also often found in 17th- and 18th-century Dutch star charts and seaman's guides. The same three stars are known in Spain and Latin America as "Las Tres Maras".
[2] Orion as depicted in Urania's Mirror , a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825

Orion (constellation)

28

Visibility
Orion can be easily seen in the night sky from November to February of each year late autumn to winter in the Northern Hemisphere, late spring to summer in the Southern Hemisphere. In the tropics (less than about 8 from the equator) the constellation transits at the zenith. In the period MayJuly (summer in the Northern Hemisphere, winter in the Southern Hemisphere) Orion is in the daytime sky and thus not visible at most latitudes. However for much of Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere's winter months, the Sun is below the horizon even at midday. Stars (and thus Orion) are then visible at twilight for a few hours around local noon, low in the North. At the same time of day at the South Pole itself (AmundsenScott South Pole Station), Rigel is only 8 above the horizon and the Belt sweeps just along it. In the Southern Hemisphere's summer months, when Orion is normally visible in the night sky, the constellation is actually not visible in Antarctica because the sun does not set at that time of year south of the Antarctic Circle.[4][5] In countries close to the equator (e.g. Kenya, Indonesia, Colombia, Ecuador) Orion appears overhead in December around midnight and in the February evening sky.

Navigational aid
Orion is very useful as an aid to locating other stars. By extending the line of the Belt southeastward, Sirius ( CMa) can be found; northwestward, Aldebaran ( Tau). A line eastward across the two shoulders indicates the direction of Procyon ( CMi). A line from Rigel through Betelgeuse points to Castor and Pollux ( Gem and Gem). Additionally, Rigel is part of the Winter Circle. Sirius and Procyon, which may be located from Orion by following imaginary lines (see map), also are points in both the Winter Triangle and the Circle.[6]

Using Orion to find stars in neighbor constellations

Orion (constellation)

29

Notable features
Orion's seven brightest stars form a distinctive hourglass-shaped asterism, or pattern, in the night sky. Four starsRigel, Betelgeuse, Bellatrix and Saiphform a large roughly rectangular shape, in the centre of which lie the three stars of Orion's BeltAlnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka. Descending from the 'belt' is a smaller line of three stars (the middle of which is in fact not a star but the Orion Nebula), known as the hunter's 'sword'. Many of the stars are luminous hot blue supergiants, with the stars of the belt and sword forming the Orion OB1 Association. Standing out by its red hue, Betelgeuse may nevertheless be a runaway member of the same group.

Stars
Betelgeuse, known alternatively by its Bayer designation Alpha Orionis, is a massive M-type red supergiant star nearing the end of its life. When it explodes it will even be visible during the day. It is the second brightest star in Orion, and is a semiregular variable star.[7] It serves as the The constellation Orion as it can be seen by the naked eye. "right shoulder" of the hunter it represents (assuming that he is facing the observer), and is the eighth brightest star in the night sky.[8] Rigel, which is also known as Beta Orionis, is a B-type blue supergiant that is the sixth brightest star in the night sky. Similar to Betelgeuse, Rigel is fusing heavy elements in its core and will pass its supergiant stage soon (on an astronomical timescale), either collapsing in the case of a supernova or shedding its outer layers and turning into a white dwarf. It serves as the left foot of Orion, the hunter.[9] Bellatrix was designated Gamma Orionis by Johann Bayer, but is known colloquially as the "Amazon Star". It is the twenty-seventh brightest star in the night sky.[10] Bellatrix is considered a B-type blue giant, though it is too small to explode in a supernova. Bellatrix's luminosity is derived from its high temperature rather than its radius,[11] a factor that defines Betelgeuse.[7] Bellatrix serves as Orion's left shoulder.[11] Mintaka garnered the name Delta Orionis from Bayer, even though it is the faintest of the three stars in Orion's Belt. It is a multiple star system, composed of a large B-type blue giant and a more massive O-type white star. The Mintaka system constitutes an eclipsing binary variable star, where the eclipse of one star over the other creates a dip in brightness. Mintaka is the westernmost of the three stars of Orion's Belt.[12]

Orion (constellation)

30

Alnilam was named Epsilon Orionis, a consequence of Bayer's wish to name the three stars in Orion's Belt (from north to south) in alphabetical order. Alnilam is a B-type blue supergiant; despite being nearly twice as far from the Sun as Mintaka and Alnitak, the other two belt stars, its luminosity makes it nearly equal in magnitude. Alnilam is losing mass quickly, a consequence of its size; it is approximately four million years old.[13] Alnitak was designated Zeta Orionis by Bayer, and is the easternmost star in Orion's Belt. It is a triple star some 800 light years distant, with the primary star being a hot blue supergiant and the brightest class O star in the night sky. Saiph was designated Kappa Orionis by Bayer, and serves as Orion's right foot. It is of a similar distance and size to Rigel, but appears much fainter, as its hot surface temperature (46,000F or 26,000C) causes it to emit most of its light in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.

Orion Constellation Map

Of the lesser stars, Hatsya (or Iota Orionis) forms the tip of Orion's sword, whilst Meissa (or Lambda Orionis) forms Orion's head. In common with many other bright stars, the names Betelgeuse, Rigel, Saiph, Alnitak, Mintaka, Alnilam, Hatsya, and Meissa originate from the Arabic language.
Proper Name Solar Radii Apparent Magnitude 0.43 0.18 1.62 ~Distance (L Yrs) 643 772 243

Betelgeuse 667 Rigel Bellatrix Mintaka Alnilam Alnitak Saiph 78 7.0 ? 26 ? 11

2.23 (3.2/3.3) / 6.85 / 14.0 900 1.68 1.70/~4/4.21 2.06 1359 800 724

Belt

Orion's Belt

Orion (constellation)

31
Closeup Image of Orion's Belt

Orion's Belt or The Belt of Orion is an asterism within the constellation. It consists of the three bright stars Ori (Alnitak), Ori (Alnilam), and Ori (Mintaka). Alnitak is approximately 800 light years away from earth and, including ultraviolet radiation, which the human eye cannot see, Alnitak is 100,000 times more luminous than the Sun.[14] Alnilam is approximately 1340 light years away from Earth, shines with magnitude 1.70, and with ultraviolet light is 375,000 times more luminous than the Sun.[13] Mintaka is 915 light years away and shines with magnitude 2.21. It is 90,000 times more luminous than the Sun and is a double star: the two orbit each other every 5.73 days.[12] Looking for Orion's Belt in the night sky is the easiest way to locate the constellation. In the Northern Hemisphere, Orion's Belt is best visible in the night sky during the month of January around 9:00 pm, when it is approximately around the local meridian.[1] Just southwest of Alnitak lies Sigma Orionis, a multiple star system composed of five stars which have a combined apparent magnitude of 3.7, and lying 1150 light years distant. Southwest of Mintaka lies the quadruple star Eta Orionis.

Head
Three stars compose a small triangle which mark the head. The apex is marked by Meissa (Lambda Orionis), a hot blue giant of spectral type O8 III and apparent magnitude 3.54 which lies some 1100 light years distant. Phi-1 and Phi-2 Orionis make up the base. Also nearby is the very young star FU Orionis.

Club
Stretching north from Betelgeuse are the stars that make up Orion's club. Mu Orionis marks the elbow, Nu and Xi mark the handle of the club, and Chi1 and Chi2 mark the end of the club. Just east of Chi1 is the Mira-type variable red gaint U Orionis.

Shield
West from Bellatrix lie six stars all designated Pi Orionis (1 Ori,2 Ori, 3 Ori, 4 Ori, 5 Ori and 6 Ori) which make up Orion's shield.

Meteor showers
Around 20 October each year the Orionid meteor shower (Orionids) reaches its peak. Coming from the border with the constellation Gemini as many as 20 meteors per hour can be seen. The shower's parent body is Halley's Comet.[15]

Deep-sky objects
Hanging from Orion's belt is his sword, consisting of the multiple stars 1 and 2 Orionis, called the Trapezium and the Orion Nebula (M42). This is a spectacular object that can be clearly identified with the naked eye as something other than a star. Using binoculars, its clouds of nascent stars, luminous gas, and dust can be observed. The Trapezium cluster has many newborn stars, including several brown dwarfs, all of which are at an approximate distance of 1,500 light-years. Named for the four bright stars that form a trapezoid, it is largely illuminated by the brightest stars, which are only a few hundred thousand years old. Observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory show both the extreme temperatures of the main starsup to 60,000 Kelvinand the star forming regions still extant in the surrounding nebula.[16] M78 (NGC 2068) is a nebula in Orion. With an overall magnitude of 8.0, it is significantly dimmer than the Great Orion Nebula that lies to its south; however, it is at approximately the same distance, at 1600 light-years from Earth. It can easily be mistaken for a comet in the eyepiece of a telescope. M78 is associated with the variable star V351

Orion (constellation) Orionis, whose magnitude changes are visible in very short periods of time.[17] Another fairly bright nebula in Orion is NGC 1999, also close to the Great Orion Nebula. It has an integrated magnitude of 10.5 and is 1500 light-years from Earth. The variable star V380 Orionis is embedded in NGC 1999.[18] Another famous nebula is IC 434, the Horsehead Nebula, near Orionis. It contains a dark dust cloud whose shape gives the nebula its name. Besides these nebulae, surveying Orion with a small telescope will reveal a wealth of interesting deep-sky objects, including M43, M78, as well as multiple stars including Iota Orionis and Sigma Orionis. A larger telescope may reveal objects such as Barnard's Loop and the Flame Nebula (NGC 2024), as well as fainter and tighter multiple stars and nebulae. All of these nebulae are part of the larger Orion Molecular Cloud Complex, which is located approximately 1,500 light-years away and is hundreds of light-years across. It is one of the most intense regions of stellar formation visible in our galaxy.

32

Cultural significance
The distinctive pattern of Orion has been recognized in numerous cultures around the world, and many myths have been associated with it. It has also been used as a symbol in the modern world.

Mediterranean
Ancient Near East The Babylonian star catalogues of the Late Bronze Age Star formation in the constellation Orion as photographed in infrared name Orion MULSIPA.ZI.AN.NA,[19] "The Heavenly by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. Shepherd" or "True Shepherd of Anu" - Anu being the chief god of the heavenly realms.[20] The Babylonian constellation was sacred to Papshukal and Ninshubur, both minor gods fulfilling the role of 'messenger to the gods'. Papshukal was closely associated with the figure of a walking bird on Babylonian boundary stones, and on the star map the figure of the Rooster was located below and behind the figure of the True Shepherdboth constellations represent the herald of the gods, in his bird and human forms respectively.[21] The stars of Orion were associated with Osiris, the sun-god of rebirth and afterlife, by the ancient Egyptians.[22][23][24] Orion has also been identified with the Egyptian Pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty called Unas who, according to the Pyramid Texts, became great by eating the flesh of his mortal enemies and then slaying and devouring the gods themselves. This was based on a belief in contiguous magic whereby consuming the flesh of great people would bring inheritance of their power.[23] After devouring the gods and absorbing their spirits and powers, Unas journeys through the day and night sky to become the star Sahu, or Orion.[22] The Pyramid Texts also show that the dead Pharaoh was identified with the god Osiris, whose form in the stars was often said to be the constellation Orion.[22] The Armenians identified their forefather Hayk with Orion. Hayk is also the name of the Orion constellation in the Armenian translation of the Bible.[25] The Bible mentions Orion three times, naming it "Kesil" ( ,literally - fool). Though, this name perhaps is etymologically connected with "Kislev", the name for the ninth month of the Hebrew calendar (i.e. NovemberDecember), which, in turn, may derive from the Hebrew root K-S-L as in the words "kesel, kisla" (, ,hope, positiveness), i.e. hope for winter rains.): Job 9:9 ("He is the maker of the Bear and Orion"), Job 38:31

Orion (constellation) ("Can you loosen Orion`s belt?"), and Amos 5:8 ("He who made the Pleiades and Orion"). In ancient Aram, the constellation was known as Nephl, the Nephilim may have been Orion's descendants.[26] Greco-Roman antiquity Orion's current name derives from Greek mythology, in which Orion was a gigantic hunter of primordial times.[27] Some of these myths relate to the constellation; one story tells that Orion was killed by a giant scorpion; the gods raised him and the Scorpion to the skies, as Scorpio/Scorpius. Yet other stories say Orion was chasing the Pleiades.[28] The constellation is mentioned in Horace's Odes (Ode 3.27.18), Homer's Odyssey (Book 5, line 283) and Iliad, and Virgil's Aeneid (Book 1, line 535)

33

Africa
In ancient Egypt, the constellation of Orion was known to represent Osiris, who, after being killed by his evil brother Set, was revived by his wife Isis to live immortal among the stars.[29]
Orion in the 9th century Leiden Aratea.

Middle East
In medieval Muslim astronomy, Orion was known as al-jabbar "the giant".

Asian antiquity
In China, Orion was one of the 28 lunar mansions Sieu (Xiu) . It is known as Shen , literally meaning "three", for the stars of Orion's Belt. (See Chinese constellations) The Chinese character (pinyin shn) originally meant the constellation Orion (Chinese: ; pinyin: shnxi); its Shang dynasty version, over three millennia old, contains at the top a representation of the three stars of Orion's belt atop a man's head (the bottom portion representing the sound of the word was added later).[30] The Rig Veda refers to the Orion Constellation as Mriga (The Deer).[31] The Malay called Orion' Belt Bintang Tiga Beradik (the "Three Brother Star").

European folklore
In old Hungarian tradition, "Orion" is known as (magic) Archer (jsz), or Reaper (Kaszs). In recently rediscovered myths he is called Nimrod (Hungarian "Nimrd"), the greatest hunter, father of the twins "Hunor" and "Magor"). The "" and "o" stars (on upper right) form together the reflex bow or the lifted scythe. In other Hungarian traditions, "Orion's belt" is known as "Judge's stick" (Brplca).[32] In Scandinavian tradition, "Orion's belt" was known as Frigg's Distaff (Friggerock) or Freyja's distaff.[33] The Finns call the Orion's belt and the stars below it as Vinmisen viikate (Vinminen's scythe).[34] Another name for the asterism of Alnilam, Alnitak and Minkata is Vinmisen vy' (Vinminen's Belt) and the stars "hanging" from the belt as Kalevanmiekka (Kaleva's sword).

Orion (constellation)

34

New World
The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three stars in the belt of this constellation Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburn Island.[35] The same three stars are known in Latin America as "The Three Marys."[36] The Ojibwa (Chippewa) Native Americans call this constellation Kabibona'kan, the Winter Maker, as its presence in the night sky heralds winter. To the Lakota Native Americans, Tayamnicankhu (Orions Belt) is the spine of a bison. The great rectangle of Orion are the bison's ribs; Orion's belt forms the bison's spine; The Pleiades star cluster in nearby Taurus is the bisons head and Sirius in Canis Major, known as Tayamnisinte, is its tail.

Contemporary symbolism
The imagery of the belt and sword has found its way into popular western culture, for example in the form of the shoulder insignia of the 27th Infantry Division of the United States Army during both World Wars, probably owing to a pun on the name of the division's first commander, Major General John F. O'Ryan. The defunct film distribution company Orion Pictures used the constellation as its logo. In fiction In J. R. R. Tolkien's mythology surrounding Middle-earth, Orion is known as Menelvagor, which is Sindarin for "The Swordsman in the Sky."[37] In J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, one of the main Death Eater characters, Bellatrix Lestrange, is named after the gamma star in Orion.

Future
Orion is located on the celestial equator, but it will not always be so located due to the effects of precession of the Earth's axis. Orion lies well south of the ecliptic, and it only happens to lie on the celestial equator because the point on the ecliptic that corresponds to the June solstice is close to the border of Gemini and Taurus, to the north of Orion. Precession will eventually carry Orion further south, and by AD 14000 Orion will be far enough south that it will become invisible from the latitude of Great Britain.[38] Further in the future, Orion's stars will gradually move away from the constellation due to proper motion. However, Orion's brightest stars all lie at a large distance from the Earth on an astronomical scalemuch farther away than Sirius, for example. Orion will still be recognizable long after most of the other constellationscomposed of relatively nearby starshave distorted into new configurations, with the exception of a few of its stars eventually exploding as supernovae, for example Betelgeuse, which is predicted to explode sometime in the next million years.[39]

Orion (constellation)

35

References
Explanatory notes
[1] Dolan, Chris. "Orion" (http:/ / www. astro. wisc. edu/ ~dolan/ constellations/ constellations/ Orion. html). Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 63XCardIx) from the original on 2011-11-28. . Retrieved 2011-11-28. [2] http:/ / www. ianridpath. com/ atlases/ urania. htm [3] Three Kings and the Cape Clouds at psychohistorian.org (http:/ / www. psychohistorian. org/ astronomy/ ethnoastronomy/ three_kings_cape_clouds. php) [4] A Beginner's Guide to the Heavens in the Southern Hemisphere (http:/ / www. dibonsmith. com/ downunder. htm) [5] The Evening Sky Map Southern Hemisphere Edition (http:/ / skymaps. com/ downloads. html) [6] Orion Constellation (http:/ / www. donnayoung. org/ science/ stars/ orion. htm) [7] "Variable Star of the Month, Alpha Ori" (http:/ / www. aavso. org/ vstar/ vsots/ 1200. shtml). Variable Star of the Season. American Association of Variable Star Observers. 2000. . Retrieved 2009-02-26. [8] "Betelgeuse" (http:/ / www. astro. wisc. edu/ ~dolan/ constellations/ hr/ 2061. html). Chris Dolan's Constellations. University of Wisconsin. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-26. [9] "Rigel" (http:/ / www. astro. uiuc. edu/ ~jkaler/ sow/ rigel. html). Jim Kaler's Stars. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Campus. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-26. [10] "Bellatrix" (http:/ / www. astro. wisc. edu/ ~dolan/ constellations/ hr/ 1790. html). Chris Dolan's Constellations. University of Wisconsin. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-26. [11] "Bellatrix" (http:/ / www. astro. uiuc. edu/ ~jkaler/ sow/ bellatrix. html). Jim Kaler's Stars. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Campus. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-26. [12] "Mintaka" (http:/ / stars. astro. illinois. edu/ sow/ mintaka. html). Jim Kaler's Stars. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Campus. 2009. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 63XCA2Co1) from the original on 2011-11-28. . Retrieved 2011-11-28. [13] "Alnilam" (http:/ / stars. astro. illinois. edu/ sow/ alnilam. html). Jim Kaler's Stars. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Campus. 2009. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 63XBTECPT) from the original on 2011-11-28. . Retrieved 2011-11-28. [14] "Alnitak" (http:/ / stars. astro. illinois. edu/ sow/ alnitak. html). Stars.astro.illinois.edu. . Retrieved 2012-05-16. [15] Jenniskens, Peter (September 2012). "Mapping Meteoroid Orbits: New Meteor Showers Discovered". Sky & Telescope: 22. [16] Wilkins, Jamie; Dunn, Robert (2006). 300 Astronomical Objects: A Visual Reference to the Universe (1st ed.). Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN978-1-55407-175-3. [17] Levy 2005, pp.99100 [18] Levy 2005, p.107 [19] The determiner glyph for "constellation" or "star" in these lists is MUL (). See Babylonian star catalogues. [20] John H. Rogers, " Origins of the ancient contellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1998JBAA. . 108. . . . 9R)", Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108 (1998) 928 [21] Babylonian Star-lore by Gavin White, Solaria Pubs, 2008, page 218ff & 170 [22] The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology, Edited by Donald B. Redford, p302-307, Berkley, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X [23] Mackenzie, Donald A. (1907). "Triumph of the Sun God" (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ egy/ eml/ eml15. htm). Egyptian Myth and Legend. Gresham Pub. Co.. pp.167168. ISBN0-517-25912-5. . [24] http:/ / www. coldwaterschools. org/ lms/ planetarium/ myth/ orion. html; http:/ / www. constellationsofwords. com/ Constellations/ Orion. html [25] Vahan Kurkjian, "History of Armenia," Michigan, 1968 (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Gazetteer/ Places/ Asia/ Armenia/ _Texts/ KURARM/ 8*. html) [26] Peake's commentary on the Bible, 1962, page 260 section 221f. [27] Star Tales Orion (http:/ / www. ianridpath. com/ startales/ orion. htm) [28] Chandra :: Photo Album :: Constellation Orion (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ photo/ constellations/ orion. html) [29] Mystery of the Sphinx. Documentary 2005. Morningstar Entertainment. [30] Hny Dzdin (in Chinese), 1992 (p.163). Hbi Cishu Chbnsh and Schun Cishu Chbnsh, re-published in traditional character form by Jinhng Publ. in Taipei, Taiwan; ISBN 957-813-478-9 [31] Holay, P. V.. "Vedic astronomers". Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India 26: 91106. Bibcode1998BASI...26...91H. [32] Toroczkai-Wigand Ede : reg csillagok ("Old stars"), Hungary (1915) reedited with Mszaki Knyvkiad METRUM (1988). [33] Schn, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jttar i tro och tradition. Flt & Hssler, Vrnamo. p. 228. [34] http:/ / www. ursa. fi/ yhd/ uranus/ luennot%202004/ perusteet/ tahdet. htm [35] Moser, Mary B.; Stephen A. Marlett (2005) (in Spanish and English). Comcac quih yaza quih hant ihip hac: Diccionario seri-espaol-ingls (http:/ / lengamer. org/ admin/ language_folders/ seri/ user_uploaded_files/ links/ File/ DiccionarioSeri2005. pdf). Hermosillo, Sonora and Mexico City: Universidad de Sonora and Plaza y Valds Editores. . [36] Lenda de rion e as Trs Marias (http:/ / www. sobrenatural. org/ site\Lendas\Lendas_Descricao. asp?Str_ID=4143) [37] "Encyclopedia of Arda: Swordsman of the Sky" (http:/ / www. glyphweb. com/ arda/ s/ swordsmanofthesky. html). Glyphweb.com. 1999-11-27. . Retrieved 2012-05-16.

Orion (constellation)
[38] "Precession" (http:/ / myweb. tiscali. co. uk/ moonkmft/ Articles/ Precession. html). Myweb.tiscali.co.uk. . Retrieved 2012-05-16. [39] Wilkins, Alasdair. "Earth may soon have a second sun" (http:/ / io9. com/ 5738542/ earth-may-soon-have-a-second-sun). io9. Space Porn. .

36

Citations Bibliography Levy, David H. (2005). Deep Sky Objects. Prometheus Books. ISBN1-59102-361-0. Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0-00-725120-9. Princeton Universitl Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-13556-4.

External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Orion (http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/orion/) Melbourne Planetarium: Orion Sky Tour (http://museumvictoria.com.au/DiscoveryCentre/Infosheets/Planets/ Sky-Tour-for-Binoculars---Orion/) Views of Orion from other places in our Galaxy (http://old.orionsarm.com/galactography/views_of_Orion. html) The clickable Orion (http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/orion.htm) Star Tales Orion (http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/orion.htm) Deep Widefield image of Orion (http://blog.deepskycolors.com/archive/2010/10/22/ orion-from-Head-to-Toes.html) Constellations of Words. Orion (http://www.constellationsofwords.com/Constellations/Orion.html)

Orion Nebula

37

Orion Nebula
Orion Nebula

The entire Orion Nebula in visible light. Credit: NASA/ESA Observation data: J2000 epoch Type Right ascension Declination Distance Reflection and Emission 05h35m17.3s -052328 [2] [1]

[2] [3]

1,34420ly (412 pc)

Apparent magnitude (V) +4.0[4] Apparent dimensions (V) 6560arcmins[5] Constellation Orion Physical characteristics Radius Absolute magnitude (V) Notable features Other designations 12ly[a] Trapezium cluster NGC 1976, M42, LBN 974, Sharpless 281

The Orion Nebula (also known as Messier 42, M42, or NGC 1976) is a diffuse nebula situated south[b] of Orion's Belt in the constellation of Orion. It is one of the brightest nebulae, and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky. M42 is located at a distance of 1,344 20 light years[3][6] and is the closest region of massive star formation to Earth. The M42 nebula is estimated to be 24light years across. It has a mass of about 2000 times the mass of the Sun. Older texts frequently refer to the Orion Nebula as the Great Nebula in Orion or the Great Orion Nebula.[7] The Orion Nebula is one of the most scrutinized and photographed objects in the night sky, and is among the most intensely studied celestial features.[8] The nebula has revealed much about the process of how stars and planetary systems are formed from collapsing clouds of gas and dust. Astronomers have directly observed protoplanetary disks, brown dwarfs, intense and turbulent motions of the gas, and the photo-ionizing effects of massive nearby stars in the nebula. There are also supersonic "bullets" of gas piercing the hydrogen clouds of the Orion Nebula. Each bullet is ten times the diameter of Pluto's orbit and tipped with iron atoms glowing bright blue. They were probably formed one thousand years ago from an unknown violent event.[9]

Orion Nebula

38

General information
The nebula is visible with the naked eye even from areas affected by some light pollution. It is seen as the middle "star" in the sword of Orion, which are the three stars located south of Orion's Belt. The star appears fuzzy to sharp-eyed observers, and the nebulosity is obvious through binoculars or a small telescope. The Orion Nebula contains a very young open cluster, known as the Trapezium due to the asterism of its primary four stars. Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good seeing, giving a total of six stars. The stars of the Trapezium, along with many other stars, are still in their early years. The Trapezium may be a component of the much-larger Orion Nebula Cluster, an association of about 2,000 stars within a diameter of 20 light years. Two million years ago this cluster may have been the home of the runaway stars AE Aurigae, 53 Arietis, and Mu Columbae, which are currently moving away from the nebula at velocities greater than 100km/s.[10]

Discussing the location of the Orion Nebula, what we see within the star-formation region, and the effects of interstellar winds in shaping the nebula.

Coloration
Observers have long noted a distinctive greenish tint to the nebula, in addition to regions of red and areas of blue-violet. The red hue is well-understood to be caused by H recombination line radiation at a wavelength of 656.3 nm. The blue-violet coloration is the reflected radiation from the massive O-class stars at the core of the nebula. The green hue was a puzzle for astronomers in the early part of the 20th century because The constellation of Orion with the Orion none of the known spectral lines at that time Nebula (lower middle). could explain it. There was some speculation that the lines were caused by a new element, and the name "nebulium" was coined for this mysterious material. With better understanding of atomic physics, however, it was later determined that the green spectra was caused by a low-probability electron transition in doubly ionized oxygen, a so-called "forbidden transition". This radiation was all but impossible to reproduce in

Orion Nebula the laboratory because it depended on the quiescent and nearly collision-free environment found in deep space.[11]

39

History
There has been speculation that the Mayans of Central America may have described the nebula within their "Three Hearthstones" creation myth; if so, the three would correspond to two stars at the base of Orion, Rigel and Saiph, and another, Alnitak at the tip of the "belt" of the imagined hunter, the vertices of a nearly perfect triangle with Orion's Sword (including the Orion Nebula) in the middle seen as the smudge of smoke from copal incense in a modern myth, or, in (the translation it suggests of) an ancient one, the literal or figurative embers of a fiery creation.[12][13] Neither Ptolemy's Almagest nor Al Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars noted this nebula, even though they both listed patches of nebulosity elsewhere in the night sky; nor did Galileo mention it, even though he Messier's drawing of the Orion Nebula in his 1771 memoir, Mmoires de l'Acadmie Royale. also made telescopic observations surrounding it in 1610 and 1617.[14] This has led to some speculation that a flare-up of the illuminating stars may have increased the brightness of the nebula.[15] The first discovery of the diffuse nebulous nature of the Orion Nebula is generally credited to French astronomer Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, on 26 November 1610 when he made a record of observing it with a refracting telescope purchased by his patron Guillaume du Vair.[14] The first published observation of the nebula was by the Jesuit mathematician and astronomer Johann Baptist Cysat of Lucerne in his 1619 monograph on the comets (describing observations of the nebula that may date back to 1611).[16] He made comparisons between it and a bright comet seen in 1618 and described how the nebula appeared through his telescope as: "one sees how in like manner some stars are compressed into a very narrow space and how round about and between the stars a white light like that of a white cloud is poured out"[17] His description of the center stars as different from a comets head in that they were a "rectangle" may have been an early description of the Trapezium Cluster[14][17][18] (The first detection of three of the four stars of this cluster is credited to Galileo Galilei in a February 4, 1617 although he did not notice the surrounding nebula possibly due to the narrow field of vision of his early telescope.[19]) The nebula was independently discovered by several other prominent astronomers in the following years, including, in 1656, Christiaan Huygens (whose sketch was the first published, in 1659). Charles Messier first noted the nebula on March 4, 1769, and he also noted three of the stars in Trapezium. Charles Messier published the first edition of his catalog of deep sky objects in 1774 (completed in 1771).[20] As the Orion Nebula was the 42nd object in his list, it became identified as M42.

Orion Nebula

40

In 1865 English amateur astronomer William Huggins used his visual spectroscopy method to examine the nebula showing it, like other nebula he had examined, was made up of "luminous gas".[21] On September 30, 1880 Henry Draper used the new dry plate photographic process with an 11-inch (28cm) refracting telescope to make a 51-minute exposure of the Orion Nebula, the first instance of astrophotography of a nebula in history. Another set of photographs of the nebula in 1883 saw breakthrough in astronomical photography when amateur astronomer Andrew Ainslie Common used the dry plate process to record several images in exposures up to 60 minutes with a 36-inch (91cm) reflecting telescope that he constructed in the backyard of his home in Ealing, outside London. These images for the first time showed stars and nebula detail too faint to be seen by the human eye.[22] In 1902, Vogel and Eberhard discovered differing velocities within the nebula and by 1914 astronomers at Marseilles had used the interferometer to detect rotation and irregular motions. Campbell and Moore confirmed these results using the spectrograph, demonstrating turbulence within the nebula.[23] In 1931, Robert J. Trumpler noted that the fainter stars near the Trapezium formed a cluster, and he was the first to name them the Trapezium cluster. Based on their magnitudes and spectral types, he derived a distance estimate of 1,800 light years. This was three times further than the commonly accepted distance estimate of the period but was much closer to the modern value.[24]

Henry Draper's 1880 photograph of the Orion Nebula, the first ever taken.

In 1993, the Hubble Space Telescope first observed the Orion Nebula. Since then, the nebula has been a frequent target for HST studies. The images have been used to build a detailed model of the nebula in three dimensions. Protoplanetary disks have been observed around most of the newly formed stars in the nebula, and the destructive effects of high levels of ultraviolet energy from the most massive stars have been studied.[25] In 2005, the Advanced Camera for Surveys instrument of the Hubble Space Telescope finished capturing the most detailed image of the nebula yet taken. The image was taken through 104 orbits of the telescope, capturing over 3,000 stars down to the 23rd magnitude, including infant brown dwarfs and possible brown dwarf binary stars.[26] A year later, scientists working with the HST announced the first ever masses of a pair of eclipsing binary brown dwarfs, 2MASS J053521840546085. The pair are located in the Orion Nebula and have approximate masses of 0.054 M and 0.034M respectively, with an orbital period of 9.8 days. Surprisingly, the more massive of the two also turned out to be the less luminous.[27]

One of Andrew Ainslie Common's 1883 photograph of the Orion Nebula, the first to show that a long exposure could record new stars and nebulae invisible to the human eye.

Orion Nebula

41

Structure
The entirety of the Orion Nebula extends across a 1 region of the sky, and includes neutral clouds of gas and dust, associations of stars, ionized volumes of gas, and reflection nebulae. The Nebula is part of a much larger nebula that is known as the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex. The Orion Molecular Cloud Complex extends throughout the constellation of Orion and includes Barnard's Loop, the Horsehead Nebula, M43, M78, and the Flame Nebula. Stars are forming throughout the Orion Nebula, and due to this heat-intensive process the region is particularly prominent in the infrared.

Optical images reveal clouds of gas and dust in the Orion Nebula; an infrared image (right) reveals the new stars shining within. Credit: C. R. O'Dell-Vanderbilt University, NASA, and ESA.

The nebula forms a roughly spherical cloud that peaks in density near the core.[28] The cloud has a temperature ranging up to 10,000 K, but this temperature falls dramatically near the edge of the nebula.[28] Unlike the density distribution, the cloud displays a range of velocities and turbulence, particularly around the core region. Relative movements are up to 10km/s (22,000mi/h), with local variations of up to 50km/s and possibly more. The current astronomical model for the nebula consists of an ionized region roughly centered on Theta1 Orionis C, the star responsible for most of the ultraviolet ionizing radiation. (It emits 3-4 times as much photoionizing light as the next brightest star, Theta2 Orionis A.)[29] This is surrounded by an irregular, concave bay of more neutral, high-density cloud, with clumps of neutral gas lying outside the bay area. This in turn lies on the perimeter of the Orion Molecular Cloud. Observers have given names to various features in the Orion Nebula. The dark lane that extends from the north toward the bright region is called the "Fish's Mouth". The illuminated regions to both sides are called the "Wings". Other features include "The Sword", "The Thrust", and "The Sail".[30]

Stellar formation
The Orion Nebula is an example of a stellar nursery where new stars are being born. Observations of the nebula have revealed approximately 700 stars in various stages of formation within the nebula. Recent observations with the Hubble Space Telescope have yielded the major discovery of protoplanetary disks within the Orion Nebula, which have been dubbed proplyds.[31] HST has revealed more than 150 of these within the nebula, and they are considered to be systems in the earliest stages of solar system formation. The sheer numbers of them have been used as evidence that the formation of star systems is fairly common in our universe.

View of several proplyds within the Orion Nebula taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. Credit:NASA.

Stars form when clumps of hydrogen and other gases in an H II region contract under their own gravity. As the gas collapses, the central clump grows stronger and the gas heats to extreme temperatures by converting gravitational potential energy to thermal energy. If the temperature gets high enough, nuclear fusion will ignite and form a protostar. The protostar is 'born' when it begins to emit enough radiative energy to balance out its gravity and halt gravitational collapse.

Orion Nebula

42 Typically, a cloud of material remains a substantial distance from the star before the fusion reaction ignites. This remnant cloud is the protostar's protoplanetary disk, where planets may form. Recent infrared observations show that dust grains in these protoplanetary disks are growing, beginning on the path towards forming planetesimals.[32] Once the protostar enters into its main sequence phase, it is classified as a star. Even though most planetary disks can form planets, observations show that intense stellar radiation should have destroyed any proplyds that formed near the Trapezium group, if the group is as old as the low mass stars in the cluster.[25] Since proplyds are found very close to the Trapezium group, it can be argued that those stars are much younger than the rest of the cluster members.[c]

Star Formation Fireworks in Orion. Credit:ESA/Hubble & NASA.

Stellar wind and effects

Once formed, the stars within the nebula emit a stream of charged particles known as a stellar wind. Massive stars and young stars have much stronger stellar winds than the Sun.[33] The wind forms shock waves or hydrodynamical instabilities when it encounters the gas in the nebula, which then shapes the gas clouds. The shock waves from stellar wind also play a large part in stellar formation by compacting the gas clouds, creating density inhomogeneities that lead to gravitational collapse of the cloud. There are three different kinds of shocks in the Orion Nebula. Many are featured in Herbig-Haro objects:[35] Bow shocks are stationary and are formed when two particle streams collide with each other. They are present near the hottest stars in the nebula where the stellar wind speed is estimated to be thousands of kilometers per second and in the outer parts of the nebula where the speeds are tens of kilometers per second. Bow shocks can also form at the front end of stellar jets when the jet hits interstellar particles.

Herbig-Haro 47 seen with a bow shock and a [34] series of jet-driven shocks.

Jet-driven shocks are formed from jets of material sprouting off newborn T Tauri stars. These narrow streams are traveling at hundreds of kilometers per second, and become shocks when they encounter relatively stationary gases. Warped shocks appear bow-like to an observer. They are produced when a jet-driven shock encounters gas moving in a cross-current. The interaction of the stellar wind with the surrounding cloud also forms "waves" which are believed to be due to the hydrodynamical Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.[36] The dynamic gas motions in M42 are complex, but are trending out through the opening in the bay and toward the Earth.[28] The large neutral area behind the ionized region is currently contracting under its own gravity.

View of the ripples (KelvinHelmholtz instability) formed by the action of stellar winds on the cloud. Credit:ESO/J. Emerson/VISTA.

Orion Nebula

43

Evolution
Interstellar clouds like the Orion Nebula are found throughout galaxies such as the Milky Way. They begin as gravitationally bound blobs of cold, neutral hydrogen, intermixed with traces of other elements. The cloud can contain hundreds of thousands of solar masses and extend for hundreds of light years. The tiny force of gravity that could compel the cloud to collapse is counterbalanced by the very faint pressure of the gas in the cloud. Whether due to collisions with a spiral arm, or through the shock wave emitted from supernovae, the atoms are precipitated into heavier molecules and the result is a molecular cloud. This presages the formation of stars within the cloud, usually thought to be within a period of 10-30 million years, as regions pass the Jeans mass and the Panoramic image of the center of the nebula, destabilized volumes collapse into disks. The disk concentrates at the taken by the Hubble Telescope. This view is core to form a star, which may be surrounded by a protoplanetary disk. about 2.5 light years across. The Trapezium is at This is the current stage of evolution of the nebula, with additional center left. Credit:NASA/ESA. stars still forming from the collapsing molecular cloud. The youngest and brightest stars we now see in the Orion Nebula are thought to be less than 300,000 years old,[37] and the brightest may be only 10,000 years in age. Some of these collapsing stars can be particularly massive, and can emit large quantities of ionizing ultraviolet radiation. An example of this is seen with the Trapezium cluster. Over time the ultraviolet light from the massive stars at the center of the nebula will push away the surrounding gas and dust in a process called photo evaporation. This process is responsible for creating the interior cavity of the nebula, allowing the stars at the core to be viewed from Earth.[8] The largest of these stars have short life spans and will evolve to become supernovae. Within about 100,000 years, most of the gas and dust will be ejected. The remains will form a young open cluster, a cluster of bright, young stars surrounded by wispy filaments from the former cloud.[38] The Pleiades is a famous example of such a cluster.

Gallery

Orion Nebula was captured using the Wide Field Imager camera on the MPG/ESO 2.2-metre telescope.

Orion Nebula Complex including M42, M43, Running Man Nebula (NGC 1973, 1975, and 1977) and much of the surrounding nebulosity.

Panoramic image of the Orion Nebula, taken by Ioannidis Panos with an 8 Inch Newtonian telescope and a Nikon D70 camera.

Infant stars, image from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope.

Orion Nebula

44

The Orion Nebula imaged with the 2.2m ESO/MPG telescope. Credit: ESO

The central part of the Orion Nebula. Credit ESO

This wide-field view of the Orion Nebula (Messier 42), was taken with the VISTA infrared survey telescope at ESOs Paranal Observatory in Chile. Credit ESO/J. Emerson/VISTA.

Orion by Spitzer.

The Orion Nebula's biggest stars.

An infrared image showing fledgling stars located in the Orion Nebula.

Notes
a. 1,270 tan( 66 / 2 ) = 12 ly. radius b. From temperate zones in the Northern Hemisphere, the nebula appears below the Belt of Orion; from temperate zones in the Southern Hemisphere the nebula appears above the Belt. c. C. Robert O'Dell commented about this Wikipedia article, "The only egregious error is the last sentence in the Stellar Formation section. It should actually read 'Even though most planetary disks can form planets, observations show that intense stellar radiation should have destroyed any proplyds that formed near the Trapezium group, if the group is as old as the low mass stars in the cluster. Since proplyds are found very close to the Trapezium group, it can be argued that those stars are much younger than the rest of the cluster members.'"

Orion Nebula

45

References
[1] Will Gater, Anton Vamplew, The Practical Astronomer, page 242 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=R9tGGSX9eHcC& pg=PA242& dq=Orion+ Nebula+ + "emission+ nebula"+ "reflection+ nebula"& hl=en& ei=xIVXTqCXDNG_tgeb9bmSDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=Orion Nebula "emission nebula" "reflection nebula"& f=false) [2] "SIMBAD Astronomical Database" (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ Simbad). Results for NGC 7538. . Retrieved 2006-10-20. [3] Reid, M. J.; et al. (2009). "Trigonometric Parallaxes of Massive Star Forming Regions: VI. Galactic Structure, Fundamental Parameters and Non-Circular Motions". Astrophysical Journal 700: 137. arXiv:0902.3913. Bibcode2009ApJ...700..137R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/137. [4] "NGC 1976 = M42" (http:/ / www. seds. org/ ~spider/ ngc/ ngc. cgi?NGC+ 1976). SEDS.org. . Retrieved 2009-12-13. [5] Revised NGC Data for NGC 1976 (http:/ / www. seds. org/ ~spider/ ngc/ revngcic. cgi?NGC1976) per Wolfgang Steinicke's NGC/IC Database Files (http:/ / www. ngcic. org/ steinicke/ ). [6] Hirota, Tomoya; Bushimata; Choi; Honma; Imai; Iwadate; Jike; Kameno et al.; et al. (2007). "Distance to Orion KL Measured with VERA". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 59 (5): 897903. arXiv:0705.3792. Bibcode2007PASJ...59..897H. [7] "Nebula". The American Cyclopdia. 1879. [8] Press release, " Astronomers Spot The Great Orion Nebula's Successor (http:/ / cfa-www. harvard. edu/ press/ pr0605. html)", Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 2006. [9] "Gemini's Laser Vision Reveals Striking New Details in Orion Nebula" (http:/ / www. gemini. edu/ index. php?q=node/ 226). Gemini Observatory. 2007-03-22. . Retrieved 2010-06-01. [10] Blaauw, A.; Morgan, W. W. (1954). "The Space Motions of AE Aurigae and Columbae with Respect to the Orion Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 119: 625. Bibcode1954ApJ...119..625B. doi:10.1086/145866. [11] Bowen, Ira Sprague (1927). "The Origin of the Nebulium Spectrum". Nature 120 (3022): 473. Bibcode1927Natur.120..473B. doi:10.1038/120473a0. [12] Davd Carrasco, ed., The Oxford encyclopedia of Mesoamerican cultures: the civilizations of Mexico and Central America, Oxford University Press, 2001, [entry by E.C. Krupp], page 165 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9I3rAAAAMAAJ& q="Rift+ + was+ the+ road+ to+ Xibalba,+ the+ otherworld. + The"& dq="Rift+ + was+ the+ road+ to+ Xibalba,+ the+ otherworld. + The") [13] American astronomer and author Ed Krupp, Krupp, Edward C. (February 1999). "Igniting the Hearth" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930222028/ http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ skyandtelescope/ access/ 886319051. html?dids=886319051:886319051& FMT=CITE& FMTS=CITE:PAGE& date=Feb+ 1999& author=E+ C+ Krupp& desc=Igniting+ the+ Hearth). Sky & Telescope: 94. Archived from the original (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ skyandtelescope/ access/ 886319051. html?dids=886319051:886319051& FMT=CITE& FMTS=CITE:PAGE& date=Feb+ 1999& author=E+ C+ Krupp& desc=Igniting+ the+ Hearth) on September 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2006-10-19. [14] James, Andrew (June 27, 2012). "The Great Orion Nebula: M42 &amp M43" (http:/ / www. southastrodel. com/ Page204. htm). Southern Astronomical Delights. . Retrieved 2012-06-27. [15] Tibor Herczeg, Norman (January 22, 1999). "The Orion Nebula: A chapter of early nebular studies" (http:/ / www. astro. uni-bonn. de/ ~pbrosche/ aa/ acta/ vol03/ acta03_246. html). History of Astronomy. . Retrieved 2006-10-27. [16] Scientific American, Volume 114, Munn & Company, 1916, page 615 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=98sxAQAAMAAJ& pg=PA615& dq=Cysatus+ of+ Lucerne+ orion+ nebula& hl=en& sa=X& ei=RAPrT6D0BYT-6gG07b2-BQ& ved=0CEMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=Cysatus of Lucerne orion nebula& f=false) [17] Popular astronomy, Volume 12, Goodsell Observatory of Carleton College, 1904, page 101 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_hTyAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA101& dq=Cysatus+ + orion+ nebula& hl=en& sa=X& ei=8QPrT8O6GpSK6QG2hNDcBQ& ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Cysatus orion nebula& f=false) [18] Harrison, Thomas G. (1984). "The Orion Nebula: Where in History is it?" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1984QJRAS. . 25. . . 65H). Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 25: 71. Bibcode1984QJRAS..25...65H. . [19] Galileo Galilei: Siderius Nuncius, Venice, 1610. English Translation published at Bard College, Hudson NY" October 9, 2003 English Translation (http:/ / www. bard. edu/ admission/ forms/ pdfs/ galileo. pdf) Original Latin version (http:/ / www. liberliber. it/ biblioteca/ g/ galilei/ sidereus_nuncius/ html/ sidereus. htm) [20] Messier, Charles (1774). "Catalogue des Nbuleuses & des amas d'toiles, que l'on dcouvre parmi les toiles fixes sur l'horizon de Paris; observes l'Observatoire de la Marine, avec diffrens instruments" (http:/ / seds. org/ messier/ Xtra/ history/ m-cat71. html). Mmoires de l'Acadmie Royale des Sciences (Paris). . [21] Barbara J. Becker, Eclecticism, Opportunism, and the Evolution of a New Research Agenda: William and Margaret Huggins and the Origins of Astrophysics, CHAPTER 2PART 3 (https:/ / eee. uci. edu/ clients/ bjbecker/ huggins/ ch2c. html#_ftn45) [22] J. B. Hearnshaw,The measurement of starlight: two centuries of astronomical photometry, page 122 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kp7G4IqK7woC& pg=PA122& dq=common+ orion+ nebula+ "dry+ plate"& cd=6#v=onepage& q=common orion nebula "dry plate"& f=false) [23] Campbell, W. W.; Moore, J. H. (1917). "On the Radial Velocities of the Orion Nebula". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 29 (169): 143. Bibcode1917PASP...29..143C. doi:10.1086/122612. [24] Trumpler, Robert Julius (1931). "The Distance of the Orion Nebula". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 43 (254): 255. Bibcode1931PASP...43..255T. doi:10.1086/124134.

Orion Nebula
[25] David F. Salisbury, 2001, " Latest investigations of Orion Nebula reduce odds of planet formation (http:/ / exploration. vanderbilt. edu/ news/ news_orion. htm)". [26] Robberto, M.; O'Dell; Hillenbrand; Simon; Soderblom; Feigelson; Krist; McCullough et al.; et al. (2005). "An overview of the HST Treasury Program on the Orion Nebula". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 37: 1404. Bibcode2005AAS...20714601R. See also see the NASA press release (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ newsdesk/ archive/ releases/ 2006/ 01/ text/ ). [27] K.G. Stassun, R.D. Mathieu and J.A. Valenti (2006). "Discovery of two young brown dwarfs in an eclipsing binary system". Nature 440 (7082): 311314. Bibcode2006Natur.440..311S. doi:10.1038/nature04570. [28] Balick, B.; Gammon, R. H.; Hjellming, R. M. (1974). "The structure of the Orion nebula". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 86: 616. Bibcode1974PASP...86..616B. doi:10.1086/129654. [29] O'Dell, C. R. (2001). "Structure of the Orion Nebula". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 113 (779): 29. Bibcode2001PASP..113...29O. doi:10.1086/317982. [30] " M-42 (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ m/ m042. html)", Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, April 12, 2006. [31] McCaughrean, Mark J.; O'dell, C. Robert. (1996). "Direct Imaging of Circumstellar Disks in the Orion Nebula". Astronomical Journal 111: 1977. Bibcode1996AJ....111.1977M. doi:10.1086/117934. [32] Kassis, Marc; et al. (2006). "Mid-Infrared Emission at Photodissociation Regions in the Orion Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 637 (2): 823837. Bibcode2006ApJ...637..823K. doi:10.1086/498404. See also the press release (http:/ / www. keckobservatory. org/ news/ science/ 060109_orion/ index. html) [33] Ker Than, 11 January 2006, " The Splendor of Orion: A Star Factory Unveiled (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060111_orion_news. html)", Space.com [34] Patrick Hartigan. Herbig-Haro Jet Movies from HST (http:/ / sparky. rice. edu/ ~hartigan/ movies. html), Physics and Astronomy Dept., Rice University [35] " Mapping Orion's Winds (http:/ / www. vanderbilt. edu/ news/ releases?id=23966)", January 16, 2006, Vanderbilt News Service [36] Denise Chow. Young stars blamed for space cloud ripples (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 38757647/ ns/ technology_and_science-space/ ), MSNBC.com [37] " Detail of the Orion Nebula (http:/ / www. seds. org/ hst/ OrionFull. html)", HST image and text. [38] Kroupa, P., Aarseth, S.J., Hurley, J. 2001, MNRAS, 321, 699, "The formation of a bound star cluster: from the Orion nebula cluster to the Pleiades" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2001MNRAS. 321. . 699K)

46

External links
Animated tour of the Orion Nebula (http://alienworlds.glam.ac.uk/OrionNebula.html), University of Glamorgan Orion Nebula observed by Chandra/HST (http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2007/orion/) Orion Nebula observed by Gemini Observatory (http://www.gemini.edu/index.php?option=content& task=view&id=226) Orion Nebula at ESA/Hubble (http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/archive/freesearch/orion+nebula/ viewall/1) Messier 42, SEDS Messier pages (http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m042.html) and specifically NGC 1976 (http://www.seds.org/~spider/ngc/ngc.cgi?m42). January 2006 Hubble Space Telescope image of the Orion Nebula (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/ archive/releases/2006/01/image/a) January 2006 Hubble Space Telescope image of the Trapezium cluster (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ newsdesk/archive/releases/2006/01/image/e) Orion Nebula M42, Hubble Images (http://www.seds.org/messier/more/m042_hst2.html) Remarkable new views captured of Orion Nebula (http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0101/19orion/), SpaceFlight Now, 2001. NightSkyInfo.com - The Great Orion Nebula (http://www.nightskyinfo.com/archive/orion_nebula) Computer visualization of Orion Nebula. (http://vis.sdsc.edu/research/orion.html) Data gathered from the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based sensors were combined to form a 3D volume visualization of the nebula. Narration of the planetarium-like flythrough describes notable features and views from angles not possible from Earth. Link contains downloadable MPEG and QuickTime movies of flythrough. Astronomy Picture of the Day Spitzer's Orion (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap100410.html) 2010 April 10

Orion Nebula Planetary Systems Now Forming in Orion (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap091222.html) 2009 December 22 Great Orion Nebulae (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap081023.html) 2008 October 23 The Orion Nebula on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=Orion+Nebula)

47

Eta Carinae
Eta Carinae

Hubble Space Telescope image showing Eta Carinae and the bipolar Homunculus Nebula which surrounds the star. The Homunculus was partly created in an eruption of Eta Carinae, the light from which reached Earth in 1843. Eta Carinae itself appears as the white patch near the center of the image, where the two lobes of the Homunculus touch. Observation data Epoch J2000Equinox J2000 Constellation Right ascension Declination Apparentmagnitude(V) Carina 10 45 03.591
h m s[1]

594104.26 0.8 to 7.9 Characteristics

[2]

[1] [3]

(4.6 February 2012)

Spectral type UB color index BV color index Variable type

BIae-0 / OI -0.45 0.61 LBV Astrometry

[2]

[4]

& binary

Radial velocity (R )
v

25.0

[1]

km/s
[1]

Proper motion ()

RA:7.6 mas/yr [1] Dec.:1.0 mas/yr

V

Absolutemagnitude(M ) Details Mass Radius Luminosity

-7 (current)

120 / 30 ~240

[5]

[6][7]

/ 24

[4]

5,000,000 / 1,000,000

[4]

Eta Carinae
[8] [4]

48

Temperature Age

~15,000

/ 37,200

~ <3 106 years Other designations

Foramen, Tseen She, 231 G. Carinae, GC14799, CCDMJ10451-5941

[9]

HR4210, CD592620, HD93308, SAO238429, WDS10451-5941, IRAS10431-5925,

Eta Carinae ( Carinae or Car) is a stellar system in the constellation Carina, about 7,500 to 8,000 light-years from the Sun. The system contains at least two stars, of which the primary is a luminous blue variable (LBV) that had an initial mass of around 150 solar masses, of which it has lost at least 30 since. A hot supergiant of approximately 30 solar masses is in orbit around the primary, although an enormous thick red nebula surrounding Eta Carinae makes it impossible to see this companion optically. The Eta Carinae system is enclosed in the Homunculus Nebula, itself part of the much larger Carina Nebula, and currently has a combined bolometric luminosity of over five million times that of the Sun.[5] It is not visible north of latitude 30N and is circumpolar south of latitude 30S. Because of its mass and the stage of life, it is expected to explode in a supernova or hypernova in the astronomically near future.

Observational history
When Eta Carinae was first catalogued in 1677 by Edmond Halley, it was of the 4th magnitude, but by 1730, observers noticed it had brightened considerably and was, at that point, one of the brightest stars in Carina. In the middle of the 18th century, Nicolas Louis de Lacaille mapped and gave the stars of Argo Navis Bayer designations. He assigned the then second-magnitude star the Greek letter Eta.[10] Subsequently Eta Carinae dimmed, and by 1782 it appeared to have reverted to its former magnitude. In 1820, it was observed to be growing in brightness again. By 1827, it had brightened more than tenfold and reached its greatest apparent brightness in April 1843. With a magnitude of 0.8, it was the second brightest star in the night-time sky (after Sirius at 8.6 light years away), despite its enormous distance. (To put the relationship in perspective, the relative brightness would be like comparing a candle (representing Sirius) at 14.5 meters (48feet) to another light source (Eta Carinae) about 10 kilometers (6.2mi) away, which would appear almost as bright as the candle.) Eta Carinae sometimes has large outbursts, the last of which appeared in 1841, at around the time of its maximum brightness. The reason for these outbursts is not known. The most likely explanation is that they are caused by a build-up of radiation pressure caused by the star's enormous luminosity. After 1843, Eta Carinae faded yet again and between about 1900 and 1940 it was only 8th magnitude, invisible to the naked eye.[11] A sudden and unexpected doubling of brightness was observed in 19981999. In 2007, at magnitude 5, Eta Carinae could once again be seen with the naked eye.[3] In 2008, the formerly clockwork regularity of the dimming was upset.[12] Following its 5.52-year cycle, the star would normally have started its next dimming in January 2009, but the pattern was noticed starting early in July 2008 by the southern Gemini Observatory near La Serena, Chile. Spectrographic measurements showed an increase in blue light from superheated helium, which was formerly assumed to occur with the wind shock. However, if the cause is a binary star, it would be located too far away at this point in time for the wind to interact in so significant a fashion. There is some debate about the cause of the recent event.[12] In 2011, light echoes from the 19th century Great Eruption of Eta Carinae were detected using the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory's Blanco 4-meter telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory. Analysis of the reflected spectra indicated the light was emitted when Eta Carinae was a 5000 K G2-to-G5 supergiant, some 2000 K cooler than other supernova impostor events.[13]

Eta Carinae

49

System and properties

This stellar system is currently one of the most massive that can be studied in great detail. Until recently, Eta Carinae was thought to be the most massive single star, but in 2005 it was proved to be a binary system.[14] The most massive star in the Eta Carinae multiple star system probably has more than 100 times the mass of the Sun.[15] Other known massive stars are more luminous and more massive. Stars in the mass class of Eta Carinae produce more than a million times as much light as the Sun. They are quite rare only a few dozen are present in a galaxy the size the Milky Way. They are assumed to approach (or potentially exceed) the Eddington limit, i.e., the outward pressure of their radiation is almost strong enough to counteract gravity. Stars that are more than 120 solar masses exceed the theoretical Eddington limit, and their gravity is barely strong enough to hold in their radiation and gas. Eta Carinae's chief significance for astrophysics is based on its giant eruption or supernova impostor event, which was observed around 1843. In a few years, Eta Carinae produced almost as much visible light as a supernova explosion, but it survived. Other supernova impostors have been seen in other galaxies, for example the possible false supernovae SN 1961v in NGC 1058[16] and SN 2006jc in UGC 4904,[17] which produced a false supernova, noted in October 2004. Significantly, SN 2006jc was destroyed in a supernova explosion two years later, observed on October 9, 2006.[18] The supernova impostor phenomenon may represent a surface instability[19] or a failed supernova. Eta Carinae's giant eruption was the prototype for this phenomenon. One remarkable aspect of Eta Carinae is its changing brightness. It is currently classified as a luminous blue variable (LBV) binary star due to peculiarities in its pattern of brightening and dimming.

Surroundings
Eta Carinae is surrounded by the Homunculus Nebula, an emission nebula which is itself a part of the much larger Carina Nebula.

X-ray source
4U 103760 (A 104459) is Eta Carinae. Three structures around Eta Carinae are thought to represent shock waves produced by matter rushing away from the superstar at supersonic speeds. The temperature of the shock-heated gas ranges from 60MK in the central regions to 3MK on the horseshoe-shaped outer structure. "The Chandra image contains some puzzles for existing ideas of how a star can produce such hot and intense X-rays," says Prof. Kris Davidson of the University of Minnesota.[20]

A "spectroscopic minimum", or "X-ray eclipse", occurred in July and August 2003.[21] Astronomers organized a large observing campaign which included every available ground-based (e.g. CCD optical photometry[3]) and space observatory, including major observations with the Hubble Space Telescope, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the INTEGRAL Gamma-ray space observatory, and the Very Large Telescope. Primary goals of these observations were to determine if, in fact, Eta Carinae is a binary star and, if so, to identify its companion star;

Classified as a peculiar star, Eta Carinae exhibits a superstar at its center as seen in this image from Chandra. The new X-ray observation shows three distinct structures: an outer, horseshoe-shaped ring about 2 light years in diameter, a hot inner core about 3 light-months in diameter, and a hot central source less than 1 light-month in diameter which may contain the superstar that is responsible for the Homunculus nebula. The outer ring provides evidence of another large explosion that occurred over 1,000 years ago. Credit: Chandra Science Center and NASA.

Eta Carinae to determine the physical mechanism behind the "spectroscopic minima"; and to understand their relation (if any) to the large-scale eruptions of the 19th century. There is good agreement between the X-ray light curve and the evolution of a wind-wind collision zone of a binary system. These results were complemented by new tests on radio wavelengths.[22] Spectrographic monitoring of Eta Carinae[23] showed that some emission lines faded every 5.52 years, and that this period was stable for decades. The star's radio emission,[24] along with its X-ray brightness,[25] also drop precipitously during these "events" as well. These variations, along with ultra-violet variations, suggest a high probability that Eta Carinae is actually a binary star in which a hot, lower-mass star revolves around Carinae in a 5.52-year, highly eccentric elliptical orbit.[14] The ionizing radiation emitted by the secondary star in Eta Carinae is the major radiation source of the system. Much of this radiation is absorbed by the primary stellar wind, mainly after it encounters the secondary wind and passes through a shock wave. The amount of absorption depends on the compression factor of the primary wind in the shock wave. The compression factor is limited by the magnetic pressure in the primary wind.[26] The variation of the absorption by the post-shock primary wind with orbital phase changes the ionization structure of the circumbinary gas, and can account for the radio light curve of Eta Carinae. Fast variations near periastron passage are attributed to the onset of the accretion phase.

50

Future prospects
Because of their disproportionately high luminosities, very large stars such as Eta Carinae use up their fuel very quickly. Eta Carinae is expected to explode as a supernova or hypernova some time within the next million years or so. As its current age and evolutionary path are uncertain, however, it could explode within the next several millennia or even in the Carina nebula (NGC 3372) containing Eta Carinae. Eta Carinae and its surrounding next few years. LBVs such as Eta Homunculus Nebula are the small, saturated (white) blob centered vertically in the Carinae may be a stage in the evolution image and approximately 1/5 of the distance from left to right. Photograph by the of the most massive stars; the prevailing Hubble Space Telescope. theory now holds that they will exhibit extreme mass loss and become Wolf-Rayet stars before they go supernova, if they are unable to hold their mass to explode as a hypernova.[27] More recently, another possible Eta Carinae analogue was observed: SN 2006jc, some 77 million light years away in UGC 4904, in the constellation of Lynx.[28] Its brightened appearance was noted on 20 October 2004, and was reported by amateur astronomer Koichi Itagaki as a supernova. However, although it had indeed exploded, hurling 0.01 solar masses (~20 Jupiters) of material into space, it had survived, before finally exploding nearly two years later as a Mag 13.8 type Ib supernova, seen on 9 October 2006. Its earlier brightening was a supernova impostor event. The similarity between Eta Carinae and SN 2006jc has led Stefan Immler of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to suggest that Eta Carinae could explode in our lifetime, or even in the next few years. However, Stanford Woosley of the University of California in Santa Cruz disagrees with Immlers suggestion, and says it is likely that Eta Carinae is at an earlier stage of evolution, and that there are still several stages of nuclear burning to go before the star runs out of fuel.

Eta Carinae In NGC 1260, a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Perseus some 238 million light years from earth, another analogue star explosion, supernova SN 2006gy, was observed on September 18, 2006. A number of astronomers modelling supernova events have suggested that the explosion mechanism for SN 2006gy may be very similar to the fate that awaits Eta Carinae.

51

Possible effects on Earth

It is possible that the Eta Carinae hypernova or supernova, when it occurs, could affect Earth, about 7,500 light years away. It is unlikely, however, to affect terrestrial lifeforms directly, as they will be protected from gamma rays by the atmosphere, and from some other cosmic rays by the magnetosphere. The damage would likely be restricted to the upper atmosphere, the ozone layer, spacecraft, including satellites, and any astronauts in space, although a certain few [29] claim that radiation damage to the upper One theory of Eta Carinae's ultimate fate. atmosphere would have catastrophic Drawing of a massive star collapsing to form a black hole. Energy released as jets along effects as well. At least one scientist has the axis of rotation forms the gamma ray bursts. claimed that when the star explodes, "it Credit: Nicolle Rager Fuller/NSF would be so bright that you would see it during the day, and you could even read a book by its light at night".[30] A supernova or hypernova produced by Eta Carinae would probably eject a gamma ray burst (GRB) out from both polar areas of its rotational axis. Calculations show that the deposited energy of such a GRB striking the Earth's atmosphere would be equivalent to one kiloton of TNT per square kilometer over the entire hemisphere facing the star, with ionizing radiation depositing ten times the lethal whole body dose to the surface.[31] This catastrophic burst would probably not hit Earth, though, because the rotation axis does not currently point towards our solar system. If Eta Carinae is a binary system, this may affect the future intensity and orientation of the supernova explosion that it produces, depending on the circumstances.[14]

Eta Carinae

52

Cultural significance
In traditional Chinese astronomy, Eta Carinae has the names Tseen She (from the Chinese [Mandarin: tinsh] "Heaven's altar") and Foramen.[32] It is also known as (Hi Shn r, English: the Second Star of Sea and Mountain),[33] referring to Sea and Mountain, an asterism that Eta Carinae forms with s Carinae, Centauri and Muscae.[34] In 2010, astronomers Duane Hamacher and David Frew from Macquarie University in Sydney showed that the Boorong Aboriginal people of northwestern Victoria, Australia, witnessed the outburst of Eta Carinae in the 1840s and incorporated it into their oral traditions as Collowgulloric War, the wife of War (Canopus, the Crow pronounced "Waah").[35] This is the only definitive indigenous record of Eta Carinae's outburst identified in the literature to date.

The luminous blue variable Eta Carinae taken with the NACO near-infrared adaptive optics instrument on ESOs Very Large Telescope. Credit ESO

Notes
[1] "SIMBAD query result: V* eta Car Variable Star" (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=Eta+ Carinae). Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. . Retrieved 2008-04-25.some of the data is located under "Measurements". [2] "GCVS Query=Eta+Car" (http:/ / www. sai. msu. su/ gcvs/ cgi-bin/ search. cgi?search=Eta+ Car). General Catalogue of Variable Stars @ Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow, Russia. . Retrieved 2010-11-24. [3] Fernndez Lajs, Eduardo (Dec 19, 2011). "Optical monitoring of Eta Carinae" (http:/ / etacar. fcaglp. unlp. edu. ar/ ). Universidad Nacional de La Plata. . Retrieved 2011-12-26. [4] "The Binarity of Carinae Revealed from Photoionization Modeling of the Spectral Variability of the Weigelt Blobs B and D" (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 0004-637X/ 624/ 2/ 973/ fulltext/ 60929. text. html). The Astrophysical Journal. . Retrieved 2012-05-23.some of the data is located under "Measurements". [5] Kashi, A.; Soker, N. (2009). "Possible implications of mass accretion in Eta Carinae". New Astronomy 14: 11. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2008.04.003. [6] Gull, T. R.; Damineli, A. (2010). "JD13 Eta Carinae in the Context of the Most Massive Stars". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5: 373. doi:10.1017/S1743921310009890. [7] The mass is so high that there is no clearly defined boundary between the star and the surrounding nebula. The effective temperature and radius correspond to a position where (ross) is around unity. [8] Gull, T. R.; Vieira, G.; Bruhweiler, F.; Nielsen, K. E.; Verner, E.; Danks, A. (2005). "The Absorption Spectrum of HighDensity Stellar Ejecta in the Line of Sight to Carinae". The Astrophysical Journal 620: 442. doi:10.1086/426885. [9] "VIZIER Details for Eta Carinae in Gould's Uranomatria Argentina" (http:/ / vizier. u-strasbg. fr/ viz-bin/ VizieR-5?-out. add=. & -source=V/ 135/ catalog& recno=1428). Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. . Retrieved 2011-02-14. [10] Wagman 2003, pp.8485 [11] "Historical light curve" (http:/ / etacar. fcaglp. unlp. edu. ar/ plots/ historic. jpg). . Retrieved 2011-12-26. [12] Courtland, Rachel (7 August 2008). "'Supernova imposter' begins to dim unexpectedly" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/ dn14488-supernova-impostor-begins-to-dim-unexpectedly. html?feedId=online-news_rss20). NewScientist news service. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [13] Rest, A.; J. L. Prieto, N. R. Walborn, N. Smith, F. B. Bianco, R. Chornock, D. L. Welch, D. A. Howell, M. E. Huber, R. J. Foley, W. Fong, B. Sinnott, H. E. Bond, R. C. Smith, I. Toledo, D. Minniti, K. Mandel (2012-02-16). "Light echoes reveal an unexpectedly cool Carinae during its nineteenth-century Great Eruption" (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature10775). Nature 482 (7385): 375378. arXiv:1112.2210. Bibcode2012Natur.482..375R. doi:10.1038/nature10775. ISSN0028-0836. PMID22337057. . Retrieved 2012-02-17. [14] Neal-Jones, Nancy; Steigerwald, Bill (1 November 2005). "NASA Satellite Detects Massive Star Partner" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2005/ nov/ HQ_05353_massive_star. html). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [15] Frommert, Hartmut & Kronberg, Christine (February 2, 1998). "Peculiar star Eta Carinae, in Carina" (http:/ / messier. seds. org/ xtra/ ngc/ etacar. html). Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS). . Retrieved 2012-02-20.

Eta Carinae
[16] Stockdale, Christopher J.; Rupen, Michael P.; Cowan, John J.; Chu, You-Hua; Jones, Steven S. (2001). "The fading radio emission from SN 1961v: evidence for a Type II peculiar supernova?". The Astronomical Journal 122 (1): 283. arXiv:astro-ph/0104235. Bibcode2001AJ....122..283S. doi:10.1086/321136. [17] Naeye, Robert (4 April 2007). "Supernova Impostor Goes Supernova" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ goddard/ news/ topstory/ 2007/ supernova_imposter. html). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [18] Shiga, D. (2007). "Star's odd double explosion hints at antimatter trigger" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn11563& feedId=online-news_rss20). New Scientist 2598 (2626): 18. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(07)62628-1. . [19] see various articles in R.M. Humphreys & K.Z. Stanek (eds.) (2005). "The Fate of the Most Massive Stars". ASP Conference 332. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. [20] "Chandra Takes X-ray Image of Repeat Offender" (http:/ / science. nasa. gov/ newhome/ headlines/ ast08oct99_1. htm). Science News. NASA. 8 October 1999. . [21] Hamaguchi, K.; Corcoran, M. F.; Gull, T.; Ishibashi, K.; Pittard, J. M.; Hillier, D. J.; Damineli, A.; Davidson, K. et al. (2007). "XRay Spectral Variation of Carinae through the 2003 XRay Minimum". The Astrophysical Journal 663: 522. doi:10.1086/518101. [22] Falceta-Gonalves, D.; Jatenco-Pereira, V.; Abraham, Z. (2005). "Wind-wind collision in the Carinae binary system: a shell-like event near periastron". MNRAS 357 (3): 895. arXiv:astro-ph/0404363. Bibcode2005MNRAS.357..895F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08682.x. [23] Damineli, A. (1996). "The 5.52 Year Cycle of Eta Carinae". ApJ 460 (1): L49. Bibcode1996ApJ...460L..49D. doi:10.1086/309961. [24] White, Stephen. "Radio outburst of Eta Carinae" (http:/ / www. astro. umd. edu/ ~white/ images/ eta_time_full. html). Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland College Park. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [25] Corcoran, Michael (10 December 2008). "RXTE X-ray lightcurve" (http:/ / asd. gsfc. nasa. gov/ Michael. Corcoran/ eta_car/ etacar_rxte_lightcurve/ index. html). Goddard Space Flight Center. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [26] Kashi, A.; Soker, N. (2007). "Modelling the Radio Light Curve of Eta Carinae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 378 (4): 1609. arXiv:astro-ph/0702389. Bibcode2007astro.ph..2389K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11908.x. [27] Smith, Nathan; Owocki, Stanley P. (2006). "On the Role of Continuum-driven Eruptions in the Evolution of Very Massive Stars". The Astrophysical Journal 645 (1): L45. arXiv:astro-ph/0606174. Bibcode2006ApJ...645L..45S. doi:10.1086/506523. [28] Sanders, Robert (4 April 2007). "Massive star burps, then explodes" (http:/ / www. berkeley. edu/ news/ media/ releases/ 2007/ 04/ 04_supernova. shtml) (Press release). UC Berkeley News. . Naeye, Robert; Sanders, Robert (4 April 2007). "Massive star burps, then explodes" (http:/ / www. chandra. harvard. edu/ press/ 07_releases/ press_040407. html) (Press release). Chandra X-ray Observatory. Bibcode2007cxo..pres....5.. . [29] http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 184/ 4141/ 1079. abstract [30] "Star dies in monstrous explosion" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 6633609. stm). BBC News. 8 May 2007. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [31] Arnon Dar; A. De Rujula (2002). "The threat to life from Eta Carinae and gamma ray bursts". 24. Astrophysics and Gamma Ray Physics in Space. pp.513523. arXiv:astro-ph/0110162. Bibcode2001astro.ph.10162D. [32] Kostjuk, N. (2002). "table3.dat" (ftp:/ / cdsarc. u-strasbg. fr/ pub/ cats/ IV/ 27A/ table3. dat). Institute of Astronomy of Russian Academy of Sciences. . Retrieved 30 December 2012. [33] , ed. (28 July 2006). "AEEA " (http:/ / aeea. nmns. edu. tw/ 2006/ 0607/ ap060728. html). . Retrieved 30 December 2012. (Chinese) [34] (2005). . . ISBN978-986-7332-25-7. (Chinese) [35] Hamacher, D. W.; Frew, D. J. (2010). "An Aboriginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 13 (3): 220234. arXiv:1010.4610. Bibcode2010arXiv1010.4610H.

53

References Cited text

Wagman, Morton (2003). Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others. Blacksburg, VA: The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company. ISBN978-0-939923-78-6.

External links
NASA image released Feb. 24, 2012 (http://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/6780345900/in/photostream) HST Treasury Project and General Information on Eta Carinae (http://etacar.umn.edu/) Eta Carinae profile (http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/eta-car.htm) Is there a "clock" in Eta Carinae? Brazilian research about the star (http://www.etacarinae.iag.usp.br/) Broad Band Optical Monitoring (http://etacar.fcaglp.unlp.edu.ar/)

Eta Carinae X-ray Monitoring by RXTE (http://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/Michael.Corcoran/eta_car/etacar_rxte_lightcurve/ index.html) ESO press release (http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/pr-31-03.html) about the possibility of a supernova in 10 to 20 millennia The 2003 Observing Campaign (http://eud.gsfc.nasa.gov/Michael.Corcoran/eta_car/2003.5/index.html) Davidson, Kris et al. (1999). "An Unusual Brightening Of Eta Carinae". The Astronomical Journal (The Astronomical Journal) 118 (4): 1777. Bibcode1999AJ....118.1777D. doi:10.1086/301063. Nathan, Smith (1998). "The Behemoth Eta Carinae: A Repeat Offender" (http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs/ mercury/9804/eta.html). Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Retrieved 2006-08-13. Eta Carinae at SIMBAD (http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?protocol=html&Ident=Eta+Carinae)

54

Comet HaleBopp

55

Comet HaleBopp
C/1995 O1 (HaleBopp)

Discovery Discovered by Discovery date Alternative designations Alan Hale/ Thomas Bopp July 23, 1995 The Great Comet of 1997, C/1995 O1 [1]

Orbital characteristics A Epoch Aphelion Perihelion 2450460.5 370.8 AU 0.914 AU [2] [2]

Semi-major axis 186 AU Eccentricity Orbital period 0.995086 [3] [2] 2520 2533 yr [4] (Barycentric 2391 yr) 89.4 April 1, 1997 ~4385 [5] [2]

Inclination Last perihelion Next perihelion

Comet HaleBopp (formally designated C/1995O1) was perhaps the most widely observed comet of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many decades. It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18months, twice as long as the previous record holder, the Great Comet of 1811. HaleBopp was discovered on July 23, 1995, at a great distance from the Sun, raising expectations that the comet would brighten considerably by the time it passed close to Earth. Although predicting the brightness of comets with any degree of accuracy is very difficult, HaleBopp met or exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997. The comet was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997.

Comet HaleBopp

56

Discovery
The comet was discovered on July 23, 1995 by two independent observers, Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp, both in the United States.[6] Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon HaleBopp just after midnight. The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10.5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius.[7] Hale first established that there was no other deep-sky object near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky. Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, the clearing house for astronomical discoveries.[8] Bopp did not own a telescope. He was out with friends near Stanfield, Arizona observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend's telescope. He realized he might have spotted something new when, like Hale, he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep-sky objects were known to be near M70, and found that there were none. He alerted the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams through a Western Union telegram. Brian Marsden, who had run the bureau since 1968, laughed, "Nobody sends telegrams anymore. I mean, by the time that telegram got here, Alan Hale had already e-mailed us three times with updated coordinates."[9] The following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was given the designation C/1995O1. The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187.[7][10] The comet may have been observed by ancient Egyptians during the reign of pharaoh Pepi I (23322283 BC). In Pepi's pyramid in Saqqara is a text referring to an "nhh-star" as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens, where "nhh" is the hieroglyph for long hair.[11]

Early observation
HaleBopp's orbital position was calculated as 7.2astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs.[12][13] Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernible activity, but HaleBopp already had an observable coma.[7] An image taken at the Anglo-Australian Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then-unnoticed comet some 13AU from the Sun,[14] a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable. (Halley's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun.)[15] Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was 6020kilometres in diameter, approximately six times the size of Halley.[2][16] Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that comet HaleBopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997. However, comet scientists were wary comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later. Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a 'comet of the century' and turned out to be unspectacular.[8]

Comet HaleBopp

57

Perihelion
HaleBopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year,[17] scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright. It was too closely aligned with the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with light-polluted skies.[18] The Internet was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular. The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet HaleBopp.[19] As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at The comet became a spectacular sight in 2ndmagnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas early 1997. tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit. On March 9, a solar eclipse in China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime.[20] HaleBopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22, 1997 at a distance of 1.315AU.[21] As it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997 the comet developed into a spectacular sight. It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius, and its dust tail stretched 4045 degrees across the sky.[22][23] The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, comet HaleBopp was visible all night to northern hemisphere observers.[24]

After perihelion
After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere, and its show was over as far as most of the northern hemisphere was concerned. The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997. The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569days, or about 18 and a half months.[17] The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811, which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.[17] The comet continued to fade as it receded, but is still being tracked by astronomers. In October 2007, 10 years after the perihelion and at distance of 25.7 AU from Sun, the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO-driven coma.[25] Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet HaleBopp is covered in a fresh frost layer.[26] HaleBopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30.7AU from the Sun,[26] and again on 2012 Aug 7 when it was 33.2AU from the Sun.[27] Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020, by which time it will be nearing 30thmagnitude.[28] By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness.

Comet HaleBopp

58

Orbital changes
The comet likely made its last perihelion 4,200 years ago.[29] Its orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, which ensures that close approaches to planets are rare. However, in April 1996 the comet passed within 0.77AU of Jupiter, close enough for its orbit to be affected by the planet's gravity.[29] The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2,533years,[2] and it will next HaleBopp at perihelion on April 1, 1997 return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385.[5] Its greatest distance from the Sun (aphelion) will be about 370AU,[2] reduced from about 525AU.[30][31] Over many orbits, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values. HaleBopp has about a 15%chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process.[32] It has been calculated that the previous visit by HaleBopp occurred in July 2215BC.[30] The comet may have presented a similar sight to people then, as the estimated closest approach to Earth was 1.4AU, but no records of it have survived. HaleBopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215BC, which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit, and 2215BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System.[30] The estimated probability of impacting Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote, about 2.5 x 109 per orbit.[33] However, given that the comet nucleus is around 60km in diameter,[2] the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic. A calculation given by Weissman[33] conservatively estimates the diameter at 35km; an estimated density of 0.6 g/cm3 then gives a cometary mass of 1.3 x 1019 g. An impact velocity of 52.5km/s yields an impact energy of 1.9 x 1032 ergs, or 4.4 x 109 megatons, about 44 times the estimated energy of the K-T impact event.

Scientific results
Comet HaleBopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations. The dust production rate of the comet was very high (up to 2.0106 kg/s),[34] which may have made the inner coma optically thick.[35] Based on the properties of the dust grainshigh temperature, high albedo and strong 10m silicate emission featurethe astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet.[36] HaleBopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet. Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains. It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet HaleBopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet.[37]

Comet HaleBopp

59

Sodium tail
One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail. In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, HaleBopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters. Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail. HaleBopp's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms (not ions), and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length.[38] The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma, although not necessarily the nucleus. There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and 'sputtering' of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light. It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating HaleBopp's sodium tail, and the narrow[38] and diffuse[39] components of the tail may have different origins.[40]

Comet HaleBopp's neutral sodium tail (the straight tail extending up to the left [38] from the nucleus)

While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two. This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by radiation pressure.[38]

Deuterium abundance
The abundance of deuterium in comet HaleBopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth's oceans. If HaleBopp's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets, this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they cannot be the only source.[41] Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet. The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds, rather than in the solar nebula. Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet HaleBopp formed at temperatures of around 2545Kelvin.[41]

Organics
Spectroscopic observations of HaleBopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals, several of which had never been detected in comets before. These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet.[42]

Detection of argon
HaleBopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected.[43] Noble gases are chemically inert and highly volatile, and since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures, they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices. Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 1620K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance,[44] while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance.[43] Together these observations indicate that the interior of HaleBopp has always been colder than 3540K, but has at some point been warmer than 20K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed, this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud.[43]

Comet HaleBopp

60

Rotation
Comet HaleBopp's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several specific jets. Observations of the material streaming away from these jets[45] allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes.[46]

Binary nucleus question

In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet HaleBopp's dust emission observed in October 1995. The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30km, with the main nucleus being about 70km across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180km.[47] This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide-Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite.[48]

Comet HaleBopp over Zabriskie Point, Death Valley, USA

Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus,[49] controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus.[16] The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations.[50][51] Also, while comets have been observed to break up before,[52] no case has previously been found of a stable binary nucleus. Given the very small mass of this comet, the orbit of the binary nucleus would be easily disrupted by the gravity of the Sun and planets.

UFO claims
In November 1996 amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston, Texas took a CCD image of the comet, which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby. When his computer sky-viewing program did not identify the star, Shramek called the Art Bell radio program Coast to Coast AM to announce that he had discovered a "Saturn-like object" following HaleBopp. UFO enthusiasts, such as remote viewing proponent Courtney Brown, soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet.[53]
Leader of the doomsday cult, Heaven's Several astronomers, including Alan Hale,[54] claimed the object was simply Gate, who organized a mass suicide in an 8.5-magnitude star, SAO141894, which did not appear on Shramek's hopes of spiritually riding along with a [55] computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly. UFO he thought followed the Hale-Bopp Later, Art Bell even claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an comet. anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery. However, astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David J. Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images.[56]

A few months later, in March 1997, the cult Heaven's Gate committed mass suicide with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship they believed was flying behind the comet.[57] Nancy Lieder, a self-proclaimed contactee who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain, stated that HaleBopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of "Nibiru" or "Planet X", a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth's rotation, causing global cataclysm.[58]

Comet HaleBopp Although Lieder's original date for the apocalypse, May 2003, has now passed, the imminent arrival of Nibiru is still predicted by various conspiracy websites, most of whom tie it to the 2012 phenomenon.[59] This also passed.

61

Legacy
Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that HaleBopp was probably the most-observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley's Comet in 1986, and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley's previous appearances. For instance, 69% of Americans had seen HaleBopp by April 9, 1997.[60] Hale-Bopp was a record-breaking cometthe farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs,[21] with the largest well-measured cometary nucleus known after 95P/Chiron,[16] and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record-holder.[17] It was also brighter than magnitude0 for eightweeks, longer than any other recorded comet.[21]
Comet HaleBopp, at a distance of nearly 2 billion kilometres from the Sun. Credit: ESO

References
[1] http:/ / www. minorplanetcenter. net/ iau/ Ephemerides/ Comets/ [2] "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: C/1995 O1 (HaleBopp)" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ sbdb. cgi?sstr=Hale-Bopp). 2007-10-22 last obs. . Retrieved 2008-12-05. [3] Syuichi Nakano (2008-02-12). "OAA computing section circular NK 1553" (http:/ / www. oaa. gr. jp/ ~oaacs/ nk/ nk1553. htm). OAA Computing and Minor Planet Sections. . Retrieved 2009-12-17. [4] Horizons output. "Barycentric Osculating Orbital Elements for Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ horizons. cgi?find_body=1& body_group=sb& sstr=C/ 1995+ O1). . Retrieved 2011-01-31. (Solution using the Solar System Barycenter and barycentric coordinates. Select Ephemeris Type:Elements and Center:@0) [5] "Solex 10 estimate for Next Perihelion of C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)" (http:/ / home. surewest. net/ kheider/ astro/ Hale-Bopp4385. txt). . Retrieved 2009-12-18. [6] Shanklin, Jonathan D. (2000). "The comets of 1995". Journal of the British Astronomical Association 110 (6): 311. Bibcode2000JBAA..110..311S. [7] Hale, A.; Bopp, T.; Stevens, J. (July 23, 1995). "IAU Circular No. 6187" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 06100/ 06187. html#Item1). IAU. . Retrieved 2011-07-05. [8] Lemonick, Michael D. (March 17, 1997). "Comet of the decade Part II" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,986055,00. html). Time. . Retrieved 2008-10-30. [9] Newcott, William (December 1997). "The Age of Comets" (http:/ / science. nationalgeographic. com/ science/ space/ solar-system/ comets-age. html). National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 7 December 2009. ""Nobody sends telegrams anymore..."" [10] Bopp, Thomas (1997). "Amateur Contributions in the study of Comet HaleBopp". Earth, Moon, and Planets 79 (13): 307308. Bibcode1997EM&P...79..307B. doi:10.1023/A:1006262006364. [11] "The Lost Tomb", Kent Weeks, ISBN 0-297-81847-3, page 198 [12] Marsden, B. G. (1995). "Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)" (http:/ / www. minorplanetcenter. net/ mpec/ J95/ J95P01. html). Minor Planet Electronic Circular 1995-P05. . [13] Kidger, M. R.; Serra-Ricart, Miquel; Bellot-Rubio, Luis R.; Casas, Ricard (1996). "Evolution of a Spiral Jet in the Inner Coma of Comet Hale-Bopp (1995 O1)" (http:/ / www. journals. uchicago. edu/ doi/ full/ 10. 1086/ 310008). The Astrophysical Journal Letters 461 (2): L119L122. Bibcode1996ApJ...461L.119K. doi:10.1086/310008. . [14] McNaught, R. H.; West, R. M. (August 2, 1995). "Circular No. 6198" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 06100/ 06198. html). IAU. . Retrieved 2011-07-05. [15] Biver, N.; Rauer, H; Despois, D; Moreno, R; Paubert, G; Bockele-Morvan, D; Colom, P; Crovisier, J et al. (1996). "Substantial outgassing of CO from Comet HaleBopp at large heliocentric distance" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v380/ n6570/ abs/ 380137a0. html). Nature 380 (6570): 137139. Bibcode1996Natur.380..137B. doi:10.1038/380137a0. PMID8600385. . [16] Fernndez, Yanga R. (2002). "The Nucleus of Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1): Size and Activity" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ pr2756540kx94403/ ). Earth, Moon, and Planets 89 (1): 325. Bibcode2000EM&P...89....3F. doi:10.1023/A:1021545031431. . [17] Kidger, M.R.; Hurst, G.; James, N. (2004). "The Visual Light Curve Of C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) From Discovery To Late 1997" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ h72381014307x661/ ). Earth, Moon, and Planets 78 (13): 169177. Bibcode1997EM&P...78..169K. doi:10.1023/A:1006228113533. .

Comet HaleBopp
[18] Browne, Malcolm R. (March 9, 1997). "Comet Holds Clues to Birth of Time" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9B03E6DF1639F93AA35750C0A961958260& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=1). The New York Times. . [19] "The Trail of Hale-Bopp" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?id=the-trail-of-hale-bopp). Scientific American. 1997-03-17. . Retrieved 2008-10-23. [20] McGee, H. W. (1997). "The total solar eclipse of 1997 March 9". Journal of the British Astronomical Association 107 (3): 112113. Bibcode1997JBAA..107..112M. [21] "Comet Hale-Bopp" (http:/ / stardust. jpl. nasa. gov/ science/ hb. html). Stardust. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA. November 26, 2003. . Retrieved 2008-10-09. [22] West, Richard M. (April 13, 1997). "Comet Hale-Bopp (April 13, 1997)" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ public/ events/ astro-evt/ hale-bopp/ comet-hale-bopp-summary-apr13-97-rw. html). European Southern Observatory. . Retrieved 2008-11-23. [23] Shylaja, B. S. (1997). "What's New With Hale Bopp?". Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India 25: 155156. Bibcode1997BASI...25..155S. [24] West, Richard M. (March 7, 1997). "Comet Hale-Bopp (March 7, 1997)" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ public/ events/ astro-evt/ hale-bopp/ comet-hale-bopp-summary-mar07-97-rw. html). European Southern Observatory. . Retrieved 2008-11-25. [25] Szab, Gy. M.; Kiss, L. L.; Srneczky, K. (2008). "Cometary Activity at 25.7 AU: Hale-Bopp 11 Years after Perihelion". Astrophysical Journal Letters 677 (2): 121. arXiv:0803.1505. Bibcode2008ApJ...677L.121S. doi:10.1086/588095. [26] Szab, Gy. M.; Kiss, L. L.; Kiss, Cs.; Pl, A., Srneczky, K.; Juhsz, A.; Hogerheijde, M.R. (2012). "Evidence for fresh frost layer on the bare nucleus of comet Hale--Bopp at 32 AU distance". accepted for publication in ApJ. arXiv:1210.2785. [27] Dave Herald (Aug 7, 2012). "Comet Hale-Bopp C/1995 O1 - observed tonite" (http:/ / tech. groups. yahoo. com/ group/ comets-ml/ message/ 19755). Yahoo Groups. . Retrieved 2012-08-09. [28] West, Richard M. (February 7, 1997). "Comet Hale-Bopp (February 7, 1997)" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ public/ events/ astro-evt/ hale-bopp/ comet-hale-bopp-summary-feb07-97-rw. html). European Southern Observatory. . Retrieved 2008-11-01. [29] Yeomans, Don (1997-04-10). "Comet Hale-Bopp Orbit and Ephemeris Information" (http:/ / www2. jpl. nasa. gov/ comet/ ephemjpl8. html). JPL/NASA. . Retrieved 2008-10-23. [30] Marsden, B. G. (1997). "Orbit Determination and Evolution of Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)". Earth, Moon, and Planets 79 (1): 315. Bibcode1997EM&P...79....3M. doi:10.1023/A:1006268813208. [31] Williams, David R. (2005-12-23). "Comet Fact Sheet" (http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ planetary/ factsheet/ cometfact. html). NASA (National Space Science Data Center). . Retrieved 2008-12-05. (pre-perturbation orbit: semi-major axis 250AU; period 4000yr) [32] Bailey, M. E. (1996). "Orbit Determination and Evolution of Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 281 (1): 916924. Bibcode1996MNRAS.281..916B. [33] Weissman, Paul R. (2007). "The cometary impactor flux at the Earth". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union (Cambridge University Press) 2 (S236): 441450. doi:10.1017/S1743921307003559. ISBN978-0-521-86345-2. [34] Jewitt, David; Matthews, Henry (1999). "Particulate Mass Loss from Comet Hale-Bopp". The Astronomical Journal 117 (2): 10561062. Bibcode1999AJ....117.1056J. doi:10.1086/300743. [35] Fernndez, Yanga R. (1999). "The Inner Coma and Nucleus of Comet HaleBopp: Results from a Stellar Occultation". Icarus 140 (1): 205220. Bibcode1999Icar..140..205F. doi:10.1006/icar.1999.6127. [36] Mason, C. G.; Gehrz, R. D.; Jones, T. J.; Woodward, C E.; Hanner, M. S.; Williams, D. M. (2001). "Observations of Unusually Small Dust Grains in the Coma of Comet Hale-Bopp C/1995 O1". The Astrophysical Journal 549 (1): 635646. Bibcode2001ApJ...549..635M. doi:10.1086/319039. [37] Ganesh, S.; Joshi, U. C.; Baliyan, K. S.; Deshpande, M. R. (1998). "Polarimetric observations of the comet Hale-Bopp". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement 129 (5): 489493. Bibcode1998A&AS..129..489G. doi:10.1051/aas:1998201. [38] Cremonese, G; Boehnhardt, H; Crovisier, J; Rauer, H; Fitzsimmons, A; Fulle, M; Licandro, J; Pollacco, D et al. (1997). "Neutral Sodium from Comet HaleBopp: A Third Type of Tail". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 490 (2): L199L202. arXiv:astro-ph/9710022. Bibcode1997ApJ...490L.199C. doi:10.1086/311040. [39] Wilson, J. K.; Baumgardner, J.; Mendillo, M. (1998). "Three tails of comet Hale-Bopp". Geophysical Research Letters 25 (3): 225228. Bibcode1998GeoRL..25..225W. doi:10.1029/97GL03704. [40] Cremonese, G.; Fulle, Marco (1997). "Sodium In Comets". Earth, Moon, and Planets 79 (1): 209220. Bibcode1997EM&P...79..209C. doi:10.1023/A:1006245619568. [41] Meier, Roland; Owen, Tobias C. (1999). "Cometary Deuterium". Space Science Reviews 90 (12): 3343. Bibcode1999SSRv...90...33M. doi:10.1023/A:1005269208310. [42] Rodgers, S. D.; Charnley, S. B. (2002). "Organic synthesis in the coma of Comet HaleBopp?". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 320 (4): L61L64. Bibcode2001MNRAS.320L..61R. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04208.x. [43] Stern, S. A.; Slater, D. C.; Festou, M. C.; Parker, J. Wm.; Gladstone, G. R.; Ahearn, M. F.; Wilkinson, E. (2000). "The Discovery of Argon in Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)". The Astrophysical Journal 544 (2): L169L172. arXiv:astro-ph/0011327. Bibcode2000ApJ...544L.169S. doi:10.1086/317312. [44] Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A.; Mumma, MJ; Abbott, M; Flynn, BC; Meech, KJ; Yeomans, DK; Feldman, PD; Cosmovici, CB (1997). "Detection of Soft X-rays and a Sensitive Search for Noble Gases in Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1)". Science 277 (5331): 14881491. Bibcode1997Sci...277.1488K. doi:10.1126/science.277.5331.1488. PMID9278508.

62

Comet HaleBopp
[45] "Bergeron Comet Hale-Bopp Animation" (http:/ / www2. jpl. nasa. gov/ comet/ anim30. html). Stardust. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA. . Retrieved 2008-10-14. [46] Warell, J; Lagerkvist, C.-I; Lagerros, J. S. V (1999). "Dust continuum imaging of C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp): Rotation period and dust outflow velocity". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series 136 (2): 245256. Bibcode1999A&AS..136..245W. doi:10.1051/aas:1999213. [47] Sekanina, Z. (1997). "Detection of a Satellite Orbiting The Nucleus of Comet HaleBopp (C/1995 O1)". Earth, Moon, and Planets 77 (3): 155163. Bibcode1997EM&P...77..155S. doi:10.1023/A:1006230712665. [48] Sekanina, Z. (1998). "Detection of a Satellite orbiting the Nucleus of Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1)". Proceedings of the First International Conference on Comet Hale-Bopp (European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere). [49] Marchis, F. (1999). "Adaptive optics observations of the innermost coma of C/1995 O1. Are there a "Hale" and a "Bopp" in comet Hale-Bopp?" (http:/ / aa. springer. de/ papers/ 9349003/ 2300985. pdf) (PDF). Astronomy & Astrophysics 349: 985995. Bibcode1999A&A...349..985M. . [50] McCarthy, D. W.; Stolovy, S; Campins, H; Larson, S; Samarasinha, N; Kern, S (2007). "Comet HaleBopp in outburst: Imaging the dynamics of icy particles with HST/NICMOS". Icarus 189 (1): 184195. Bibcode2007Icar..189..184M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.01.019. [51] Weaver, H. A. (1999). "Post-Perihelion HST Observations of Comet HaleBopp (C/1995 O1)". Icarus 141 (1): 112. Bibcode1999Icar..141....1W. doi:10.1006/icar.1999.6159. [52] Sekanina, Z. (1997). "The problem of split comets revisited". Astronomy and Astrophysics Letters 318: L5L8. Bibcode1997A&A...318L...5S. [53] Jaroff, Leon; Willwerth, James (April 14, 1997). "The man who spread the myth" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,986171,00. html). Time. . Retrieved 2008-10-30. [54] Hale, Alan (1997). "Hale-Bopp Comet Madness" (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ si/ show/ hale-bopp_comet_madness/ ). Skeptical Inquirer 21 (2): 2528. . [55] Burnham, Robert; Levy, David H. (2000). Great Comets. Cambridge University Press. pp.191. ISBN978-0-521-64600-0. [56] Tholen, David J. (January 15, 1997). "Fraudulent use of a IfA/UH picture [[[sic (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930225155/ http:/ / www. sc. eso. org/ ~ohainaut/ Hale_Bopp/ hb_ufo_tholen. html)]]"]. European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. sc. eso. org/ ~ohainaut/ Hale_Bopp/ hb_ufo_tholen. html) on September 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-10-14. [57] Robinson, Wendy Gale. "Heaven's Gate: The End" (http:/ / jcmc. indiana. edu/ vol3/ issue3/ robinson. html). Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 3 (3). . [58] George Johnson (1997-03-28). "Comets Breed Fear, Fascination and Web Sites" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1997/ 03/ 28/ us/ comets-breed-fear-fascination-and-web-sites. html?sec=health& spon=& pagewanted=all). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-09-27. [59] David Morrison. "The Myth of Nibiru and the End of the World in 2012" (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ si/ 2008-05/ morrison. html). Skepical Enquirer. . Retrieved 2009-04-28. [60] Aguirre, Edwin L. (July 1997). "The Great Comet of 1997" (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ skyandtelescope/ access/ 886291661. html?dids=886291661:886291661& FMT=CITE& FMTS=CITE:PAGE& date=Jul+ 1997& author=Edwin+ L+ Aguirre& desc=The+ Great+ Comet+ of+ 1997). Sky and Telescope. .

63

External links
Cometography.com: Comet Hale-Bopp (http://www.cometography.com/lcomets/1995o1.html) NASA Hale-Bopp page (http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/comet) Hale-Bopp (http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=Hale-Bopp#content) at the JPL Small-Body Database Shadow and Substance.com: Static orbital diagram (http://www.shadowandsubstance.com/Past graphics/ Comet Hale-Bopp orbit.htm) Comet Nucleus Animation (http://one.revver.com/watch/90657/flv/affiliate/14715)

Alvarez hypothesis

64

Alvarez hypothesis
The Alvarez hypothesis posits that the mass extinction of the dinosaurs and many other living things was caused by the impact of a large asteroid on the Earth sixty-five million years ago, called the CretaceousPaleogene extinction event. Evidence indicates that the asteroid fell in the Yucatn Peninsula, at Chicxulub, Mexico. The hypothesis is named after the father-and-son team of scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez, who first suggested it in 1980. In March 2010 an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the Chicxulub impact, as being the cause of the extinction. A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism. They had determined that a 1015km (69mi) space rock hurtled into earth at Chicxulub. The rock's size could be approximately the entire size of Martian moon Deimos (mean radius 6.2km); the collision would have released the same energy as 100 teratonnes of TNT (420ZJ), over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[1]

History
In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez, his son geologist Walter Alvarez and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michels discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the CretaceousPaleogene boundary (CretaceousTertiary boundary or KT boundary) contain a concentration of iridium hundreds of times greater than normal. Iridium is extremely rare in the Earth's crust because it is very dense, and therefore most of it sank into the Earth's core while the earth was still molten. The Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the earth at the time of the CretaceousPaleogene boundary.[2] There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but no evidence had been uncovered at that time.[3]

Evidence
The evidence for the Alvarez impact hypothesis is supported by chondritic meteorites and asteroids which contain a much higher iridium concentration than the Earth's crust. The isotopic ratio of iridium in asteroids is similar to that of the CretaceousPaleogene boundary layer but significantly different from the ratio in the Earth's crust. Chromium isotopic anomalies found in CretaceousPaleogene boundary sediments are similar to that of an asteroid or a comet composed of carbonaceous chondrites. Shocked quartz granules, glass spherules and tektites, indicative of an impact event, are common in the CretaceousPaleogene boundary, especially in deposits from around the Caribbean. All of these constituents are embedded in a layer of clay, which the Alvarez team interpreted as the debris spread all over the world by the impact.[2] The location of the impact was unknown when the Alvarez team developed their hypothesis, but later scientists discovered the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatn Peninsula, now considered the likely impact site.

Alvarez hypothesis

65

Using estimates of the total amount of iridium in the KT layer, and assuming that the asteroid contained the normal percentage of iridium found in chondrites, the Alvarez team went on to calculate the size of the asteroid. The answer was about 10 kilometers (6mi) in diameter, about the size of Manhattan.[2] Such a large impact would have had approximately the energy of 1 x 108 megatons, i.e. about 2 million times as great as the most powerful thermonuclear bomb ever tested.

Impact

Badlands near Drumheller, Alberta where erosion has exposed the KPg boundary.

The most easily observable consequence of such an impact would be a vast dust cloud which would block sunlight and prevent photosynthesis for a few years. This would account for the extinction of plants and phytoplankton and of all organisms dependent on them (including predatory animals as well as herbivores). But small creatures whose food chains were based on detritus would have a reasonable chance of survival. It is estimated that sulfuric acid aerosols were injected into the stratosphere, leading to a 1020% reduction of solar transmission normal for that period. It would have taken at least ten years for those aerosols to dissipate.[4] Global firestorms may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of fluid inclusions in ancient amber suggest that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was very high (3035%) during the late Cretaceous. This high O2 level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric O2 plummeted in the early Tertiary Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the CO2 content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the "long winter". The impact may also have produced acid rain, depending on what type of rock the asteroid struck. However, recent research suggests this effect was relatively minor. Chemical buffers would have limited the changes, and the survival of animals vulnerable to acid rain effects (such as frogs) indicate this was not a major contributor to extinction.[5] Impact hypotheses can only explain very rapid extinctions, since the dust clouds and possible sulphuric aerosols would wash out of the atmosphere in a fairly short time possibly under ten years. Although further studies of the KT layer consistently show the excess of iridium, the idea that the dinosaurs were exterminated by an asteroid remained a matter of controversy among geologists and paleontologists for more than a decade.

Alvarez hypothesis

66

References
[1] Schulte, P.; Alegret, L.; Arenillas, I.; Arz, J. A.; Barton, P. J.; Bown, P. R.; Bralower, T. J.; Christeson, G. L. et al. (5 March 2010). "The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous- Paleogene Boundary". Science 327 (5970): 12141218. Bibcode2010Sci...327.1214S. doi:10.1126/science.1177265. PMID20203042. [2] Alvarez, LW, Alvarez, W, Asaro, F, and Michel, HV (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the CretaceousTertiary extinction". Science 208 (4448): 10951108. Bibcode1980Sci...208.1095A. doi:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095. PMID17783054. [3] De Laubenfels, MW (1956). "Dinosaur Extinctions: One More Hypothesis" (http:/ / www. norwebster. com/ astrohit/ ) (subscription required). Journal of Paleontology 30 (1): 207218. . Retrieved 2007-05-22. [4] Ocampo, A, Vajda, V & Buffetaut, E (2006). Unravelling the CretaceousPaleogene (KT) Turnover, Evidence from Flora, Fauna and Geology in Biological Processes Associated with Impact Events (Cockell, C, Gilmour, I & Koeberl, C, editors) (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ vw75014157p2p278/ ). SpringerLink. pp.197219. ISBN978-3-540-25735-6. . Retrieved 2007-06-17. [5] Kring, DA (2003). "Environmental consequences of impact cratering events as a function of ambient conditions on Earth". Astrobiology 3 (1): 133152. Bibcode2003AsBio...3..133K. doi:10.1089/153110703321632471. PMID12809133.

Article Sources and Contributors

67

Article Sources and Contributors

Centaurus A Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531972161 Contributors: AhMedRMaaty, Albester, Aranel, Auke Slotegraaf, Blankfaze, Braincricket, Bryan Derksen, Caco de vidro, Chris the speller, Clh288, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Count Iblis, Danim, Davidhorman, Dr. Submillimeter, Earthandmoon, Eleuther, Elphion, Fotaun, Friendlystar, Gallina3795, Giraffedata, Gnixon, Hcobb, Headbomb, HorsePunchKid, Hurricane Devon, JamesHoadley, Jauhienij, Jleous, Jmencisom, John of Reading, Joseph Dwayne, Jyril, Kheider, Kozuch, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Luiscalcada, Martarius, MortimerCat, Nick, Old wombat, OlivierHainaut, Originalwana, Peter Ellis, Pine, RJHall, Reyk, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Roberto Mura, Shawn81, SimonP, Stepa, Svanimpe, Sverdrup, Taggard, Telescopi, Uber nemo, Uriel8, WilliamKF, WolfmanSF, Worldtraveller, Wwheaton, Zzzzzzzzzzz, 29 anonymous edits Andromeda Galaxy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=534427376 Contributors: 2D, 4pq1injbok, 68Kustom, 84user, A2Kafir, Aaaxlp, Aeon1006, Afudge, Ageekgal, Ahpook, Aisphording, Aitias, Ajames2212, Ajax-and-Achilles, Ajuk, Akathetruth111, Alfio, Alnokta, Ancheta Wis, AndHow90, Andre Engels, Andrea105, AndyZ, Angelpbj, Angr, Animum, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Antonsusi, Arakunem, ArdWar, Ardric47, Arpingstone, Art LaPella, AshLin, Ashmoo, AsperaAT, AstroMalasorte, AstroNomer, Astrobiologist, Astronautics, Attilios, Audriusa, Avenue, Avillia, AxelBoldt, BOMBINI, BPositive, Bachcell, Baldhur, Bencherlite, Bender235, Bigturtle, Blow, Bobblewik, Br'er Rabbit, Brainbark, BrianBird, Brianhurley, Brodika, Bronger, Bryan Derksen, Cadiomals, Cakechild, Canon.vs.nikon, Capricorn42, Casliber, Catgut, Celuici, Chahl, Chaos syndrome, Charleshull6, Chelseamarie322, ChicXulub, Chr.K., ChrisGualtieri, Circeus, Cireshoe, ClaudioSantos, Clh288, Clockwork Droid, Cmapm, Cometstyles, Comp Ninja, Cp111, Cremepuff222, Curps, Cyde, Cyrius, DaMatriX, Dak1ng995, Daniel Centeno, Darkskynet, Darkspace72, Darren curtis, Daverocks, David J Johnson, DavidK93, Dawnseeker2000, DeadEyeArrow, Deflective, Dendlai, DerHexer, Dino, Discospinster, Displaced Brit, Djameel, Doradus, Dorftrottel, Downwards, Dr. Submillimeter, DrFO.Jr.Tn, Dudley Miles, Duk, Duodecimal, Dwimsey, Dzhim, Editor2020, El C, Elvarg, Emilio floris, Epbr123, ErgoSum88, Eric Kvaalen, Etacar11, Eteq, EvenGreenerFish, Evercat, Excirial, Fabianneyer, Falkonry, Farseer, Fhqwhgads14172, Fjrgynn, FlavrSavr, Fluttershy is so cute!, Fotaun, Fredsmith2, Funandtrvl, Furrykef, Garrett0305, Garrisonroo, Gauss, Glane23, Gogo Dodo, Gracenotes, Graham87, Greaseball the locomotive, GregorB, GrouchyDan, Gtrmp, Haham hanuka, Halfblue, Hamiltonstone, Hamster3, Hans Dunkelberg, Harp, Hashar, Headbomb, Hekerui, Hellbus, Henry Flower, Herbee, Hoagssculptor, Horselover Frost, Hurricane Devon, IVAN3MAN, Iam on andromeda, Icairns, Icemuon, InfiniteThinking, Ing.CP, J.delanoy, Jacqueslacouth, Jagged 85, James McBride, James086, JamesHoadley, Jauhienij, Jdlambert, Jeffmedkeff, Jhertel, Jj1236, Jmencisom, JoJan, Joedeshon, Joeyspqr, John D. Croft, JohnOwens, Jon513, Jonathunder, JorisvS, Joseph Dwayne, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jph, Jusdafax, Jyril, K30, KGyST, KSmrq, Katydidit, Kembangraps, Keraunos, Kevin Saff, Kgrad, Khalid Mahmood, Kheider, Killdevil, Kloy1334, Knightshield, Kostisl, Kriss12, KuduIO, Kukamunga13, Kwamikagami, Landroo, Larry V, Lars Lindberg Christensen, LeaveSleaves, Lee, Leo C Stein, Lightmouse, Ling.Nut, Little Mountain 5, Lopo, Lotje, M00npirate, MER-C, Magioladitis, Mako098765, Mark Arsten, Mark Foskey, Markocms, Marshallsumter, Massimo Macconi, Mateuszica, Mathwhiz90601, MattHaffner, Matthew, Maurice Carbonaro, Maxim, Maxim Razin, Meewam, Megaman en m, Meltonkt, Mensch, Mephistophelian, Metalhead94, Mgiganteus1, Mhking, Michael C Price, Michael9422, Michaelbusch, Mike Payne, Mike Peel, Mike s, Mkativerata, Moland Spring, Montrealais, Moon&Nature, Mortense, Moverton, Mschlindwein, Mu301, Myrvin, N328KF, NFAN3, Nandesuka, Nareek, Nate Silva, NatureA16, NeilN, Nerroth, Netoholic, NewEnglandYankee, Nickptar, Nine9s, Nivedh, Noctibus, Nono64, Octane, Okthef, OperaJoeGreen, Orgio89, Originalwana, Outriggr, Oxymoron83, PBiton, POOPY321, Pagw, Paine Ellsworth, Parmis17, PeteXor, Peter B., Peterkennett, Petermarcus, Petersam, Phelpsjr, Piperh, Planetary, Plasticup, Pmcray, Pol098, Poolkris, Possum, Proxima Centauri, Prvc, Pstank92, Puzl bustr, Qui1che, RJHall, RL579, Racerx11, Rajamatage, RandomCritic, Ranger One, RaptorHunter, Raskolnikov The Penguin, Razorflame, RedHillian, Reddi, Retiono Virginian, Rezin8, RickV88, Ricnun, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Robert K S, Roberto Mura, Roentgenium111, Ronald.davis, RossF18, Rotem Dan, Rothorpe, RoyBoy, RoyalPurple1337, Rrburke, Rtkat3, Rune.welsh, Rwnn, SCEhardt, SMP, Sadalsuud, Salsa Shark, Sammy61157, Sarfa, Saros136, Scetoaux, SchuminWeb, Scope creep, Scott3, Scwlong, Sfan00 IMG, Shadowjams, Sheitan, Shyam, Slade95816, Smartech, Sneezor, Snowmanradio, Spacepotato, Spoirier, SqueakBox, Ssd, Stack, Ste4k, Stevepeterson, Stickee, Stupid2, Sumanthvepa, Superborsuk, Supercoop, Sverdrup, Swliv, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tango, Telescopi, Tgeairn, The Bearded One, The Flying Spaghetti Monster, The Geography Elite, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Illusive Man, The Rambling Man, The sunder king, TheDJ, TheTito, Theodork, Thingg, Thoughtcriminall, Thricecube, Thumperward, Thuresson, Tide rolls, Tigerdg, Tim Starling, Timwi, Titodutta, Titus III, Tman555, Tobby72, Tokeupdude, Tom.Reding, Tomruen, Tonisee, Torirene, TotoBaggins, Trinitrix, Troy 07, TutterMouse, Twang, Tyrol5, U-95, Uber nemo, Unyoyega, Utcursch, UtherSRG, Vedran8080, Vega2, Verdi1, VirtualDave, Vpereziii, Vsst, Vystrix Nexoth, Vyznev Xnebara, Vzb83, Wer900, Whouk, Wikieditor06, WilliamKF, Wjfox2005, Wlegro, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, Worldtraveller, Wsvlqc, Wurdnurd, XJamRastafire, Xiaomao123, Zain Ebrahim111, Zaslav, ZeroEgo, Zhouqin, Zyxw, Zzzzzzzzzzz, , 514 anonymous edits Pleiades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=532416767 Contributors: (, (jarbarf), A.M.962, A2Kafir, Acceleracer, AdelaMae, Aeusoes1, Agorf, Aherunar, Ahoerstemeier, Akshaysrinivasan, Alexander Meleg, Alfio, Allistar.m, Andres, Anomalocaris, Antandrus, Anttler, Arch dude, Archird, ArdWar, Aristitleism, ArkinAardvark, Arpingstone, Arvind Vyas, Asciic, AstroMalasorte, Authenticmaya, Bacteria, Beland, Benbest, BillFlis, Bitil Guilderstrone, Bkonrad, BollyDave, Bryan Derksen, CALR, CJLL Wright, CPBOOTH, Calvinkrishy, Chaojoker, Chapmlg, Chenx064, Chinasaur, Chris Kyrzyk, Chrisbolt, Christian75, Chuunen Baka, Ckatz, Clh288, Clokverkorange, Clumsily, CommonsDelinker, Completesentence, Connecting the dots, Credulity, Cuaxdon, Curps, D, D3h, DNewhall, Dakotdk, Danny, Daveisall, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia, Denni, Deor, Deutschgirl, Dhanasekaran muthu, DiamondDave, DickisonR, Dlohcierekim, DokX, Donnyreed@yahoo.com, DopefishJustin, Dourios, Download, Dr. Submillimeter, Dugosz, Eall n le, Ebizur, Eep, El C, El Roih, Eleuther, Ema Zee, Emphyrio, Emufarmers, EoGuy, Epastore, Error, Extra999, FaerieInGrey, FeanorStar7, Feezo, Florian Blaschke, Freelancer lsf, Friendlystar, F, GLaDOS, Gail, Galoubet, Gazurtoid, Geboy, Gene Nygaard, Ghostgamer, Giftlite, Gilgamesh, Giorgio Baroni, Glenn L, Grandia01, Gurch, H2g2bob, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hamiltonstone, Hans Dunkelberg, Headbomb, Henrodon, Hgilbert, Hunnjazal, Hurricane Devon, Hyacinth, Ilikeverin, Ilvon, Insomniacpuppy, Instinct, Irishguy, Iseeaboar, Itub, Itzcuauhlti, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JPD, Jake Nelson, JamminJonah, Jauhienij, Jaw7, Jayron32, Jc-S0CO, Jeronimo, Jfortier, Jim77742, Jjorgensen, Jmrowland, Jo3sampl, John Price, John Spraggs, Joseph Dwayne, Joule36e5, Julia Rossi, K.shayanthan, Kaffi, Kahuroa, Kalsermar, Kani Oanko, Katydidit, Kbahey, Keraunos, Ketiltrout, Kevin Saff, Kheider, Khukri, Kinkreet, Kipala, Klausness, Knucmo2, Knyets, Koavf, Kusma, Kwamikagami, La goutte de pluie, Lampsalot, Lcmortensen, Leia, Lemmy315, Livajo, Livinglight, Lkitrossky, Llajwa, Logos5557, Lovibond, Lusanaherandraton, Mahmudmasri, Makana Chai, Maldodan, Marasama, Markjoseph125, Mathonius, Maurice Carbonaro, Mav, Max rspct, Maxim, Midgrid, Mike Dallwitz, Misfit815, MisfitToys, MistyMorn, MrFish, Muruganastro, Mussnoon, Mzajac, N328KF, Nadyes, Nareek, NaySay, Nazar, NcSchu, Nehrams2020, Newone, Nicboyde, Nik42, Nine9s, Niteowlneils, Njardarlogar, Noclevername, Nordisk varg, Ntsimp, Olessi, Olivier, Ortolan88, Paknur, Palica, Pauli133, PetaRZ, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pickledfootwear, PrivateWiddle, Processr, Prodego, Prvc, Pudeo, Puffin10, PuzzletChung, Pvloc90, Qbr12, QualityDr, Quinton12123, Qwfp, R'n'B, RG2, RHaworth, RJHall, RQG, RadicalOne, RadioFan, Regushee, Remdabest, Renato Caniatti, RexNL, Rjwilmsi, Rlupsa, Roberto Mura, Roth ritter, Rubicon, Ryan Norton, Sadalsuud, Samuelsen, Sannse, Satyriasis, Savemaxim, Sax Russell, Scog, Section103, Selket, Serendipodous, Serpent's Choice, Shadegan(goru), Sherefyounan, Sigo, Smaines, Smiller385, Snowolf, Some thing, Sonicology, Sonjaaa, Spacepotato, Spiko-carpediem, Spiritflute, Sry85, Stargazer 7000, Stephenbedingfield, Stevebritgimp, Stevemarlett, Sublime5891, Surajt88, Sushi, Sverdrup, Tarquin, Teddybearcan, Telescopi, Temp07, Tesi1700, Thatguynamedgreg, The Raven's Apprentice, Theda, TheresJamInTheHills, Thuyen, Tobias Conradi, Tom Peters, Tomruen, Tpbradbury, Trengarasu, TriniMuoz, Trinitrix, Trusilver, Tucci528, Twas Now, Uicyend, UnitedStatesian, Uriel8, UserDoe, UtherSRG, Vedran8080, Velt76, Venture4, VladV, Vzb83, Wahabijaz, Wallslide, Wayward, Wer900, Wesino, Wiglaf, Wikianon, WilyD, Wizardist, Woohookitty, Worldtraveller, Wtmitchell, Xdenizen, Yogesh Khandke, Zereshk, Zerokitsune, Zonination, ZorkFox, Zundark, Zyxoas, Zyxw, , , , 428 anonymous edits Orion (constellation) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533810815 Contributors: -Ril-, 28bytes, 350z33, @pple, A. Parrot, Aaseeger, Abc518, Academic Challenger, Accurizer, Addshore, Adrian.benko, Ag1246, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alai, Alansohn, Alcazar84, Alex earlier account, Algebraist, All Is One, All Worlds, Allens, Alphachapmtl, Altar, Amateurastro, Andonic, Andromeda321, Andy M. Wang, Andycjp, Andyman14, Angela, Animum, Ankur, Antandrus, ArcAngel, Archanamiya, Arsia Mons, Arthena, Arunsingh16, Asarelah, AstroHurricane001, AstroMalasorte, Avb, B. Wolterding, B.d.mills, B00P, Baccyak4H, Bark, BarretB, BartBenjamin, Bay Flam, Bazonka, Bellerophon5685, Belovedfreak, Bencherlite, Bender235, Beno1000, BereanDAD, Berig, Bertrand Bellet, Big Bird, BjKa, Blaxthos, Bobianite, Bongwarrior, BorgQueen, Brain40, Brent.austin, Bronger, Bruce Marlin, Bruinfan12, Bryan Derksen, Buck O'Nollege, Burner0718, Bwfletcher, C-nap13, C.Logan, CArules123, CIreland, CWY2190, CactusWriter, Cal-linux, CalRis25, Calvin 1998, Cam, Canderson7, Casliber, Ceyockey, Chaojoker, Chevy111, ChicXulub, Cholmes75, Chris Roy, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisdolan, Chriss.2, Citylover, Clandestine1138, Closedmouth, ClovisPt, Coffee, Colonies Chris, Cometstyles, Cool3, Coriander, Corvus cornix, Cosmium, Cras26, Cremepuff222, Crism, CrniBombarder!!!, Crypticfirefly, Curps, Dabbler, Dabrow, Danilchick, Darcyj, Darth Panda, Dbachmann, Deadlyops, Deagle AP, Decltype, Deconstructhis, Deflective, Devatipan, Dicklyon, Dimator, Dirkbb, Doceddi, Donarreiskoffer, Doppelgangland, Dorinh, Dotancohen, Doulos Christos, Download, Dpv, DrZarkov, Dragonbones, Dravick, Dschwen, Durova, Dusti, Earthsky, East718, EchetusXe, EconomicsGuy, EdGl, Editor2020, Egil, EkwanIMSA, El C, ElizWard, Emact, Equendil, Eroica, Errolhunt, Euchiasmus, EugeneZelenko, Excirial, FDuffy, FKmailliW, Fbifriday, Fieldday-sunday, Flex, Flibjib8, Flyguy649, Fosnez, Fram, Friendlystar, Fyyer, F, GPHemsley, Gamemaker51, Gauss, George.dickeson, Giffdev, Giftlite, Gizzakk, Gomada, Good Olfactory, Goustien, Greenguy1090, GregAsche, Gscshoyru, Ha4iu5hj, HaeB, Hairy Dude, Hakluyt bean, Halfelven Ranger, Hanif 90, Hans Dunkelberg, Haveacigaro, Hede2000, HelloAnnyong, Hey jude, don't let me down, Hmrox, HollyI, Howcheng, Hrishikes, Hu12, HueSatLum, Hyperdeath, Ian.thomson, Icairns, Ijnicholas, Ikalpo, Ikkyu2, Ilvon, Immunize, Infrogmation, Into The Fray, Iron Dragon91, J.delanoy, JNW, JSpung, JYolkowski, JaGa, Jackflet44, James Bartosik, Jamiejojesus, Janneok, Jayjg, Jeandr du Toit, Jeff G., Jengod, Jim1138, Jimdevlin, Jimjom44, Jncraton, Joanjoc, John Hyams, John K, John254, John5246, Jor, Joyous!, Jujutacular, Jyril, Kalsermar, Kariteh, KarlM, Keilana, Ketiltrout, Khalid Mahmood, Khalil633, Kimjae20, King of Hearts, Kintetsubuffalo, KirtZJ, Kitch, Kjlewis, Knightzy99, KnowledgeOfSelf, KoshVorlon, Krellis, Kristaga, Ks0stm, Kukini, Kurek6, Kwamikagami, LAX, LFaraone, Lamb99, Landroo, Lar, LedgendGamer, Legion fi, Leonardorejorge, Leonfreak17, Leoni2, Lestatdelc, Liekkis, Lights, Lol0074, Looxix, Lorenzarius, Lowzeewee, LrdChaos, Lumos3, MER-C, Madhero88, Magiclite, Magnus Manske, Man vyi, Mani1, Marek69, Marnen, Martarius, MartinHarper, Materialscientist, Mattgirling, Maximaximax, Michaelbusch, Mike Peel, Mlt29994, Montrealais, Moomoomoo, Mouser, Mygerardromance, MylesCallum, Mysid, Mzajac, NW's Public Sock, Nadyes, NawlinWiki, NeilFraser, Nick Ottery, Nick Wilson, Nik42, Niteowlneils, Nivix, Noctibus, Nongendered, Nono64, NorwegianBlue, O.Koslowski, Officiallyover, Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish, OldakQuill, Omg you suck balls, Onorem, Organic cookie, Ospalh, Oxymoron83, Palica, ParisianBlade, Patrick, Paul Drye, PaulGarner, Pb30, Persian Poet Gal, Petecarney, Petersam, Phaldo, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pharos, Philly jawn, Pie4all88, Pizza Puzzle, PlanetStar, Plynn9, Pmanderson, Poolkris, Poopiedooo, Possum, Prodego, Puchiko, Punisher2404, Qoholeth, Quadell, R, RJDdrum1, RJHall, Radagast83, Random astronomer, RandomCritic, Rapscallion, Raven in Orbit, Rayd8, Red Bulls Fan, Relay11, Reywas92, Rhopkins8, Rich Farmbrough, Richontaban, Riffsyphon1024, RingtailedFox, Rise Against713, Risramlal, Roadsidemultimedia 2, Rob Hooft, Roberta F., Robsavoie, Rory096, Rothorpe, Rrburke, Ruben31, Rursus, Rushbugled13, Rm, S.Chepurin, SamuelTheGhost, Sankalpdravid, Sarz, SassyLilNugget, Satellizer, SchfiftyThree, ScottDavis, Sectori, Shalom Yechiel, Shawn81, ShelfSkewed, Shortiewaswo, Shortna, Silversatellite, Skatebiker, Skeptic2, Skirrid, Skizzik, SkyMachine, Slakr, Smartech, Snowolf, Sole Soul, Sonicology, SpaceFlight89, Spacepotato, Spitfire19, Sreyantha chary, Starlover2005, Starstriker7, StaticGull, Stele, Stephenb, Stephenchou0722, Steve03Mills, Stevemarlett, Stevertigo, Stevey7788, Summer Song, Sverdrup, TShilo12, Taam, TakingUpSpace,

Article Sources and Contributors

Tams, Tanketai, Tdvance, Telescopi, Tellyaddict, Tenguopr, TestimonyofJesus, The Cunctator, The Seventh Taylor, The Thing That Should Not Be, The sunder king, TheTito, Thebestofall007, Theelf29, Thingg, Thor Dockweiler, Thortveitite, Thu, Tide rolls, Til Eulenspiegel, Till Credner, ToastKing1000, Tomruen, Travelbird, TriniMuoz, Trystan, Turk olan, Twang, Twas Now, Tyr Anasazi, UNIT A4B1, USMA, Ultor Solis, Urania's Muse, UtherSRG, Vacuum, Venture4, Verdi1, Versus22, Vgent, Vrenator, Vssun, Vuong Ngan Ha, Wassini, Wavelength, Wereon, Wes.faires, West.andrew.g, Whale plane, Whpq, Wiglaf, Wiki alf, Wiki13, Wikibob, Wikipeedio, Wikipelli, Wikislemur, Willard, WilliamKF, Wizardist, Wkboonec, Wmpittendreigh, Woody, Woohookitty, Worldtraveller, Wrnchhead76, Wwoods, Xavierxolando, Xos, Xtifr, Yzkoc, Zanaq, Zaphod Beeblebrox, Zoicon5, Zollerriia, Zondrah89, ZtCS, 1025 anonymous edits Orion Nebula Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533530378 Contributors: 25or6to4, 32X, Abdullah Murad, Ahoerstemeier, Alex Arnold, Alexius08, Alfio, Alsandro, Andromeda321, AndyJ231, AndyZ, Ardric47, Arianewiki1, Arnomane, Arpingstone, AstroMalasorte, Astropithicus, Awardgive, Awolf002, B.d.mills, Bastique, Bay Flam, Bender235, Bjankuloski06en, Bob Burkhardt, Bobblewik, Bozlich, Bryan Derksen, CAkira, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chaos syndrome, ChicXulub, Chippym22, Chris the speller, CielProfond, Clh288, Cometstyles, Conscious, Ctrl build, D6, DannyZ, Davepape, Deeptrivia, Deryck Chan, Dobie80, Docu, Dr. Submillimeter, DubaiTerminator, Dustin winski, Earth358, Edgar181, Emijrp, Epbr123, Erik, Etacar11, Eumolpo, Ewlyahoocom, Exir Kamalabadi, FKmailliW, Fairychild, Falcorian, Ferrettini, Forever Dusk, Fotaun, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Friendlystar, Faluinix, Gauss, George100, Gik, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Gscshoyru, Gzkn, H, Hajatvrc, Headbomb, Heiny, Hewholooks, Hmoul, Howcheng, ILovePlankton, Iwillharasu, J.delanoy, JamesHoadley, Jan1nad, Jargon777, Jascal, Jauhienij, Jeff Saxton, Jerzy, Jleous, Jmencisom, John Belushi, Jon Harald Sby, JorisvS, Joseph Dwayne, Jyril, KGyST, Kadellar, Katieh5584, Katydidit, Ke6jjj, Keflavich, Kellyprice, Kendrick7, Kevin Saff, Khalid Mahmood, Khazar2, Knowledge Seeker, Koavf, Kobrabones, Korg, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Ligulem, Lilac Soul, Looxix, Luiscalcada, Lzz, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Mackensen, Marco Castellani, Melesse, Mgiganteus1, Mickal555, Mike Peel, Mild Bill Hiccup, MisfitToys, Mishuletz, Mitth'raw'nuruodo, Mordemur, MuDavid, Newone, Ngc7023, Nine9s, Nivix, Nono64, Officiallyover, Ohconfucius, OperaJoeGreen, Originalwana, Palica, Pandora, Patrick, Paul Drye, Peppe83, PetaRZ, Petersam, PhGustaf, Pingku, Pioannid, Polaris999, Puddington, R'n'B, RJHall, Rentier, Rich Farmbrough, Rickjamez, RingtailedFox, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Roberto Mura, Rock4arolla, Rrburke, Rrv1988, Rshida, Rsrikanth05, Samsara, Sannse, ScottyBoy900Q, Shadowjams, Shizhao, Skeptic2, Slakr, Spacepotato, Spanky71, Ssd, Sverdrup, TJRC, Tarotcards, Tarquin, Telescopi, TestPilot, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheAlphaWolf, Tide rolls, Tim Starling, Tripledot, TrygveFlathen, Twinsday, Urbanclearway, Urhixidur, Vedran8080, Vgent, Wafulz, Wassini, Wikiborg4711, Wikisteff, WilliamKF, WolfmanSF, Worldtraveller, XJamRastafire, YGingras, 150 anonymous edits Eta Carinae Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531014612 Contributors: 121snake121, 1996vishak, 1dragon, 7903xc, Achoo5000, Aherunar, Alfio, Anagnorisis, Andre Engels, AndreaPersephone, Andrew the coolest, Anville, Aranel, ArdWar, Arsia Mons, Ashill, AstroHurricane001, Attilios, B.d.mills, B00P, Babbage, Bazonka, Bender235, BillC, Binrdow, BjKa, Bkonrad, Bob rulz, Bowlhover, Bryan Derksen, Burkhard.Plache, Butsuri, Canterel, Captain Seafort, Casliber, Caspianm, Chiaro, ChileVerde, CommonsDelinker, Corcoran, Curps, Cyrius, David Newton, Deadlock, Delldot, Diamonddavej, Digulla, Doradus, Dorftrottel, Dougmc, Dr.Gonzo, Eassin, El C, Elwood00, Etacar11, Fosnez, Fournax, Francesco Malafarina, Furrykef, Gadykozma, Gaz, Gdr, Geboy, Georgewilliamherbert, GhostTrain, Gilliam, Gmaxwell, Golbez, Graham87, GregorB, GrimmigerHagen, Guitarist6987876, HarryAlffa, Headbomb, Hmmm, IVAN3MAN, IW.HG, IanOsgood, Ikemeister1551, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, InternetMeme, It Is Me Here, Ixfd64, JBsupreme, Jafro, Jamie C, Jaysweet, Jbeans, JeLuF, Jennavecia, Jessemerriman, Jezza333, Jkl, Jmacwiki, JodyB, Josh215, JoshuaZ, Julesd, Jusdafax, Jyril, Kanthoney, Kazvorpal, Keflavich, Kellyprice, Ken Arromdee, Ketiltrout, Kheider, King Hildebrand, Kometsuga, Kwamikagami, Lars Lindberg Christensen, LiamE, Lithopsian, Livajo, Lomn, Luna Santin, MER-C, Markjoseph125, Marshallsumter, Martarius, Mateuszica, Maury Markowitz, Mazca, Metebelis, Michael Frind, Modest Genius, Moonraker12, Moverton, Namangwari, Neitherday, Newone, Njardarlogar, Nonagonal Spider, Noosphere, NuclearWarfare, Obiwan042, Orioane, PFSLAKES1, Paine Ellsworth, Palica, Patrick1982, Pcd72, PedroPVZ, Percommode, Pi.1415926535, PlanetStar, Plasticup, Prvc, Q43, RJHall, RandomCritic, Rattlesnake, Rbryson74, Rccoms, Rich Farmbrough, Rickington, Ricky58267, RingtailedFox, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, RodC, Rothorpe, Rursus, Ryan suchocki, S. Korotkiy, Saravask, ScAvenger, Siddiqui, Skatebiker, Skeletor 0, Skore de, SkyLined, Skylark42, Slightsmile, Smalljim, Sonicology, Spacepotato, Spikebrennan, StringTheory11, Sumanch, Sverdrup, SwordSmurf, Tarlneustaedter, Tgm8, TheWhistleGang, Tirerim, Todd Lowery, Tom, Tom Lougheed, Tompw, TopGUN71691, Tracer9999, Trevor.tombe, Trovatore, Troyt, Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-1, Unagiflum, UncleBubba, Vicki Rosenzweig, Viriditas, WLRoss, Wdfarmer, Wer900, Wetman, WilliamKF, WolfmanSF, Worldtraveller, XJamRastafire, Zundark, , 228 anonymous edits Comet HaleBopp Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=532692164 Contributors: 0, A305w, AZphotogallery, Addshore, Adrian.benko, Ahoerstemeier, Ahpook, Alchemy187, Alsandro, Amirber, Angusmclellan, Apcgurutech, Apteva, Arakunem, Arcturus, Ascnder, Ataleh, Atkinson 291, Autarch, Avenue, Avicennasis, B, B.d.mills, Badmachine, Basilicofresco, Bender235, Bentogoa, Blizzard1, BobShair, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bodzasfanta, Bpeps, Brighterorange, British Commando, CDN99, CTF83!, CWenger, Caltas, Carmichael, Cfailde, Charlesdrakew, Chesnok, Cirt, Cracked acorns, Cramyourspam, Crash Underride, Crashdoom, CrniBombarder!!!, Curps, Cyanoa Crylate, DVdm, Dailycare, Dalillama, Dana boomer, Dante Alighieri, Darth Panda, DaveHer, Deltabeignet, Demf, DerHexer, Deviator13, Dicklyon, Discospinster, Dolovis, Dominus, Donarreiskoffer, Donfbreed, DrKiernan, Drydom, Duoduoduo, Dyslexic agnostic, EarthPerson, Ed Poor, Edward321, Eisnel, Eleschinski2000, Enirac Sum, Erikeltic, Ethan Mitchell, Euryalus, Evil saltine, Ewlyahoocom, Feitclub, Fjrgynn, Fly by Night, Francesco Betti Sorbelli, Fukumoto, GB fan, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Geni, Gerda Arendt, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, GirasoleDE, Giuliopp, Glyph27notfound, Gnoitall, Gogo Dodo, Gpietsch, Grant Gussie, GregorB, H, HJensen, Headbomb, Hetar, Hike395, Hydrargyrum, Icairns, J.delanoy, JPX7, Jcd113, Jenser, Jhapeman, JorisvS, Joshua Scott, Joshuapaquin, Jyp, Jyril, KLooove, Kanags, Kbaliyan, Ke6jjj, Ken g6, Ketiltrout, Kheider, KnightRider, Kolbasz, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Lantrix, Levelistchampion, Lfh, Logan, Loloyedwazup, Lupin, MER-C, Macy, Magioladitis, Malvolio80, Marek69, Markus Poessel, Marskell, Martschink, Matt Crypto, Mattbuck, Maurog, Mike Peel, Mike s, MinutiaeMan, MisfitToys, Mkfairdpm, Modest Genius, Moonriddengirl, Mvgossman, Mystykmyk, Nadiasupergirl, Nertzy, Nickshanks, Noctibus, NuclearWarfare, Nv8200p, P. S. Burton, Pacaro, Pachtova, Pagrashtak, Paxsimius, Penwhale, Peruvianllama, Phil Boswell, Phoenix58, Piano non troppo, Pierre2012, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pinkadelica, ProfGiles, PseudoOne, Pthag, Q85, Quadell, Qui1che, Random astronomer, Raul654, ResidentAnthropologist, RetiredUser2, Revolucin, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, RobertG, Rock4arolla, Rothorpe, RunninRiot, Ruodyssey, Ruslik0, Sakar, Salilmathur, Samuel Sol, SandyGeorgia, Satori, ScAvenger, SchuminWeb, Scwlong, Serendipodous, Sh f80, Shanes, Shirulashem, Sidgrollix, Siim, Skizzik, Slawekb, Some jerk on the Internet, Stars1408, Steveprutz, Stone, Sun Creator, Susvolans, Szabomgyula, Tablizer, Tacos tacos tacos15, Taxman, Tbc2, Teresia, The Haunted Angel, The Olive Branch, The Thing That Should Not Be, The way, the truth, and the light, Theresa knott, Thincat, Thingg, Threedots dead, Thunderbird2, Tim Chambers, Tobias Hoevekamp, Tommy2010, Tomruen, Tothebarricades.tk, Tracer9999, Treisijs, Triphop, Unclenuclear, Vzb83, V Ngc Phan, Wafulz, Warlordgeneral1216, Wayne Hardman, Wayward, Whosasking, WilliamKF, WojPob, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, Worldtraveller, Wrotesolid, Xndr, Xtifr, Xuehxolotl, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yekrats, Yuckfoo, Zubenelgenubi, Zundark, Zxcvbnm, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, 361 anonymous edits Alvarez hypothesis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=527210832 Contributors: Alexzabbey, Anyeverybody, Balloonguy, Brinlong, Download, Dr. Blofeld, Eastlaw, Emerson7, EncycloPetey, Finlay McWalter, Fletcher, Ikluft, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kbdank71, Keyboardica, Learner59, Melaen, Mikker, NawlinWiki, Nwbeeson, Ouzo, Parsa, Paul H., Peregrine Fisher, Rjwilmsi, Shanes, Smith609, Stephenb, WolfmanSF, 18 anonymous edits

68

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

69

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:ESO Centaurus A LABOCA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESO_Centaurus_A_LABOCA.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO/WFI (Optical); MPIfR/ESO/APEX/A.Weiss et al. (Submillimetre); NASA/CXC/CfA/R.Kraft et al. (X-ray) Image:Radio galaxy Centaurus A by ALMA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Radio_galaxy_Centaurus_A_by_ALMA.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jmencisom Image:NGC 5128 MPG ESO 2.2-metre.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NGC_5128_MPG_ESO_2.2-metre.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jmencisom, 1 anonymous edits Image:Firestorm of Star Birth in Galaxy Centaurus A.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firestorm_of_Star_Birth_in_Galaxy_Centaurus_A.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dipankan001 Image:CentaurusA2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CentaurusA2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploader was Hurricane Devon at en.wikipedia Image:CenA-nearIR.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CenA-nearIR.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO/Y. Beletsky Image:CentaurusA3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CentaurusA3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SST J. Keene (SSC/Caltech) Original uploader was Hurricane Devon at en.wikipedia Image:NGC_5128.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NGC_5128.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Boivie, Eleferen, Jarekt, KGyST, Mo-Slimy, Nordelch, Ruslik0, Twincinema, 1 anonymous edits Image:Centaurus A.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centaurus_A.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ESO File:Centaurus A jets.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centaurus_A_jets.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center File:Centauros a-spc.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centauros_a-spc.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Martin Hardcastle File:Andromeda Galaxy (with h-alpha).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andromeda_Galaxy_(with_h-alpha).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Adam Evans File:Pic iroberts1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pic_iroberts1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Isaac Roberts (d. 1904) File:Andromeda constellation map (1).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andromeda_constellation_map_(1).png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Bronger at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Rursus at en.wikipedia. File:Stars in the Andromeda Galaxy's disc.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stars_in_the_Andromeda_Galaxy's_disc.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ComputerHotline, Jmencisom, Ruslik0 File:WISE- Andromeda.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WISE-_Andromeda.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA File:Andromeda galaxy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andromeda_galaxy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL/California Institute of Technology File:Local Group.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Local_Group.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Richard Powell File:Infraredandromeda.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Infraredandromeda.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: en:Theodork File:Andromeda galaxy Ssc2005-20a1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andromeda_galaxy_Ssc2005-20a1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ceranthor, User:Noodle snacks, User:Superborsuk File:A Swift Tour of M31.OGG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Swift_Tour_of_M31.OGG License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:1993-18-a-web.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1993-18-a-web.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Tod R. Lauer, NASA File:M31 Core in X-rays.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M31_Core_in_X-rays.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: S. Murray, M. Garcia, et al., Authors & editors: Robert Nemiroff (MTU) & Jerry Bonnell (USRA) NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. File:Andromeda active core.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andromeda_active_core.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA and A. Schaller (for STScI) File:Pleiades large.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pleiades_large.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, AURA/Caltech, Palomar Observatory The science team consists of: D. Soderblom and E. Nelan (STScI), F. Benedict and B. Arthur (U. Texas), and B. Jones (Lick Obs.) File:Nebra Scheibe.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nebra_Scheibe.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dbachmann, Itu, Lionel Allorge, Martin H., Mmcannis, Rainer Zenz, Roomba, Wst File:Pleiades Spitzer big.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pleiades_Spitzer_big.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: John Stauffer (Spitzer Science Center, Caltech)credits: Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/J. Stauffer (SSC/Caltech) File:Pleiades-comet-Machholz.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pleiades-comet-Machholz.jpeg License: Attribution Contributors: Rochus Hess File:X-ray image of the Pleiades.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X-ray_image_of_the_Pleiades.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader Worldtraveller at en.wikipedia File:Reflection nebula IC 349 near Merope.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reflection_nebula_IC_349_near_Merope.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Worldtraveller at en.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Wikibob at en.wikipedia. File:M45map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M45map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bulwersator, Quibik File:Pleiades-Taurus-Stellarium.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pleiades-Taurus-Stellarium.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: Stellarium File:Orion IAU.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_IAU.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Antonsusi, Hogg 22, Kxx, 1 anonymous edits File:Orion 3008 huge.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_3008_huge.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Mouser File:Orionurania.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orionurania.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Urania's Muse at en.wikipedia File:Orion-guide dark.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion-guide_dark.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Mysid. Image:OrionCC.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OrionCC.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Till Credner File:Orion constelation PP3 map PL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_constelation_PP3_map_PL.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Blueshade at pl.wikipedia Image:Cintura di Orione binocolo.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cintura_di_Orione_binocolo.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Roberto Mura Image:Orion Belt.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_Belt.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Davide De Martin (http://www.skyfactory.org); Credit: Digitized Sky Survey, ESA/ESO/NASA FITS Liberator File:Sig07-006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sig07-006.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ASA/JPL-Caltech/D. Barrado y Navascus (LAEFF-INTA) File:Aratea 58v.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aratea_58v.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Goodness Shamrock, Warburg Image:Orion Nebula - Hubble 2006 mosaic 18000.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_Nebula_-_Hubble_2006_mosaic_18000.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, M. Robberto (Space Telescope Science Institute/ESA) and the Hubble Space Telescope Orion Treasury Project Team File:Hubble Snaps View of the Orion Nebula.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hubble_Snaps_View_of_the_Orion_Nebula.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:Orion composite1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_composite1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Skatebiker at en.wikipedia Image:M42m.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M42m.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Charles Messier File:Henry Drape Orion nebula 1880 inverted.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry_Drape_Orion_nebula_1880_inverted.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Henry Draper

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Orion-Nebula A A Common.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion-Nebula_A_A_Common.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andrew Ainslie Common (1841-1903) Image:Trapezium cluster optical and infrared comparison.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trapezium_cluster_optical_and_infrared_comparison.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dcljr, Kauczuk, Martin H., Wouterhagens, 3 anonymous edits Image:M42proplyds.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M42proplyds.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: C.R. O'Dell/Rice University; NASA Image:Star Formation Fireworks in Orion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Star_Formation_Fireworks_in_Orion.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ESA/Hubble & NASA Image:HH47 animation.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HH47_animation.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Patrick Hartigan Image:Ripples.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ripples.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: ESO/J. Emerson/VISTA. Acknowledgment: Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit Image:Orion.nebula.arp.750pix.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion.nebula.arp.750pix.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Credit: NASA, C.R. O'Dell and S.K. Wong (Rice University) Image:Orion Nebula WFI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_Nebula_WFI.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO and Igor Chekalin Image:OrionHunterWilson.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OrionHunterWilson.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hewholooks Image:Orion Nebulae.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_Nebulae.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ioannidis Panos Image:Sig07-006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sig07-006.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ASA/JPL-Caltech/D. Barrado y Navascus (LAEFF-INTA) Image:M42 - The Orion Nebula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M42_-_The_Orion_Nebula.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ESO Image:ESO-M42-Phot-03a-01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESO-M42-Phot-03a-01.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO Image:VISTA infrared Orion Nebula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VISTA_infrared_Orion_Nebula.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO/J. Emerson/VISTA. Acknowledgment: Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit Image:Spitzer's Orion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spitzer's_Orion.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA, JPL-Caltech, J. Stauffer (SSC/Caltech) Image:Orion Nebulas biggest stars.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_Nebulas_biggest_stars.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, M. Robberto ( Space Telescope Science Institute/ESA) and the Hubble Space Telescope Orion Treasury Project Team File:Orion Rainbow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orion_Rainbow.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image credit: NASA/ESA/JPL-Caltech/IRAM File:EtaCarinae.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EtaCarinae.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Nathan Smith (University of California, Berkeley), and NASA File:ECARmulticolor4.tnl.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ECARmulticolor4.tnl.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dr. John M. Horack , Director of Science Communications, Editor: Dave Dooling Curator: Linda Porter NASA Official: M. Frank Rose File:Eta Carinae Nebula 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eta_Carinae_Nebula_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hubble image: NASA, ESA, N. Smith (University of California, Berkeley), and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) CTIO data: N. Smith (University of California, Berkeley) and NOAO/AURA/NSF File:Gamma ray burst.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gamma_ray_burst.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Nicolle Rager Fuller of the NSF File:ESO-Eta Carinae-phot-17a-08-normal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESO-Eta_Carinae-phot-17a-08-normal.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ESO File:Comet Hale-Bopp 1995O1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: E. Kolmhofer, H. Raab; Johannes-Kepler-Observatory, Linz, Austria (http://www.sternwarte.at) File:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997_hires_adj.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Philipp Salzgeber File:Hale-Bopp orbit.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hale-Bopp_orbit.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Random astronomer (talk). Original uploader was Random astronomer at en.wikipedia File:Hale-Bopp sodium tail.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hale-Bopp_sodium_tail.gif License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Worldtraveller at en.wikipedia File:Comet Hale-Bopp Death Valley.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comet_Hale-Bopp_Death_Valley.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: w:User:Mkfairdpm from English Wikipedia File:Marshall Applewhite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marshall_Applewhite.jpg License: unknown Contributors: A video produced by Heaven's Gate (religious group) File:ESO-Comet Hale-Bopp-Phot-07a-01-hires.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESO-Comet_Hale-Bopp-Phot-07a-01-hires.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO Image:KT boundary 054.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KT_boundary_054.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Glenlarson at en.wikipedia

70

License

71

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/