Managenent by VItaIIty

Examining the 'Active' WeII-being Performance Outcomea

of High Performance Work Practicea at the Work Unit LeveI











Iioefschiifl lei veikiijging van de giaad van docloi aan de
Univeisileil van TiIluig, op gezag van de iecloi nagnificus
piof. di. Ih. LijIandei, in hel openlaai le veidedigen len
oveislaan van een dooi hel coIIege vooi pionolies
aangevezen connissie in de auIa van de Univeisileil
op voensdag 17 juni 2OO9 on 14.15 dooi

Luc WI!!Ibrnrd Dnrcnbnsch

geloien op 18 auguslus 1978 le VenIo.





Iionoloies: Iiof. Di. }aap Iaauve
Iiof. Di. Rol IoeII

Copionoloi: Di. Maic van VeIdhoven



















Doienlosch, Luc WiIIiloid

ISN-NR: 978-9O-5335-19O-1

Covei design: Luc Doienlosch / Riddeipiinl
Covei folo: }uuI Sleyn
Diuk: Riddeipiinl V, Riddeikeik

Iioefschiifl Univeisileil van TiIluig /
Disseilalion TiIluig Univeisily
OIdendoiff Reseaich Inslilule (ORI)
2OO9

Luc Doienlosch, 2OO9
AII iighls ieseived. No pail of lhis look nay le iepioduced oi liansnilled in any foin oi ly any
neans eIeclionicaIIy of nechanicaIIy, incIuding pholocopying, iecoiding oi using any infoinalion
sloiage and ieliievaI syslen, vilhoul lhe viillen peinission of lhe aulhoi.
TabIe oI Contents


Chaptcr 1 CeneiaI Inlioduclion 1

Chaptcr 2 The nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance:
oplinislic, pessinislic, sceplicaI and inlegialive
lheoielicaI peispeclives
11

Chaptcr 3 A ialionaIe foi enpIoyee vilaIily: lhe dynanics and
concepluaIizalions of an aclive veII-leing and
peifoinance concepl
45

Chaptcr 4 The neasuienenl and vaIidalion of enpIoyee vilaIily 63

Chaptcr 5 Idenlifying and neasuiing High Ieifoinance Woik
Iiaclices: lheoielicaI and nelhodoIogicaI Issues
87

Chaptcr 6 The neasuienenl and vaIidalion of
High Ieifoinance Woik Iiaclices
105

Chaptcr 7 The inleinedialing ioIe of enpIoyee vilaIily
in lhe HIWI-Ieifoinance Iinkage
141

Chaptcr 8 IinaI concIusions and discussion:
Managenenl ly vilaIily`
173


5amcnvattIng (5ummary In Dutch) 209

Rcfcrcnccs 219

AppcndIccs 241

1
Chaptez 1
GeneraI introduction



'To deaI vilh unceilainly, conpanies aie liying lo liansfoin lhenseIves inlo
Iean, high-peifoinance oiganizalions lhal can adapl and change conlinuousIy.
And iionicaIIy, lhal effoil Ieads lhen lack lo lhe enpIoyee - and a paiadox: Ioi
even lhough lhey aie diiven lo cul cosls ly eIininaling peopIe, execulives aie
ieaIizing lhal lheii peopIe aie lhe key lo luiIding lhose nev oiganizalions. Wilh
iesliucluiing and dovnsizing, lhe enpIoyee is Iess disposalIe lhan evei, lecause
in a Ieanei voikfoice, eveiy individuaI needs lo have lhe ciilicaI skiIIs lo nove a
conpany foivaid. And ils peopIe - nol lechnoIogy oi piocesses - vho Ieain,
innovale, and luin infoinalion inlo pioducls and seivices. - l.l. A||cn, C|O
Pni||ips Pc|rc|cun (in Tnc Cnicf |xccu|itc, Augus|, 1996).


1.1 RE5EARCH CONTEXT
DeveIopnenls in gIolaI econonic and lechnoIogicaI aclivily Ied lo an eia
chaiacleiized ly lhe giovlh of conpelilion in neaiIy aII seclois of lhe econony,
vhelhei pulIicIy ovned oi piivaleIy financed, vhelhei snaII oi Iaige conpanies,
vhelhei invoIved in liadilionaI oi nodein lypes of lusiness (oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3,
Docheily, IoisIin, Shani & Kiia, 2OO2). ConsequenlIy, liadilionaI lusiness nodeIs do
nol guaianlee Iong-lein success, as pioducl Iife cycIes gel shoilei, lhe diffusion of
pioducl innovalions evoIves faslei lhan evei lefoie, spieading quickIy acioss
nalionaI loideis vilh aInosl no iesliiclions vhal so evei. To suivive, oiganizalions
have lo nainlain a conslanl slale of aIeilness in oidei lo slay conpelilive and suivive
in conlenpoiaiy naikel dynanics. InevilalIy, lhese changes have liansIaled inlo
nev lhoughls on oiganizing voik and nanaging lhe voikfoice in a vay lhal il
enalIes oiganizalions lo quickIy adapl and naxinize lheii peifoinance. Olheivise,
sceplics aigue lhal lhese deveIopnenls in sone vay nighl negaliveIy affecl
enpIoyee voik Iife and veII-leing in such vay lhal il aIso couId consliain lhe iniliaI
goaIs of nev voikfoice nanagenenl iefoins. Whal do nev lhoughls on Ialoui/HR
nanagenenl enlaiI` And hov nighl ils inpIicalions foi enpIoyees eilhei suppoil oi
olsliucl lhe oiganizalions suivivaI in a conlenpoiaiy econonic conlexl`
2
1.1.1 Thc cmcrgcncc nf a hIgh pcrfnrmancc paradIgm
Due lo lhe fasl changes, luiluIences and insecuiilies lhal doninale lodays
oiganizalions cu|sidc naikel enviionnenl, oiganizalions aie foiced lo aIso Iook
insidc and ciilicaIIy ieviev lheii voik syslens in leins of lhe oiganizalionaI
sliucluies, pioceduies, opeialionaI slandaids and lhe Ialoui nanagenenl poIicies
lhey pul in piaclice. As such, lheie aIieady has leen a sIovIy evoIving shifl fion a
sliicl hieiaichicaI dislinclion lelveen nanagenenl and Ialoui in lhe pIanning and
execulion of voik (oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3), lovaids voik syslens in vhich
enpIoyees gain highei discielion in lhe pIanning and execulion of voik lasks, as an
aspecl of fuilhei jol eniichnenl (Hacknan & OIdhan, 198O, Iaikei, WaII & Coideiy,
2OO1) The fealuies of an eniiched voik oiganizalion iefei lo enpIoyees vho aie
enpoveied and equipped vilh lhe funclionaI ioon and iesouices lo adequaleIy and
efficienlIy iespond lo unceilainlies in lhe pioduclion oi voik piocess (WaII, Coideiy
& CIegg, 2OO2). This iesponse is undeislood as discrc|icnarq cnp|cqcc cffcr| (aiIey,
1993), vhich consisls of lhe voik ioIe oiienlalions and lehaviouis of enpIoyees lhal
couId nake a posilive diffeience in leins of opeialionaI peifoinance and oveiaII
oiganizalionaI conpeliliveness (Wiighl, Dunfoid & SneII, 2OO1).

Hovevei, incieasing opeialionaI peifoinance ly eniiched voik designs is
consideied nol lo le enough. As voik in Weslein econonies gels noie seivice-
oiienled, enpIoyees face, foi inslance, an inciease in lhe use of (IT) lechnoIogy and
lhe cenliaIily of inleinaI and exleinaI cuslonei denands in lheii voik. To ieap lhe
polenliaI gains of IT and cuslonei IoyaIly/salisfaclion, enpIoyees need lo have lhe
iighl skiIIs, knovIedge and lhe nolivalion lo dispIay quaIilalive effoil (Heskelh &
NeaI, 1999, oven & WaIdnan, 1999). Theiefoie, lesides voik oiganizalionaI
faclois, olhei nodein HR nanagenenl donains have gained inpoilance, Iike lhe
alliaclion and conlinuous deveIopnenl of up-lo-dale enpIoyee skiIIs and knovIedge
pIus lhe nanagenenl of individuaI and gioup peifoinance lhiough appiaisaIs and
incenlives. ConsequenlIy, lhe conlinalion of (voik) oiganizalionaI and HR
nanagenenl piaclices lhal suppoil and enhance lhe enpIoyees aliIily, nolivalion
and oppoilunily lo expend discielionaiy effoil undeipins lhe conlenpoiaiy viiling
and ieseaich on High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens (HIWSs, HuseIid, 1995,
AppeIlaun, aiIey, eig & KaIIeleig, 2OOO). The lasic causaI f|cu lhal signifies lhe
ioule lhiough vhich HIWSs inpacl oiganizalionaI peifoinance can le dispIayed as
foIIovs:
3




0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

h|gh Performance
work 8ystems







F|gure 1-1: The hPw8-Performance L|nk (Appe|baum et a|., 2000}

Il is in lhese nodeIs lhal ideas on lhe pailicipaloiy oiganizalion of voik, lhe high-
ioad nanagenenl of Ialoui (HRM) and liusl-lased Ialoui ieIalions aie noie
sliongIy inlegialed inlo an oveiaiching high peifoinance fianevoik (CiIes,
Muiiay & eIangei, 2OO2). Despile lhe facl lhal lheie is sliII IillIe consensus on lhe
exacl eIenenls of such voik syslens lhal vouId slinuIale nodein day lusiness
success, lhe consensus on lhe expiession nign pcrfcrnancc ucr| sqs|cn oi nign
pcrfcrnancc ucr|p|acc is veiy lioad. As CiIes el aI. (2OO2) olseive:

'.slielching as il does fion lhe univeisily cIassioon lo lhe coipoiale loaidioon, fion lhe
seal of goveinnenl lo offices, sloies and facloiy fIoois, fion lhe pages of nagazines and
nevspapeis lo lhe oulei ieaches of lhe Inleinel (p. 1).

Civen lhis allenlion, sone schoIais have aigued ve have enleied sone soil of high
peifoinance paiadign (Codaid & DeIenay, 2OOO, Codaid, 2OO4, LIoyd & Iayne,
2OO6), in vhich lhe nanagenenl and oiganizalion of high quaIily Ialoui is iegaided
as a diiecl souice of conpelilive advanlage in an incieasingIy dynanic naikel
econony.

1.1.2 Emp!nycc wc!!-bcIng In a hIgh pcrfnrmancc paradIgm
As lhe spolIighl luins lo lhe nanagenenl of high peifoinance lhiough quaIilalive
enpIoyee effoil, lheie is an incieasing inleiesl in vhelhei lhese nodein nanagenenl
lechniques aIso inciease voik piessuie and sulsequenlIy affecl enpIoyee veII-leing
and heaIlh. The lensions lelveen lhe nanagenenl of a high peifoining voikfoice
and a heaIlhy voikfoice nighl gel evei noie saIienl in lhe conlenpoiaiy voikpIace.
The shifl fion an indusliy-lased lo a seivice-lased econony, a shifl fion jols vhich
iequiie enpIoyee-nachine inleiaclion lo enpIoyee-cuslonei inleiaclion enlaiIs a
shifl fion lechnoIogy-dependenl pioduclivily lo Ialoui-dependenl pioduclivily.
Theiefoie, in nany seivice-lased voik silualions, pioduclivily depends noie on lhe


0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

Effect|ve
0|scret|onary
Effort

4








appIicalion of discielionaiy hunan iesouices Iike skiIIs, knovIedge, ciealivily oi
coopeialive and piolIen-soIving lehaviouis and Iess on lhe voik pace deleinined
ly lhe pioduclion piocess (eIangei, CiIes & Muiiay, 2OO2). As such, lhe econonic
peifoinance effecls of enpIoyee discielionaiy effoil gel noie diiecl and aie Iess
IikeIy lo le nedialed ly lechnoIogy, nachineiy oi voik piocess specifics lhan lhey
aie in liadilionaI pioduclion/lechnoIogy-lased voik conlexls (CoyIe-Shapiio,
KessIei & IuiceII, 2OO4). AIso, in highIy conpuleiized seivice sellings, lhe added
vaIue of infoinalion lechnoIogy is essenliaIIy dependenl on enpIoyee knov-hov
and lheii aclive use of IT in oidei lo ieap ils pioduclivily polenliaI (Heskelh & NeaI,
1999). Thus, in a changing econonic conlexl lhis vouId indicale an incieasing
econonic vaIue of lhe oiganizalions nunan iesouices as opposed lo olhei
oiganizalionaI iesouices. TypicaI aloul lhe nunan iesouice is lhal il cannol le
sepaialed fion peopIe (Ldvaids, 2OOO). Theiefoie, il can le aigued lhal lhe
individuaI enpIoyee is lhe hunan vehicIe of vaIualIe skiIIs/knovIedge and lhe
insligaloi of effeclive discielionaiy effoil and lehavioui. If so, ils nenlaI and
physicaI veII-leing is noie lhan jusl a sidc cffcc| of voik lhal gels deaIl vilh as a
sepaiale issue. Ralhei, as shovn in Iiguie 1-2, enpIoyee veII-leing and heaIlh
lecone an inpoilanl condilion foi oiganizalionaI success lo lhe exlenl lhal
conpanies ieIy on lhe hunan vehicIe in oidei lo ienain conpelilive. As a
consequence, lhe nanagenenl of oiganizalionaI high peifoinance and enpIoyee
heaIlh and veII-leing gel noie enlvined.








F|gure 1-2: The Ro|e of Emp|oyee we||-be|ng |n the hPw8-Performance L|nk

1.1.3 PnssIb!c tcnsInns In managIng pcrfnrmancc and wc!!-bcIng
CiilicaI schoIais have aigued lhal in high peifoinance-oiienled oiganizalions, lhe
heighlened denand foi highei Ialoui pioduclivily lhiough discielionaiy effoil,
cones al lhe expense of enpIoyee veII-leing. When oiganizalions vanl lo naxinize
lheii oulpuls, and vhen lhe needed inpul is incieasingIy soughl in quaIilalive

h|gh Performance
work 8ystems

0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

Emp|oyee
we||-be|ng?

5












enpIoyee effoil, lhe high peifoinance denands aie noie diieclIy pIaced upon lhe
voikfoice. The nanagenenl goaI of peifoinance naxinizalion couId lheiefoie le
ollained lhiough lhe inlensificalion of lhe voik piocess and nanagenenl ly
sliess (DeIliidge & TuinluII, 1992, Iaikei & SIaughlei, 1995, Codaid, 2OO1,
Ransay, SchoIaiios & HaiIey, 2OOO). Woik inlensificalion in a high peifoinance
fianevoik is aigued lo occui lhiough lhe inveslnenl in aulononous, incenlivized
voik vilh ioon foi giovlh vhich signaIs enpIoyei expeclalions of high enpIoyee
inveslnenls (Tsui & Wu, 2OO5). AddilionaIIy, lhe ciealion of high peifoinance
voikpIaces nighl signify a nanageiiaI conlioI slialegy lhal enphasizes enpIoyee
lenefils as neans lo gain enpIoyee conpIiance vilh voik inlensificalion, jol
insecuiily, anliguily and sliess (HaiIey, 1995 in Ransay el aI., 2OOO). This vouId
Iead enpIoyees lo accepl an inciease in voik piessuie in oidei lo loosl pioduclivily
IeveIs. ConsequenlIy, lhis liansIales inlo a voik silualion in vhich aIongside lhe
acknovIedgenenl of lhe incieasing vaIue of lhe hunan iesouice, lhe iisks of adveise
enpIoyee heaIlh effecls aIso inciease. Mohinan and Cohen (1995) aigue lhal lhis
cieales a lension foi nodein oiganizalions in lheii sliife foi conpeliliveness lhiough
peopIe, vhich enlaiIs:

'|.j lhal peopIe have lhe oppoilunily foi peisonaI giovlh, skiII deveIopnenl and
connecledness lo olheis, lul lhey aIso aie confionled vilh a Iack of secuiily, anliguily,
conpeling denands, and unieIenling voik piessuies. (p. 377)

The possilIe daik side of nev vays of Ialoui nanagenenl caIIs inlo queslion lhe
lvo-faced naluie of nev Ialoui nanagenenl concepls. As depicled in Iiguie 1-3,
lhis poses queslions vilh iegaid lo lhe lensions lelveen enpIoyee veII-leing and
discielionaiy effoil in a HIWS fianevoik.










F|gure 1-3: Poss|b|e tens|ons |n the Hanagement of Performance and we||-be|ng

h|gh Performance
work 8ystems

0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

Effect|ve
0|scret|onary Effort



Emp|oyee
we||-be|ng

6
1.1.4 Rcsn!vIng pnssIb!c tcnsInns: managcmcnt by vIta!Ity?
The oiganizalions conslanl sliife lo ollain lellei peifoinance cieales a ceilain
paiadox. On lhe one hand, good oiganizalionaI peifoinance is noie and noie
alliilulalIe lo lhe oiganizalions dislinclive pooI of hunan iesouices. On lhe olhei
hand, lhe nanagenenl of lhese iesouices lovaids peifoinance can pioduce adveise
veII-leing effecls vhich couId undeinine lhe hunan iesouices capacily lo add
vaIue lo lhe oiganizalion. Hovevei, nuch of lhe enpiiicaI ieseaich conceining lhe
inpacl of slialegic HRM on oiganizalionaI peifoinance has IaigeIy excIuded lhe
effecls on individuaI enpIoyee veII-leing. SiniIaiIy, individuaI-IeveI ieseaich on lhe
deleininanls of enpIoyee veII-leing and heaIlh has IaigeIy excIuded lhe
conliilulion lo lhe oiganizalionaI goaI of high peifoinance (Cuesl, 2OO2). In lhis
vay, lhe possilIe lensions in lhe nanagenenl of oiganizalionaI peifoinance and
enpIoyee veII-leing gel ly-passed and ienain a lIind spol. This depicls an
inpoilanl knovIedge gap vhich iecenlIy has ieceived noie specific schoIai
allenlion. Ioi exanpIe, al lhe oiganizalionaI IeveI, lhe eneiging Iileialuie on
oiganizalionaI heaIlh (e.g., Cox, 1988, Hail & Coopei, 2OO1) oi suslainalIe voik
syslens (Docheily el aI., 2OO2) depicl a viev on Ialoui nanagenenl lhal lakes inlo
accounl shoil-lein oiganizalionaI effecliveness vilhoul conpionising fuluie
effecliveness vhen diaining enpIoyee iesouices Iike heaIlh and veII-leing. Wilh
iegaid lo individuaI heaIlh and veII-leing, ieseaich shifled ils allenlion fion voik
and oiganizalionaI aspecls lhal cause iII heaIlh and unveII-leing lo lhose aspecls lhal
pionole posilive and oplinaI enpIoyee funclioning as a iefIeclion of high and aclive
heaIlh (e.g., SeIignan & CsikszenlnihaIyi, 2OOO, Hofnann & Teliick, 2OO3).

These slieans of ieseaich acknovIedge lhal high peifoinance cannol Iasl vilhoul
heaIlhy hunan iesouices, jusl as good as aclive enpIoyee funclioning/peifoinance
vouId signify a slale of high heaIlh and veII-leing. In Iine vilh lhese nev foci, lhis
disseilalion Iooks inlo lhe possiliIily lo dislinguish a sel of voik and oiganizalionaI
faclois lhal signify a connon giound foi lhe nanagenenl of a heaIlhy and
pioduclive voikfoice. Iuilheinoie, in seaich foi connon faclois lhal
sinuIlaneousIy pionole veII-leing and peifoinance, ve inlioduce lhe concepl
cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q as an indicaloi of a heaIlhy, pioduclive and suslainalIe voikfoice
(see aIso Iay & Kanps, 2OO6).
7





















F|gure 1-4: Emp|oyee V|ta||ty |n the hPw8-Performance L|nkage


As shovn in Iiguie 1-4, enpIoyee vilaIily viII le aigued lo le an eIenenl of lolh
discielionaiy enpIoyee effoil and enpIoyee veII-leing. As such, lensions lelveen
peifoinance and veII-leing ialionaIes can le noie effecliveIy addiessed and
possilIy iesoIved. On lhe vhoIe, Iiguie 1-4 iepiesenls lhe key Iinkage in lhis
disseilalion, vhich addiesses hov conlenpoiaiy HR nanagenenl appioaches Iike
High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens (HIWSs) inpacl oiganizalionaI peifoinance and
vhelhei enpIoyee vilaIily inleinediales lhis Iinkage. SpecificaIIy, lhis disseilalion
viII focus on lhe Iinenanageis ioIe in lhe enaclnenl of HIWSs, vhich nakes lhal
lhe key Iinkage is exanined al lhe voik unil IeveI of anaIysis.

ConsequenlIy, lhe foIIoving piolIen slalenenl is foinuIaled:


In seaich foi a connon giound of lhe sinuIlaneous enhancenenl of enpIoyee
veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance, lo vhal exlenl does enpIoyee
vilaIily inleinediale lhe ieIalionship lelveen High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens
and voik unil peifoinance`








h|gh Performance
work 8ystems

0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

Emp|oyee
V|ta||ty?



Emp|oyee
we||-be|ng
Effect|ve
0|scret|onary Effort
8
1.2 RE5EARCH QUE5TION5 AND DI55ERTATION 5TRUCTURE
IoIIoving fion lhe piolIen slalenenl, foui ieseaich queslions lhal viII guide lhe six
coie chapleis of lhis disseilalion aie shovn in TalIe 1-1 leIov.


Tab|e 1-1: Ha|n Research 0uest|ons (R0} per chapter
R0 Ha|n 0uest|ons 6hapter Type
1 wral does prev|ous lreory ard researcr corc|ude or roW Wor|
orgar|zal|ora| ard raragererl laclors car lorr a 'corror grourd |r
lre|r ellecl or erp|oyee We||-oe|rg ard orgar|zal|ora| perlorrarce; Wral
are lre ra|r gaps ard s|r||ar|l|es |r lrese lreorel|ca| approacres; ard
roW car lr|s oe used |r lurlrer researcr?

2 Treorel|ca|
2 loW does a reW corcepl ol emp|o,ee v|ra||r, corlr|oule lo lre researcr
or erp|oyee We||-oe|rg ano perlorrarce ard Wral are lre spec|l|cs ol a
va||daled erp|oyee v|la||ly corslrucl?

3 & 4 Corceplua|/
va||dal|or
3 wral |s a l|gr Perlorrarce wor| 3ysler FrareWor| ard Wr|cr l|gr
Perlorrarce wor| Pracl|ces are erp|r|ca||y assoc|aled W|lr lre
urder|y|rg assurpl|ors ol lre lPw3 lrareWor|?

5 & Corceplua|/
va||dal|or
4

To Wral exlerl does lre adopl|or ol l|gr Perlorrarce wor| Pracl|ces
errarce emp|o,ee v|ra||r,; ard lo Wral exlerl does erp|oyee v|la||ly
|rlerred|ale lPwPs ard Wor| ur|l perlorrarce?
7 Erp|r|ca| /
Exp|aralory


In ansveiing lhe fiisl ieseaich queslion, Cnap|cr 2 piovides an oveiviev of lhe
lheoielicaI appioaches lovaids lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance lhal
have eneiged in vaiious ieseaich discipIines. The fundanenlaI diffeiences lelveen
lhese appioaches and slienglhs of each appioach piovide lhe conlouis and lasis of
lhis disseilalions ieseaich fianevoik. The foIIoving chapleis aie lased on a Iaige-
scaIe dala coIIeclion lelveen May 2OO6 and Ieliuaiy 2OO7 vilhin a lolaI of 13 Dulch
oiganizalions. The second ieseaich queslion is addiessed in Cnap|cr 3 and 4. Heie, ve
focus on lhe concepluaIizalion, neasuienenl and vaIidalion of lhe enpIoyee vilaIily
9






















concepl, lased on queslionnaiie dala fion 736 enpIoyees voiking in 51 voik unils
fion lhe 13 oiganizalions. SiniIaiIy, Chaplei 5 and 6 deaI vilh lhe lheoielicaI and
neasuienenl specifics and lhe vaIidalion of enacled High Ieifoinance Woik
Iiaclices (HIWIs) al lhe voik unil-IeveI. Heie, ve use nalched dala fion
sliucluied inleivievs vilh fiisl Iine nanageis and HR piofessionaIs iepiesenling a
lolaI of 53 voik unils fion 12 of lhe 13 oiganizalions invoIved. Cnap|cr 7 conlains
lvo enpiiicaI sludies. The fiisl sludy lesls lhe nuIli-IeveI effecls of HIWIs on
enpIoyee vilaIily. In lhe second sludy, lhe inleinedialing ioIe of enpIoyee vilaIily
lelveen HIWIs and voik unil peifoinance is lesled. In lolh sludies, nuIli-acloi
dala fion Iine nanageis, HR piofessionaIs and enpIoyees aie used. IinaIIy, Cnap|cr
8 concIudes vilh a discussion on lhe possiliIilies of a connon giound foi lhe
nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance and lhe inleinedialing ioIe of enpIoyee
vilaIily. Heie, ve eIaloiale on iesuIls of lhis disseilalion sludy, lhe conliilulion lo
ieseaich in lhis donain, lhe slienglhs and veaknesses and lhe inpIicalions foi
ieseaich and piaclice.

F|gure 1-5: 0verv|ew of the ||nkages between the ma|n chapters |n th|s d|ssertat|on



Emp|oyee
V|ta||ty


h|gh Performance
work 8ystems

6hapter 5:
0onceprua||zar|on


6hapter :
va||oar|on


6hapter 7:
Emp|r|ca| resr ol rne meo|ar|ng
ro|e ol emp|o,ee v|ra||r,




work Un|t
Performance

[hR/Line} Manager data Employee data [hR/Line} Manager

6hapter 3:
0onceprua||zar|on



6hapter 4:
va||oar|on
10
Iiguie 1-5 alove, giaphicaIIy shovs lhe sliucluie of lhis disseilalion vilh iegaid lo
lhe conneclion lelveen lhe concepluaI and enpiiicaI chapleis and lhe nain
vaiialIes and Iinkages lhal viII le sludied. As shovn fiisl, lhe key concepls of
enpIoyee vilaIily (in chaplei 3 and 4) and High Ieifoinance Woik Iiaclices (in
chaplei 5 and 6) aie exanined lefoie lhe enpiiicaI ieIalionship lelveen lhe
vaiialIes is lesled (in chaplei 7). In lhe nexl chaplei, ve slail vilh an sliucluied
oveiviev of lheoiies and ieseaich on lhe voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal affecl
peifoinance and veII-leing. Al lhe end of chaplei 2, a noie delaiIed ieseaich
fianevoik is piesenled vhich viII guide lhe chapleis lhal foIIov.

1.2.1 Rc!cvancc nf thIs DIsscrtatInn
Olhei lhan in pievious ieseaich, lhis disseilalion piojecl deaIs vilh seveiaI shaip
edges of sinuIlaneousIy pionoling enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI
peifoinance in a conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl. As lhe inheienl confIicls lelveen
allaining high peifoinance goaIs vilhoul conpionising enpIoyee inleiesls and
veII-leing is aInosl a daiIy nanageiiaI ieaIily, lheoiy and enpiiics seen lo le sluck
in eilhei veiy oplinislic uin-uin oi veiy pessinislic uin-|csc nodeIs of lhoughl. y
addiessing and inlegialing lhe knovIedge fion diffeienl discipIines, al diffeienl
IeveIs of anaIysis and vilh diffeienl nelhodoIogicaI insighls, lhe ieIevance of lhis
disseilalion sludy Iies in expIoiing lhe laIancing gane of nanaging veII-leing and
peifoinance. Moieovei, il lakes inlo accounl lhe iecenl nolions of high peifoinance
voik syslens, posilive enpIoyee veII-leing concepls and aclive peifoinance
concepls deiived fion diffeienl acadenic discipIines in oidei lo exanine lhe vaIue
of an inlegialive concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily. The acadenic ieIevance Iies in lhe
fuilhei concepluaIizalion and vaIid neasuienenl of lhese concepls. The nanageiiaI
ieIevance Iies in pioviding decenliaIized nanageis and HR piofessionaIs vilh
ieconnendalions aloul vhich and hov ceilain voik and oiganizalionaI faclois
inpiove peifoinance, vhiIe suslaining enpIoyee veII-leing. This can seive as a
slailing poinl foi evaIualing lhe suslainaliIily of lhe piesenl voik piaclices.
Iuilheinoie, lhe concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily can liidge lhe oflen decoupIed
poIicies on peifoinance and veII-leing inpiovenenl.

11
Chaptez 2
The management of weII-being performance:
optimiatic, peaaimiatic, acepticaI and integrative
theoreticaI perapectivea











2.1 INTRODUCTION
Wilh a Iaige sliean of ieseaich on lhe (Ialoui) nanagenenl anlecedenls of enpIoyee
peifoinance and oiganizalionaI effecliveness, lhe voik and oiganizalionaI
deleininanls of occupalionaI heaIlh/veII-leing have diavn an equaI anounl of
ieseaich allenlion. Hovevei, Muiphy and Coopei (2OOO: p.1) slale lhal 'foi lhe nosl
pail, lhese lvo Iines of ieseaich inquiiy have leen caiiied oul independenlIy and
fev enpiiicaI sludies have soughl connon anlecedenls and cioss-culling faclois. So
fai, lhe nanagenenl anlecedenls of peifoinance enhancenenl aie oflen assuned lo
posiliveIy ieIale lo enpIoyee veII-leing, jusl Iike enpIoyee veII-leing enhancenenl
is assuned lo posiliveIy ieIale lo enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Who
vouId conlesl lhal pioduclive enpIoyees feeI lellei lhan unpioduclive ones` And
vho vouId conlesl lhal heaIlhy enpIoyees aie noie pioduclive lhan unheaIlhy
ones` SiniIaiIy, nany lheoiies undeiIying lhe nanagenenl lovaids veII-leing and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance lend lo shaie lhe sane aspecls and enphasize a
happy/heaIlhy-pioduclive voikei (Slav, 1986, Wiighl & Slav, 1999, Wiighl &
Ciopanzano, 2OOO) oi a high-connilnenl/high-invoIvenenl voikpIace (WaIlon,
1985, LavIei, 1986, Ailhui, 1994) as a souice of oiganizalionaI success. In conliasl,
12
seveiaI aulhois have conlesled lhis cp|inis|ic peispeclive on enpIoyee veII-leing
and oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Iion a pcssinis|ic peispeclive, lhey slale lhal
nanagenenl faclois lhal enhance oiganizalionaI peifoinance couId aIso cone al lhe
expense of enpIoyee veII-leing vhiIe high peifoinance piessuies can inpaii
enpIoyee heaIlh and safely. As such, lhey couId foin a liade-off (e.g., Codaid, 2OO1,
Ransay el aI., 2OOO, WaIIace & Chen, 2OO6, Canpion & Thayei, 1987). Olheivise,
aulhois laking a sccp|ica| peispeclive aigue lhal voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal
ieIale lo enpIoyee veII-leing aie nol necessaiiIy siniIai lo lhose lhal vouId ieIale lo
oiganizalionaI peifoinance and vice veisa (KeIIy, 1992, Ieccei, 2OO4, Sonnenlag,
2OO2). Heie, il is doulled vhelhei lhe piocesses affecling enpIoyee veII-leing and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance shaie lhe sane anlecedenls. AddilionaIIy, iecenl
Iileialuie on oiganizalionaI heaIlh (Muiphy & Coopei, 2OOO, Hail & Coopei, 2OO1,
Hofnann & Teliick, 2OO3) and suslainalIe voik syslens (Docheily, IoisIin &
Shani, 2OO2, Huzzaid, 2OO3) expIicilIy aIIocale an equaI anounl of allenlion lo lhe
inpiovenenl of enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance and/oi
effecliveness. These nevei Iines of acadenic inquiiy can le IaleIIed as in|cgra|itc
lheoielicaI peispeclives lhal liy lo iesoIve lhe enlvined diIennas suiiounding lhe
nanagenenl of enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance.

Reseaich Iinked lo eilhei oplinislic, pessinislic, sceplicaI oi inlegialive lheoielicaI
peispeclives
1
, each deIivei unique lheoielicaI and enpiiicaI conliilulions vilh
iegaid lo lhe Iinkages and lensions lelveen veII-leing and peifoinance. Hovevei,
vilhoul iecognizing lhe conpeling hypolheses (WaII & Wood, 2OO5) lhal seen lo
undeiIie lhe donain of lhe nanagenenl of enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance,
lheoielicaI advancenenls viII faII shoil of undeislanding lhe diIennas nodein day
oiganizalions face. To dale, lhis has nol Ied lo a cIeai inlegialive lheoielicaI
fianevoik foi undeislanding hov oiganizalions can pionole and ielain an efficienl,
pioduclive, high quaIily voikfoice vhiIe sinuIlaneousIy Iooking aflei ils enpIoyees
geneiaI heaIlh and veII-leing. And yel, lellei insighl in lhe possiliIilies and
consliainls foi oiganizalions lo foslei a connon giound of voik and
oiganizalionaI chaiacleiislics vhich piedicl oc|n leneficiaI enpIoyee veII-leing and
peifoinance oulcones is of incieasing ieIevance in a conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl.


1
See Ieccei (2OO4) vho used a siniIai calegoiizalion of lheoielicaI slances lovaids lhe nanagenenl of
veII-leing and peifoinance.
13
2.1.1 Gna! and structurc nf thIs chaptcr
The goaI of lhis chaplei is lo syslenalicaIIy discuss pasl lheoiy and ieseaich on lhe
nechanisns undeiIying nanagenenl anlecedenls of veII-leing and peifoinance.
Iiisl, ve addiess lheoiies, nodeIs and ieseaich findings iefIecling eilhei an
oplinislic, pessinislic, sceplicaI oi inlegialive lheoielicaI peispeclive. Second, ve
sunnaiize lhe oveiIap and diffeiences lelveen lhe diffeienl peispeclives. IinaIIy,
ve piopose ieseaich diieclions in oidei lo oveicone lhe confIicluous naluie of veII-
leing-peifoinance lheoiies and ieseaich in oidei lo shed Iighl on vhal nighl
conslilule lhis connon giound foi peifoinance and veII-leing pionolion. This
adds up lo a guiding ieseaich fianevoik foi lhe chapleis lo cone. eIov, Iiguie 2-1
shovs lhe concepluaI luiIding lIocks vhich viII le addiessed in lhis chaplei.











F|gure 2-1: 6onceptua| u||d|ng |ocks |n th|s 6hapter


2.2 DEFINITION5 OF WELL-BEING, PERFORMANCE AND MANAGEMENT
Whal exaclIy conslilules voik and oiganizalionaI faclois and vhal is neanl ly veII-
leing and peifoinance is nol easiIy caughl in slandaid definilions. Theiefoie, in lhis
seclion, lhe luiIding lIocks (as shovn in Iiguie 2-1) aie discussed in noie deplh.

2.2.1 DcfInIng wc!!-bcIng
Slailing vilh enpIoyee veII-leing, Danna & Ciiffin (1999) nake a dislinclion
lelveen lhe concepls of enpIoyee nca||n and uc||-ocing. They pIace heaIlh in lhe
conlexl of nedicaI physioIogicaI and psychoIogicaI synplonoIogy iefeiiing lo
knovn iIInesses Iike caidio-vascuIai diseases, lackaches oi depiession. Hovevei,

(hR} Hanagement
Factors

0rgan|zat|ona|
performance

Emp|oyee
we||-be|ng

14
leyond lhe specific physicaI and/oi nenlaI heaIlh synplons, enpIoyee veII-leing
'lends lo le a noie lioad and enconpassing concepl lhal lakes inlo consideialion
lhe vhoIe peison (Danna el aI., 1999: p. 364) oi lhe vhoIe enpIoyee. Theiefoie,
enpIoyee veII-leing in lhe voikpIace vouId aIso incIude lolh conlexl-fiee neasuies
of Iife expeiiences (e.g. Iife salisfaclion, happiness) and lhe enpIoyees expeiience oi
affecl lovaids lhe jol, enpIoyei oi oiganizalion (e.g. jol salisfaclion, jol allachnenl)
oi lovaids noie facel-specific dinensions (e.g. salisfaclion vilh pay oi co-voikeis).
In defining enpIoyee veII-leing (deleinined ly voik and oiganizalionaI faclois),
oui focus is on pioxinaI indicalois vhich diieclIy lap veII-leing in lhe ucr| dcnain.
This neans lhal ve excIude dislaI, conlexl-fiee heaIlh synplons and affeclive Iife
expeiiences vhich couId le deleinined ly a vaiiely of faclois in enpIoyees piivale
nedicaI and/oi sociaI donain. AIlhough lheie aie olhei and noie delaiIed
peispeclives on lhe nolion of enpIoyee heaIlh and veII-leing (see Hofnann &
Teliick (2OO3) foi an exceIIenl discussion), lhe najoiily of voik and oiganizalionaI
ieseaich lends lo ain al lhe voik-ieIaled affcc|itc uc||-ocing and lhe ucr|-rc|a|cd nca||n
dinensions of oveiaII enpIoyee veII-leing (Iaikei, 2OOO). This has nanifesled ilseIf
in a iange of sludies conceined vilh voik and oiganizalionaI faclois posiliveIy
infIuencing affeclive veII-leing indicalois Iike jol salisfaclion (IaffaIdano &
Muchinsky, 1985), oiganizalionaI connilnenl (AIIen & Meyei, 199O) oi enpIoyee
noiaIe (Vandenleig el aI., 1999). On lhe olhei hand, occupalionaI heaIlh and jol
sliess ieseaich have liadilionaIIy focused on lhe voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal
affecl nenlaI heaIlh oi voik-ieIaled sliain indicalois Iike faligue, anxiely oi
enolionaI exhauslion. Theiefoie, in defining veII-leing foi lhis disseilalion, ve
nake a dislinclion lelveen voik-ieIaled affeclive veII-leing and heaIlh.

2.2.2 DcfInIng pcrfnrmancc
}usl Iike enpIoyee veII-leing, peifoinance is aIso a nuIlifaceled concepl (Sonnenlag
& Iiese, 2OO2). Wilh iegaid lo ieseaich on lhe effecl of HRM on oiganizalionaI
peifoinance, sludies have incIuded indicalois of financiaI (slock vaIue, piofils,
ieluin on inveslnenl) oi naikel peifoinance (saIes ievenues, naikel giovlh).
IiolIens vilh expIaining vaiiance in lhis lype of peifoinance ly voik and
oiganizalionaI faclois is lhe dislaI naluie of lhese indicalois (Iaauve & oseIie,
2OO5). This iefeis lo lhe lioad scope of faclois oulside of lhe voik oiganizalionaI
donain lhal posiliveIy oi negaliveIy affecl lhese indicalois, Iike cuiiency exchange
iales in lhe case of saIes, counliy diffeiences in IegisIalion on piofil laxes oi lhe
15
iegionaI densily of olhei conpelilois in lhe case of naikel giovlh (ievslei, 1999).
Ioi a noie pioxinaI peifoinance indicaloi, |aocur pioduclivily is suggesled lo foin
an adequale indicaloi as il incIudes lhe vaIue added ly Ialoui sel off againsl lhe
nunlei of voiked houis and/oi lhe Ialoui-ieIaled cosls. This pIaces oiganizalionaI
peifoinance noie diieclIy in lhe voik donain. oxaII and IuiceII (2OO3) nake a
nolalIe dislinclion lelveen a ccs|-cffcc|itcncss and a ccs|-nininisa|icn appioach lo
Ialoui pioduclivily. The cosl-nininisalion appioach enphasizes lhal Ialoui
pioduclivily couId le iaised ly ieducing lhe ieIalive Ialoui-ieIaled cosls, vhiIe lhe
cosl-effecliveness appioach incIudes lhe nolion lhal highei ac|ua| cosls aie juslified
vhen a suipIus of added vaIue is allained vhich aIso conliilules lo lhe ieduclion of
(fuluie) pc|cn|ia| cosls. In peifoinance Iileialuie, cosl-effeclive Ialoui pioduclivily
ieIales lo lhe concepl of enpIoyee discielionaiy effoil (aiIey, 1993), vhich
enconpasses lhose aspecls of voik lehavioui lhal enpIoyees conliilule al lheii
discielion and cannol le easiIy pIaced undei foinaI nanagenenl conlioI.
AppeIlaun el aI. (2OOO: 26) slale lhal foi nanageis il is of ieIevance lo gel
'enpIoyees lo appIy lheii ciealivily and inaginalion lo lheii voik and lo expIoil
lheii inlinale and oflen unconscious knovIedge of lhe voik piocess. This exlia-ioIe
effoil al lhe enpIoyees discielion is leIieved lo add vaIue vhen inleiacling vilh
(inleinaI/exleinaI) cusloneis, advanced lechnoIogy oi opeialionaI unceilainlies,
vhiIe al lhe sane line il couId ieduce (polenliaI) coslIy voik piocess inefficiencies.
Theiefoie, fion heie, peifoinance is iefeiied lo as cosl-effeclive, discielionaiy
enpIoyee effoil.

2.2.3 Thc managcmcnt nf wc!!-bcIng and pcrfnrmancc
Ovei lhe yeais, a nuIlilude of acadenic discipIines have leen conceined vilh lhe
invesligalion of lhe voik and oiganizalionaI faclois and piocesses lhal affecl
lolh/eilhei enpIoyee veII-leing and/oi peifoinance. TalIe 2-1 shovs a ciude
calegoiizalion of lhose acadenic discipIines and lhe enphasis lhey pIace on lhe
anlecedenls of eilhei enpIoyee veII-leing oi oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Diiven ly
queslions on lhe inpacl of voik and oiganizalionaI faclois on eilhei lhe pionolion
of oiganizalionaI peifoinance oi lhe ieduclion of heaIlh iisks al voik, aII of lhe
discipIines liy lo idenlify lhose nanagealIe voik and oiganizalionaI vaiialIes lhal
inpacl individuaI oi gioups of enpIoyees. Slenning fion diffeienl lackgiounds,
lhe piecise ciileiion of inleiesl, lhe IeveI of anaIysis and lhe expIanaloiy nechanisns
lend lo diffei lo a gieal exlenl.
16
Tab|e 2-1: 6ategor|zat|on of Academ|c 0|sc|p||nes
Emphas|z|ng we||-be|ng
as outcome
Emphas|z|ng Performance
as outcome
Emphas|z|ng we||-be|ng and
Performance as outcome
lrduslr|a| Re|al|ors
3lress Varagererl
0ccupal|ora| lea|lr
wor| 3lress
3lraleg|c Varagererl
lurar Resource Varagererl
0rgar|zal|ora| 8erav|our
Joo 0es|gr
0rgar|zal|ora| lea|lr
3usla|rao|e wor| 3yslers



Ioi exanpIe, slialegic nanagenenl and hunan iesouice nanagenenl Iileialuie
conlains a focus on expIaining vaiiance in lusiness success as a iesuIl of
enpIoynenl ieIalionaI decisions (e.g. oulsouicing) and HRM piaclices (e.g.,
peifoinance-ieIaled pay) - oflen lhis happens againsl lhe lackdiop of ceilain
oiganizalionaI conlingencies. On lhe olhei hand, occupalionaI heaIlh Iileialuie and
ieseaich, lo a Iaige exlenl, focuses on expIaining lhe vaiiance in individuaI heaIlh as
a consequence of suljeclive voik denands and iesouices.

















F|gure 2-2: 8pec|f|ed 6onceptua| u||d|ng |ocks |n th|s 6hapter




Lmp|oyee
We||-beng

(wor|-re|aled)
Allecl|ve we||-oe|rg
& lea|lr

0rgar|zal|ora|
Perlorrarce

(Cosl-Ellecl|ve)
0|screl|orary
Ellorl

(lR) Varagererl
Faclors


(Varageao|e)
wor| & 0rgar|zal|ora|
Faclors

17
As sunnaiized in Iiguie 2-2, Iileialuie on lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and
peifoinance is lioad and diveise due lo ils ovn specific ciileiion of inleiesl, IeveI of
anaIysis and doninanl lheoielicaI fianevoiks. In oidei lo ieviev and conpaie a
gieal deaI of lhis Iileialuie, lhe nexl paiagiaphs viII focus on lhose slieans of
Iileialuie vhich have concenlialed on (nanagealIe) voik and oiganizalionaI faclois
in ieIalion lo (cosl-effeclive) discielionaiy enpIoyee effoil and (voik-ieIaled)
affeclive veII-leing and heaIlh. In conpaiing lhe Iileialuie pioviding eilhei an
oplinislic, pessinislic, sceplicaI oi inlegialive peispeclive on lhe nanagenenl of
veII-leing and peifoinance, lheoiy and ieseaich findings al lolh lhe
individuaI/enpIoyee IeveI oi lhe oiganizalionaI/nanagenenl IeveI viII le
addiessed.


2.3 OPTIMI5TIC PER5PECTIVE5 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF WELL-BEING AND
PERFORMANCE
y fai, lhe najoiily of lheoiies and ieseaich lake an oplinislic peispeclive on lhe
nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance. The aIignnenl of enpIoyee and
enpIoyei needs/inleiesls and lhe assunplion of nuluaI gains foi lolh pailies
foins a Iong-Iasling ialionaIe undeipinning voik design and Ialoui nanagenenl
lheoiy and piaclice. Heie, lhe sinuIlaneous fuIfiInenl of lolh enpIoyee and
oiganizalionaI needs vouId signify a successfuI puisuil of enpIoyee veII-leing and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance. To an oiganizalion, enpIoyees as hunan assels aie
consideied a speciaI foin of slialegic assels, as lhey aie 'hunan capilaI undei Iiniled
oiganizalionaI conlioI lhal have lhe polenliaI lo geneiale econonic ienl (Coff, 1997:
375). LnpIoyees aie noie conpIex lo govein as lhey have lheii ovn needs lhal
shape lheii voik ioIe lehavioui. Lvei since lhe nolalIe schoIais vilhin lhe hunan
ieIalions liadilion in lhe 193Os and ils foIIoveis in lhe 196Os (e.g., Agiyiis, 1964,
McCiegoi, 1964, Vioon, 1964, Heizleig, 1966)
2
pul lhe sociaI and psychoIogicaI
needs of individuaI enpIoyees on lhe nanagenenl agenda, lheie is a fundanenlaI
delale on lhe vay lhe fuIfiInenl of lhese individuaI enpIoyee needs and inleiesls
vilhin lhe voikpIace vouId ieIale lo inpioved oiganizalionaI efficiency and
pioduclivily. In lhe foIIoving seclions, ve viII discuss lhe eaiIy lhoughls on lhe

2
LxenpIaiy look lilIes aie McCiegois Tnc Hunan Sidc cf |nc |n|crprisc, Agiyiis |n|cgra|ing |nc
|nditidua| and |nc Organiza|icn oi Heizleigs lcr| and |nc Na|urc cf Man.
18
cp|inis|ic appioach lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance and lhe
conlinuily of lhese lhoughls in diffeienl conlenpoiaiy slieans of Iileialuie.

2.3.1 Ear!y OptImIstIc Thnughts: PrIncIp!cs nf Labnur HumanIzatInn
OiiginaIIy liiggeied ly a hunanizalion of Ialoui ideaI, lhe hunanislic pIea foi lhe
enhancenenl of neaningfuI voik, inliinsic voik nolivalion and seIf-acluaIizalion al
voik allesled againsl lhe iigid, slandaidized voik syslens vhich ieduced hunan
voik lo 'puie sensoiinoloi funclions depiived fion any inleIIecluaI aclivilies
(idnei & IoisIin, 2OO2: 17). Il sel lhe lone foi vieving hunan Ialoui as a fiin
iesouice leing fundanenlaIIy diffeienl fion olhei fiin iesouices (e.g., lechnoIogy,
pioduclion piocess), lecause lhe hunan iesouice cannol le sepaialed fion lhe pccp|c
in vhon il exisls (Ldvaids, 2OO1: 2-3). Al a socielaI IeveI, Maixisl lheoiies foi a Iong
line enliaced lhe nolion lhal pioduclion capilaI and Ialoui aie dislincl enlilies (lhe
foinei can nol ievoIl, lhe Iallei can!). Maixs piolIen vilh voik syslens lhal
aIienaled Ialoui ly ieducing hunan pioduclivily lo neie adaplalion lo (ialhei lhan
conlioI ovei) pioduclion nachineiy, vas lhal il denies voikeis lhe possiliIily lo
fieeIy deveIop lheii essenliaIIy hunan nenlaI and physicaI eneigies (WhilfieId &
IooIe, 1997). Wilh iegaid lo lhe voik oiganizalion, hunan ieIalions lheoiisls
concenlialed on lhe voik and oiganizalionaI aspecls affecling specificaIIy lhe nunan
iesouice vilhin oiganizalions. This Iay lhe foundalion foi peisonneI nanagenenl
and Ialei hunan iesouice nanagenenl lo evoIve as a sepaiale funclionaI
discipIine vilhin oiganizalions (idnei & IoisIin, 2OO2). The hunan ieIalions
schooIs nission vas lo idenlify lhose voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal vouId
fuIfiI lhe enpIoyees sociaI and psychoIogicaI needs lhal in luin vouId liiggei lhe
in|rinsic ucr| nc|ita|icn as a diiving psychoIogicaI foice lo do a good jol (idnei &
IoisIin, 2OO2), sonelhing of vhich oiganizalions vouId lenefil in leins of lellei
peifoinance. Wilh iefeience lo Maixs piolIen vilh aIienaling voik syslens, il
enlaiIs a focus on hov fieeing hunan nenlaI and physicaI eneigies (as opposed lo
iesliicling il) couId lenefil lolh enpIoyei and enpIoyee. The nov fanous
Havlhoine sludies ieveaIed lhe effecl of giving (ieseaich) allenlion lo peopIe in a
pioduclion-selling and lhe iise of pioduclivily, caused ly hunan/psychoIogicaI
piocesses ialhei lhan changes in pioduclion nelhods. In lhe voids of Huzzaid
(2OO3: p.14):

19
'|.j lhe Hunan ReIalions SchooI asseiled lhal vheie nanageis appiecialed lhe hunanislic
needs of lheii voikfoices, voikpIace ieIalions couId le conceived in posilive-sun leins, lhal
is, inpiovenenls in hunan veII-leing conliiluled lo fiin peifoinance ialhei lhan leing a
neie oveihead lhal undeinined piofilaliIily.

2.3.2 Latcr OptImIstIc Mndc!s
In appIying lhe assunplions foIIoving diieclIy fion lhe hunan ieIalions novenenl,
noie specific jol and nanagenenl nodeIs aiose lhal ained al voikpIace
inleivenlions and leslalIe ieseaich nodeIs al diffeienl IeveIs of anaIysis.

The ]ob characterlstlcs mode|
In vhal vas leined lhe quaIily of voik Iife novenenl (Codaid & DeIenay, 2OOO:
485), lhe nosl infIuenliaI nodeI vas lhe jol iedesign nodeI oi }ol Chaiacleiislic
ModeI (}CM, shovn in Iiguie 2-3 ) ly Hacknan and OIdhan (198O). The cIeai
paiaIIeIs vilh hunan ieIalions assunplions can le found in lhe expecled oulcone
donain of jol iedesign, vhich enconpasses nuIlipIe oulcones such as inpioved jol
salisfaclion, pioduclivily as veII as ieduced enpIoyee luinovei and sickness
alsence. Wilh iespecl lo lhe inpIicalions foi voik design, Hacknan and OIdhan
(198O) dislinguished lhiee inleiieIaled jol, voikpIace oiganizalionaI and nanageiiaI
aspecls, vhich syneigislicaIIy vouId inpiove lolh enpIoyee veII-leing and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones. Iocussing on vhal Hacknan and OIdhan
leined lhe nc|ita|icna| pc|cn|ia| of jols, lhe }CM lheoiizes lhal a conlinalion of jol
eniichnenl (lask vaiiely, lask idenlily, lask significance), aulonony and feedlack of
iesuIls, vouId each pioduce ciilicaI nolivalionaI-psychoIogicaI slales of,
iespecliveIy, expeiienced neaningfuIness of voik, expeiienced iesponsiliIily and
knovIedge of iesuIls of voik aclivilies. Iuilhei, lhe }CM suggesls lhal lhese coie
nolivaling voik chaiacleiislics vouId ieIale sliongei lo enpIoyee veII-leing and
pioduclivily vhen (1) individuaI enpIoyees allach inpoilance lo chaIIenge and
peisonaI deveIopnenl (nign grcu|n-nccd s|rcng|n), (2) vhen lhey possess lhe peisonaI
aliIilies lo do lhe jol (s|i||s and |ncu|cdgc), and (3) vhen enpIoyees feeI lhal lhey aie
paid veII, have a secuie jol and have a good ieIalionship vilh lheii supeivisoi (jco
ccn|cx|ua| sa|isfac|icn).

The }CM can le consideied one of lhe fiisl inlegialive appioaches lhal concepluaIIy
undeiIined lhe hunan ieIalions schooIs assunplions on lhe conveigence of veII-
leing and peifoinance lhiough lhe piincipIes of Ialoui hunanizalion. Iiisl, il
20

vieved (lhe enpIoyee expeiience of) lhe jol as a cenliaI consliucl sepaialed fion lhe
naluie of lhe pioduclion piocess in vhich il is peifoined. Second, il look inliinsic
enpIoyee nolivalion as lhe coie Iinking nechanisn lelveen voik and
oiganizalionaI faclois and veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones. And lhiid, il
cIeaiIy assuned lo le an appioach lo voik oiganizalionaI and nanageiiaI aspecls of
lhe jol and individuaI enpIoyee chaiacleiislics, vhich in oplinaI conjunclion vouId
lenefil lolh individuaI veII-leing and oiganizalionaI goaIs. The lechnicaI-
concepluaI appioach lo sludy lhe diffeienl aspecls of individuaI jol/voik
expeiiences, enpIoyee needs and aliIilies, lhe oiganizalionaI conlexl and ils
oiganizalionaI oulcones iesuIled in a Iaige sliean on enpiiicaI I/O psychoIogicaI
ieseaich (incIuding Ialoialoiy sludies) on lhe vaIidily of lhe undeiIying assunplions
and lhe vaiious Iinkages vilhin lhe nodeI (see Iaikei el aI., 2OO1, Iaikei & WaII,
1998 foi an oveiviev).

















F|gure 2-3: The Job 6haracter|st|cs Hode| (J6H; hackman & 0|dham, 1975}.


The hlgh-commltment / lnto|tement HRM mode|
To a gieal exlenl, il can le aigued lhal lhe assunplions undeiIying lhe Ialoui
hunanizalion liadilion, of vhich lhe eIenenls veie fuilhei specified in lhe
individuaI jol-IeveI }CM, have evoIved inlo olhei conpiehensive lheoielicaI nodeIs
l|gr lrlerra|
wor| Vol|val|or

l|gr 0ua||ly wor|
Perlorrarce

l|gr Joo
3al|slacl|or

LoW Aoserlee|sr
Ard Turr 0ver

3|||| var|ely
Tas| lderl|ly
Tas| 3|gr|l|carce

Joo Aulorory
Joo Feedoac|
Exper|erced
Vear|rglu|ress
Exper|erced
Respors|o|||ly
KroW|edge ol
Resu|ls
l|gr 0roWlr Need 3lrerglr
KroW|edge, 3||||s & Ao|||l|es
Joo Corlexlua| 3al|slacl|or

21
on ieIalionships lelveen Ialoui nanagenenl and oiganizalionaI peifoinance
(Canpion, Munfoid, Moigeson & Nahigang, 2OO5). Ioi inslance, noie deepIy
iooled in lhe oiganizalionaI-IeveI Hunan Resouice Managenenl Iileialuie, LavIeis
(1982, 1986) oiiginaI nolion of lhe nign intc|tcncn| crganiza|icn oi WaIlons (1985) nign
ccnni|ncn| nanagcncn| lolh piesciile HRM nodeIs of a deveIopnenlaI hunanisl
naluie (see Legge, 2OO5) in conpaiison lo uliIilaiian-insliunenlaI high conlioI
HRM nodeIs (Ailhui, 1994, Wood, 1996, 1999, Tsui, Ieaice, Ioilei & Hile, 1995). The
eIevalion of ieseaich on lhe peifoinance effecls of lhe hunanizalion of voik lo lhe
oiganizalionaI IeveI vas fuilhei acceIeialed ly lhe voik of }effiey Ifeffei (1994). His
piesciiplion of (enpiiicaI) evidence-lased lesl HRM piaclices lhal conliilule lo
lhe allainnenl of conpelilive advanlage lhiough peopIe, sel lhe lone foi noving
lhe peispeclive on Ialoui nanagenenl fion a sociaI, quaIily of voik Iife agenda lo
an econonic, lusiness agenda. And again, lhe oplinislic nolion of a connon sel of
faclois lhal foslei enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance is cIeaiIy
assuned. IuiceII (1999) on Ifeffeis voik: 'AIlhough a veaIlh of delaiI is piovided,
lhe unnislakalIe lhiusl of lhe anaIysis is lhal aII fiins can and shouId adopl a sel of
HRM piaclices foi lhe conlined lenefil of lhe fiin and ils enpIoyees (p. 26).
SiniIaiIy, on lhe oulcones of high connilnenl nodeIs of HRM, Legge (2OO5) noles
il piesciiles 'jol secuiily, jol design and enpIoyee deveIopnenl as lhe ioule lo high
pioduclivily/piofils and lo high enpIoyee salisfaclion/connilnenl (p. 19).

OveiaII, lhe high connilnenl/invoIvenenl HRM Iileialuie does nol seen lo diffei
nuch fion assunplions undeiIying lhe }CM. In TalIe 2-2 il is shovn lhal Ifeffeis
lesl HRM piaclices seen lo laiIoi lhe nolivalionaI jol chaiacleiislics in lhe }CM
inlo coheienl oljecls of oiganizalionaI-IeveI nanagenenl in|crtcn|icns. In essence,
lhe psychoIogicaI voik expeiiences and enpIoyee chaiacleiislics lhal lhe lesl HRM
piaclices seek lo deveIop and enhance, sliongIy iesenlIe lhe ones dislinguished in
lhe oveiaII }CM. DeIeiy and Shav (2OO1) aIieady acknovIedge lhis Iink ly slaling:

'|.j il appeais lhal nuch of lhe S|lialegicj HRM voik is sinpIy eIevaling lhis |}ol
Chaiacleiislicsj nodeI lo lhe IeveI of lhe oiganizalion oi voik unil and noie diieclIy
focusing on lhe issue of knovIedge, skiIIs and aliIilies. (p. 176).




22
Tab|e 2-2: 6orrespondence between Job 6haracter|st|cs doma|ns and "est" hRH doma|ns
Hode| E|ements Job 6haracter|st|cs Hode| Pfeffer's "est" hRH doma|ns
3||||s, KroW|edge, Ao|||l|es
3e|ecl|v|ly |r Recru|l|rg
Tra|r|rg ard 3|||| 0eve|oprerl |nd|v|dua||
Persona| 6haracter|st|cs
0roWlr-reed 3lrerglr
Prorol|or lror W|lr|r
Lorg Terr Perspecl|ve
Joo Err|crrerl (locus or 'Wro|e
las|s):Task var|er,, Task
s|gn|l|cance, Task |oenr|r,
Erp|oyee 0Wrersr|p
Cross-ul|||zal|or ard Cross-lra|r|rg
Aulorory/ Parl|c|pal|or
Parl|c|pal|or ard ErpoWerrerl
3e|l-raraged Tears
Job|work 0rgan|zat|ona|
6haracter|st|cs
Feedoac| ol Resu|ls
lrcerl|ve Pay
lrlorral|or 3rar|rg
Emp|oyer|
8uperv|sor
6haracter|st|cs
Joo Corlexlua| 3al|slacl|or:
Pa,-|eve|, Joo secur|r,,
$uperv|sor supporr
Erp|oyrerl 3ecur|ly
l|gr wages
3yroo||c Ega||lar|ar|sr
wage Corpress|or
3ources: hackman & 0|dham (1975} & Pfeffer (1994}


Hovevei, olhei lhan lhe inliinsic nolivalionaI nechanisn undeiIying Iinking
affeclive veII-leing and peifoinance, sociaI exchange lheoiy (Iau, 1964, Tsui,
Ieaice, TiipoIi and Ioilei, 1997, Cuesl, 2OO2) is pioposed as lhe lheoielicaI
nechanisn Iinking HCHRM lo peifoinance. Heie, lhiough a sel of consislenl high
connilnenl HRM piaclices, oiganizalions invesl in enpIoyee veII-leing and
connunicale a Iong lein enpIoynenl ieIalionship lo lhe enpIoyee. Lxchange
lheoiy enphasizes lhe noin of iecipiocily (CouIdnei, 196O) lhiough vhich
enpIoyees feeI olIigaled lo iespond equilalIy lo lhe (Iong lein) enpIoyei
inveslnenls nade in lhen. Theiefoie, vilhin a connilnenl-lased enpIoynenl
ieIalionship, enpIoyees aie assuned lo iecipiocale lhe inveslnenls nade in lheii
veII-leing ly voiking haidei and snailei in puisuil of oiganizalionaI goaIs
(Ldvaids & Wiighl, 2OO1, Whilenei, 2OO1).
23
The ]ob demands-contro| mode|
In ieaclion lo jol chaiacleiislics nodeI, Kaiasek (1979) pioposed lo expand jol
chaiacleiislic lheoiy ly incIuding jol denands. This vas lased on enpiiicaI findings
lhal enpIoyees in noie denanding and eniiched jols iepoiled lellei nenlaI heaIlh
and jol salisfaclion lhan enpIoyees in Iess denanding and eniiched jols. Accoiding
lo Kaiasek (1979), lhis iefIecls lhe nolion lhal jol denands (voik Ioad / line
piessuie) aie insligalois of aclion, vhich pIace lhe individuaI in a nolivaled oi
eneigized slale of sliess. On lhe olhei hand, high IeveIs of jol conlioI (jol aulonony
and skiII use) vouId noduIale lhe ieIease oi liansfoinalion of lhe polenliaI eneigy
inlo acluaI aclive voik lehavioui. AIleinaliveIy, in jols vheie lhe jol denands
exceed lhe IeveI of jol conlioI, insligaled eneigy is Iefl unieIeased vhich nay
nanifesl ilseIf as nenlaI sliain (faligue, anxiely) oi physicaI sliain (high lIood
piessuie). Wilh a lheoielicaI nechanisn lased on lhe inleiaclion lelveen jol
denands and jol conlioI, Kaiaseks }ol Denands-ConlioI nodeI (}DC, see Iiguie 2-
4) is assuned lo piedicl lvo lypes of enpIoyee oulcones - iII heaIlh and pioduclive
lehavioui (Kaiasek & TheoieII, 199O, MikkeIsen, gaaid, & Landsleigis, 2OO5).



F|gure 2-4: The Job 0emands-6ontro| Hode| (J06; Karasek, 1979}.


esides pioviding enpIoyees vilh peisonaI aulonony and skiII vaiiely, aIso olhei
voik and oiganizalionaI faclois have leen aigued lo luffei lhe adveise enpIoyee
heaIlh effecls of high voik denands. Ioi inslance, lhe peison-enviionnenl fil
appioach lo voik sliess (Iiench el aI., 1982, Kiislof, 1996) enphasizes lhe inpoilance
l|gr

LoW
slra|r joo

Acl|ve
joo
Job 0emands
LoW
l|gr LoW
0nresolved strain/
lll health
Activity level/
Productive
behaviour
Job 6ontro|
l|gr slra|r
joo
Pass|ve
joo
24
of lhe inleiaclion lelveen polenliaIIy sliessfuI voik silualions and lhe peisonaI
aliIilies, skiIIs and knovIedge lo neel lhe peifoinance denands lhe jol geneiales
(denands-aliIily fil) in ieducing nenlaI sliain. AddilionaIIy, Siegiisls (1996) effoil-
ievaid laIance nodeI enphasizes lhe inpoilance of iecipiocily in lhe ieIalionship
lelveen high jol denands/effoil and ievaids Iike noney, esleen, jol secuiily oi
caieei oppoilunilies. An effoil-ievaid inlaIance (doing noie lhan ievaided foi) is
consislenlIy found lo ieIale lo adveise psychoIogicaI as veII as physicaI heaIlh effecls
(see Van VegheI, de }onge, osna & SchaufeIi, 2OO5). Theiefoie, lhe individuaI-IeveI
Iileialuie on denand-conlioI, denand-aliIily and effoil/denand-ievaid laIances
depicls lhe individuaI enpIoyees oppoilunily lo deaI vilh peifoinance denands
(Iike high voik Ioads oi line piessuie) vilhoul causing unheaIlhy jol sliain. As
such, lhe lioadei facels of jol eniichnenl undeiIying lhe jol chaiacleiislics nodeI
vouId sinuIlaneousIy pievenl jol sliain effecls and enhance peifoinance oulcones
in lhe case of high voikIoad. Theiefoie, lhe }DC nodeI ieIales lo an oplinislic
appioach lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance as il piovides a ialionaIe
foi hov pioduclive enpIoyee lehavioui can le enhanced vhiIe sinuIlaneousIy jol
sliain is ieduced.


2.4 PE55IMI5TIC PER5PECTIVE5 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF WELL-BEING AND
PERFORMANCE
WhiIe lhe infIuenliaI oplinislic lheoielicaI slances assune lhe possiliIily of a
connon giound foi enhancing affeclive enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI
peifoinance vhiIe aIso ieducing jol sliain, pcssinis|ic appioaches aie Iess convinced
of lhe possiliIily of nuluaI gains. A pessinislic oi ciilicaI appioach enlaiIs lhal lhe
puisuil of high oiganizalionaI peifoinance is nol aIvays conpalilIe vilh enpIoyee
inleiesls and veII-leing (Ieccei, 2OO4). CenliaI lo a pessinislic appioach is lhe
acknovIedgenenl of liade-offs lelveen enhancing peifoinance and veII-leing
oulcones. Tvo slieans of Iileialuie lhal acknovIedge lhese liadeoffs in lhe
nanagenenl of enpIoyees aie expIicilIy addiessed. They aie discussed leIov.

lnterdlscl|lnar uork deslgn frameuork
Canpions (1988, Canpion & Thayei, 1987) inleidiscipIinaiy fianevoik of voik
design inlegiales voik design appioaches fion nuIlipIe discipIines incIuding
oiganizalionaI psychoIogy, indusliiaI engineeiing, lionechanics and eigononics.
25
TalIe 2-3 shovs hov Canpions fianevoik conpaies lhe cosls and lenefils of foui
nono-discipIinaiy vievs on lhe naluie of voik and lhe consequences foi enpIoyees
and oiganizalions. When specificaIIy focusing on lhe nechanislic veisus lhe
nolivalionaI nodeI, il is sliiking lhal lhe nolivalionaI nodeI (lhal cIoseIy iesenlIes
Hacknan and OIdhans jol chaiacleiislics nodeI, Moigeson & Canpion, 2OO2)
lenefils enpIoyee nolivalion and cuslonei seivice vhiIe aIso caiiying lhe cosls of
noie enpIoyee sliess. AIlhough nolivalionaI jol designs fuIfiI lasic inliinsic
nolivalionaI needs, eniiched jols aie aIso noie vuIneialIe lo anliguily, conpeling
denands and lhe Iack of cIeai jol loundaiies, vhich can evoke sliessfuI difficuIlies
in conpiehending and seIf-nanaging ones voik (Docheily el aI., 2OO2).


Tab|e 2-3: |nterd|sc|p||nary Perspect|ve on Job des|gn (6amp|on et a|. 2005: 39}
Hode| |
0|sc|p||ne
|||ustrat|ve
Recommendat|ons

Typ|ca| enef|ts

Typ|ca| 6osts
Hechan|st|c mode|
{lnousrr|a| Eng|neer|ngj
3pec|a||zal|or
3|rp||l|cal|or
Repel|l|or
Ell|c|ercy
Eas|er slall|rg
Reduced Tra|r|rg
0ecreased 3al|slacl|or
0ecreased Vol|val|or

Hot|vat|ona| mode|
{Drgan|zar|ona|
Ps,cno|og,j
var|ely
Aulorory
Parl|c|pal|or
3al|slacl|or
lrlr|rs|c Vol|val|or
Relerl|or
Cuslorer 3erv|ce
Tra|r|rg
Errors
3lress
Perceptua| mode|
{luman Facrors;
Exper|menra| Ps,cno|og,j
Reduce |rlorral|or-
process|rg requ|rererls
Reduced Errors
FeWer acc|derls
Less rerla| over|oad
8oredor
Vorolory
|o|og|ca| mode|
{Ergonom|cs;
Veo|ca| $c|encesj
Reduce Prys|ca|
requ|rererls
Reduce erv|rorrerla|
slressors
Prys|ca| corlorl
Reduced prys|ca|
slress
Reduced lal|gue
F|rarc|a| cosls
lracl|v|ly


On lhe olhei hand, lhe (TayIoiislic) nechanislic nodeI of voik design vouId
inciease opeialionaI efficiency, lul deciease enpIoyee salisfaclion and nolivalion.
These liadeoffs lelveen veII-leing and peifoinance conliadicl lhe assunplions of
26
lhe oplinislic nodeIs. Moigeson and Canpion (2OO2) nole lhal lhese liadeoffs have
onIy iecenlIy leen acknovIedged, pailIy lecause of lhe 'ieIaliveIy paiochiaI naluie
of voik design ieseaich in I/O psychoIogy (p. 59O). So fai, enpiiicaI ieseaich
conpaiing lhe oulcones of diffeienl voik design nodeIs shovs lhal a nolivalionaI
voik nodeI ieIales lo highei salisfaclion and highei jol denands pIus negalive
coiieIalions vilh efficiency oulcones (Canpion, 1988, Canpion & McCIeIIand, 1991,
Ldvaids, ScuIIy & ilek, 2OOO). Olheivise, lhe nechanislic nodeI is found lo
inciease efficiency and opeialionaI ieIialiIily vhiIe sliongIy dininishing enpIoyee
salisfaclion (Canpion, 1988, Ldvaids & Wiighl, 2OO1). In lhe eyes of Canpion and
coIIeagues, liadeoffs lelveen veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones of voik aie
sliucluiaIIy inevilalIe - a slance lhal conlesls lhe vin-vin assunplions undeiIying
lhe oplinislic nodeIs. Theiefoie, iecenl sludies (Moigeson el aI., 2OO2, Canpion el
aI., 2OO5) have legun lo exanine lhe possiliIily of rcducing inevilalIe veII-leing-
peifoinance liadeoffs, ialhei lhan naxinizing lhe veII-leing and peifoinance
oulcones of voik.

Labour rocess theor
}usl Iike Canpion and coIIeagues conlesl lhe soIeIy leneficiaiy veII-leing and
peifoinance oulcones of nolivalionaI jol design, Ialoui piocess lheoiisls in
indusliiaI ieIalions Iileialuie addiess lhe lheoielicaI diavlacks of high
connilnenl/invoIvenenl HRM and lhe pioposed nuluaI gains foi enpIoyei and
enpIoyee. Wilh a sliongei focus on oiganizalionaI-poIilicaI and nanageiiaI faclois
lhal inpacl enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI oulcones, Ialoui piocess lheoiy luiIds on
lhe pessinislic slance lhal nanagenenl and Ialoui inheienlIy have confIicling
inleiesls vhich cieale liade-offs. ased on Ialoui piocess lheoiy, lhe adoplion of
nev lypes of Ialoui nanagenenl piaclices vouId iefIecl a nodein nanageiiaI
conlioI slialegy lo naxinize Ialoui inpuls lhiough Ialoui piocess oi ucr|
in|cnsifica|icn (Ransay el aI., 2OOO, Codaid & DeIaney 2OOO, Codaid, 2OO1, While el
aI. 2OO3). The voik inlensificalion-lhesis sliesses lhal HCHRM piaclices seive lhe
inliinsic nanagenenl goaI lo ollain naxinun enpIoyee effoil via nanagenenl ly
sliess (DeIliidge and TuinluII, 1992). Olhei lhan a TayIoiislic silualion in vhich
nanagenenl and nachineiy conlioI and diclale lhe pace of voik (eIangei el aI.,
2OO2), HCHRM piaclices vouId cieale a silualion in vhich connilled enpIoyees
diclale lhenseIves and noniloi each olhei inlo expending high IeveIs of effoil
(conceilive conlioI, aikei, 1993). A silualion lhal can eneige via, on lhe one hand
27
selling high peifoinance denands and oiganizing inleinaI conpelilion, lul on lhe
olhei hand pioviding enpIoyees vilh lhe lenefils, caieei oppoilunilies and
discielion lhiough vhich lhey viII ccnp|q vilh high IeveIs of voik denands (HaiIey,
1995 in Ransay el aI., 2OOO). This vouId Iead enpIoyees lo accepl an inciease in jol
denands in oidei lo loosl pioduclivily IeveIs. In lhis ial iace viev on Ialoui
nanagenenl, lhe seeningIy paiadoxicaI silualion eneiges in vhich enpIoyees aie
salisfied and connilled, lul aIso iepoil jol faligue and psychoIogicaI conpIainls
(anxiely, depiession) lhal iesuIl fion seIf-infIicled sliess. As such, lhe poIilicaI-
econonicaI Ialoui piocess lheoiy piedicls lhal connilnenl-lased enpIoynenl
ieIalionships couId liick enpIoyees inlo accepling highei jol denands lhal vouId
Iead lo noie Ialoui peifoinance (oulpul) lul aIso lo adveise heaIlh effecls.
SulslanliaI evidence foi a syslenalic inlensificalion effecl of nev Ialoui
nanagenenl piaclices is scaice, aIlhough Cieen (2OO4), While el aI. (2OO3) and CaIIie
el aI. (1998) iepoil sone evidence fion iilish sludies. Whelhei oi nol voik
inlensificalion vouId le a deIileiale nanagenenl slialegy oi an eneiging oulcone
of voik in a conlenpoiaiy naikel conlexl is nol cIeai. NeveilheIess, lhe ieseaich on
lhe sulslanliaI heaIlh iisks foIIoving fion enpIoyee oveiconnilnenl,
voikahoIisn (Van VegcheI el aI., 2OO5, Taiis, SchaufeIi & Veihoeven, 2OO5) oi a
goIden cage syndione
3
(Schaliacq & Winnulsl, 1996), aII iefei lo oulcones of an
enpIoynenl ieIalionship vhich excessiveIy oveiconnils enpIoyees lo lheii voik
and oiganizalion.


2.5 5CEPTICAL PER5PECTIVE5 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF WELL-BEING AND
PERFORMANCE
Wheie lhe oplinislic and pessinislic appioaches lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing
and peifoinance assune ceilain siniIai undeiIying nechanisns lhal vouId piedicl
eilhei vin-vin oi vin-Iose oulcones of voik, sceplicaI appioaches do nol assune
lhal veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones aie pail of lhe sane gane pei se. In
olhei voids, possilIy, diffeienl voik and oiganizalionaI faclois independenlIy affecl
veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones. AIso heie, appioaches al lhe
voik design and lhe oiganizalionaI IeveI can le dislinguished.

3
The goIden cage syndione iefeis lo a phenonenon in vhich enpIoyees have nade secuie pay
advancenenls up lo a poinl lhey cannol eain lhe sane saIaiy eIsevheie. Togelhei vilh a deciease in
lheii caieei possiliIilies lhey giov oId in lheii veII paid and secuie jols vhiIe iunning lhe iisk lhal
lhe jol viII nol appeaI lo lhen (any Iongei).
28
Tuln-track mode| of ]ob redeslgn
In lesling lhe veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones of Hacknan and OIdhans jol
iedesign fianevoik, KeIIy (1992) found diffeienliaI iesuIls foi voik design faclois
lhal ieIale lo enpIoyee jol salisfaclion and peifoinance. As salisfaclion vas noie
infIuenced ly enpIoyee peiceplions of jol eniichnenl, voik peifoinance vas noie
sliongIy an oulcone of nanageiiaI piaclices Iike pay iises, lighlei slaffing and goaI
selling. ConsequenlIy, KeIIy pioposed a lvin-liack nodeI of jol iedesign (see figuie
2-5) vhich acknovIedges lhe anaIylicaI dislinclion lelveen deleininanls of affeclive
veII-leing (jol salisfaclion) and peifoinance. Theiefoie, lhis nodeI aIso
dislinguishes ilseIf fion Canpions appioach as il does nol assune a liade-off
lelveen veII-leing and peifoinance. KeIIys sceplicaI findings aie lased on a
nela-anaIysis incIuding 31 nelhodoIogicaIIy iigoious case sludies and expeiinenls.

They shoved onIy Iiniled suppoil foi lhe pioposed connon nechanisn of lhe }C-
nodeI expIaining lolh jol peifoinance and jol salisfaclion. Iiediclois of voik
peifoinance veie nol lo le found in lhe lypicaI jol chaiacleiislic-dinensions, lul in
lhe pay iises and jol Iosses lhal veie found lo le associaled vilh lhe jol iedesign.
Whal KeIIy (1992) concIudes is lhal Hacknan and OIdhans jol chaiacleiislics aie
IikeIy lo salisfy enpIoyees, lul aie in lhenseIves unIikeIy lo nolivale lovaids
highei peifoinance. Iion KeIIys anaIysis il can le concIuded lhal jol salisfaclion
and jol peifoinance do nol shaie lhe sane deleininanls pei se. AddilionaIIy, KeIIy
(1992) aigues lhal his pioposed lvin-liack nechanisn of jol salisfaclion and
peifoinance is consislenl vilh a Iaige lody of evidence shoving onIy a snaII,
posilive ieIalionship lelveen jol salisfaclion and jol peifoinance, a finding lhal sliII
hoIds loday (IaffaIdano & Muchinksy, 1985, Iishei, 2OO3, }udge, Thoiesen, ono and
Iallon, 2OO1). WhiIe salisfaclion can le expIained ly faclois vilhin lhe sliucluiaI
design of lhe jol and voik oiganizalion, one of lhe diiving foices lehind jol
peifoinance is supposedIy silualed vilhin lhe econonic (and sociaI) exchange
lelveen enpIoyee and enpIoyei.
29
Joo
3al|slacl|or

Joo
Perlorrarce

Exlr|rs|c
Vol|val|or
lrd|v|dua|
Joos ard
ReWards

















F|gure 2-5: Ke||y's Tw|n-Track Hode| of Job Redes|gn (Ke||y, 1992}



Despile ils iigoious appioach and piovocalive oulcones KeIIys findings did nol
Iead lo a gieal deaI of foIIoveis in lhe voik design Iileialuie, aIlhough his findings
do connecl lo lhe oiganizalionaI-IeveI High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens Iileialuie
(e.g., AppeIlaun el aI., 2OOO, DeIeiy & Shav, 2OO1) discussed in lhe nexl paiagiaph.

Hlgh erformance uork sstems and the resource-based tleu
SceplicaI nodeIs can aIso le found in lhe High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens (HIWS)
Iileialuie. AIlhough lhe lein High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens HIWIs is oflen used
inleichangealIy vilh lhe oplinislic High Connilnenl/ InvoIvenenl HRM nodeIs
(oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3), lheie is a diffeience vilh iegaid lo lhe lheoielicaI cenliaIily
of enpIoyee veII-leing in expIaining lelveen-oiganizalionaI peifoinance
diffeiences. One of lhe Ieading schoIais in lhis fieId, LiIeen AppeIlaun, cIaiifies lhis
dislinclion ly slaling:

Crarges |r
wor|
Velrods

Joo Losses
0oa| 3ell|rg
3av|rgs |r
l|re ard
ellorl
l|gr
Expeclarcy &
lrslrurerla||ly
Joo
Percepl|ors

lrlr|rs|c
Vol|val|or

Joo
Redes|gr

30
'UnIike pasl allenpls lo hunanize voik oi inpiove lhe quaIily of voik Iife, lhese |HIWj
piaclices aie nol designed vilh lhe goaI of incieasing voikei conlioI oi aulonony oi jol
salisfaclion. Whelhei lhese piaclices iesuIl in such voikei oulcones is an enpiiicaI queslion,
lul achieving lhese oulcones is nol nanagenenls piinaiy nolive( (AppeIlaun, 2OO2, p.
121).

Wheie jol iedesign and high connilnenl HRM Iileialuie has expIicilIy pul lhe
fuIfiInenl of psychoIogicaI and sociaI enpIoyee needs cenliaI lo a connon
nechanisn lhiough vhich lolh enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI
peifoinance aie affecled - HIWS Iileialuie focuses noie expIicilIy on lhe needs of
an oiganizalion lo ienain conpelilive. These slialegic oiganizalionaI needs aie
enledded in one of lhe Ieading lheoielicaI fianevoiks in slialegic nanagenenl
Iileialuie: lhe rcscurcc-oascd ticu cf |nc firn (RV, ainey, 1991). The RV, appIied lo
hunan iesouices, slales lhal lo lhe exlenl lhal iesouices aie iaie, vaIualIe, ininilalIe
and non-sulslilulalIe lhey can lecone souices of suslainalIe conpelilive advanlage
(ainey, 1991, Wiighl, Dunfoid & SneII, 2OO1). Heie, il is aigued lhal lo lhe lackdiop
of naikel conlexl and slialegy, oiganizalions need a unique sel of enpIoyee skiIIs,
alliludes and lehavioui vhich cannol le easiIy copied ly conpelilois (Wiighl &
McMahan, 1994). The RV piovides an oiganizalionaI-IeveI ialionaIe on hov lhe
oiganizalions hunan capilaI pooI vouId conliilule oiganizalionaI conpeliliveness
(DeIeiy & Shav, 2OO1). As hunan capilaI oiiginaIIy is defined in leins of enpIoyee
educalionaI/skiII IeveIs (eckei, 1964), Wiighl el aI. (2OO1) slale lhal an
oiganizalions highIy skiIIed/laIenled and highIy nolivaled voikfoice has a giealei
polenliaI lo conslilule a souice of conpelilive advanlage. LspeciaIIy vilh iegaid lo
hunan iesouices as enpIoyee skiIIs, alliludes and lehaviouis il is iecognized lhal
oiganizalions diffei lo lhe exlenl lhal lhey knov lo alliacl, deveIop and ielain
laIenled and skiIIed enpIoyees. They aIso diffei in lhe exlenl lhey aie alIe lo deveIop
and slinuIale ceilain enpIoyee alliludes and voik lehaviouis lhal aie of diiecl
vaIue lo lhe oiganizalion (discielionaiy effoil).

Much noie lhan lhe acknovIedgenenl lhal Ialoui is a dislinclive iesouice (anong
olhei iesouices) lhal, vhen salisfied, connilled and fiee of jol sliain aie noie IikeIy
conliilule lo oiganizalionaI goaIs, lhe RV lheoiizes on una| lype of voikfoice
chaiacleiislics couId le dislinclive and vaIualIe lo oiganizalions in lheii specific Iine
of lusiness oi oiganizalionaI conlexl. In olhei voids, vhal exaclIy conslilules an
oiganizalions nunan rcscurcc adtan|agc (oxaII, 1996, oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3)` Iiguie
31
Corpersal|or
(Exlr|rs|c)
Vol|val|or


ErpoWerrerl

Tra|r|rg
Joo 0es|gr
0rgar|zal|ora|
Perlorrarce

va|ue ol Core
Corpelerce
Appra|sa|
Corpelerc|es

Laoour
Producl|v|ly

3e|ecl|or
2-6 shovs DeIeiy and Shavs (2OO1) hunan capilaI nodeI of lhe ieIalionship
lelveen nanagenenl (HIWS) and oiganizalionaI peifoinance.

















F|gure 2-: human 6ap|ta| Hode| of hRH - F|rm Performance (0e|ery & 8haw, 2001; p. 174}


The nodeI depicls a iange of HRM piaclices (seIeclion, liaining elc.) lhal conliilule
lo lhe deveIopnenl of lhe voikfoice condilions (conpelencies, exliinsic nolivalion
and enpoveinenl) lo le pioduclive. Nolice lhal lhe jol design facloi, siniIai lo
KeIIys (1992) lvin-liack nodeI, is nov jusl one eIenenl anong olhei HRM piaclices.
Iuilheinoie, as lhe RV assunes, foi Ialoui pioduclivily lo le cosl-effeclive, lhe
enpIoyee discielionaiy effoil needs le of vaIue lo lhe oiganizalions coie
conpelence lhal ensuies oiganizalionaI conpeliliveness. ul vhal aloul enpIoyee
veII-leing`

In sludies appIying lhe RV lo lhe hunan iesouices donain, enpIoyee veII-leing is
nol expIicilIy consideied lo le a slialegic assel. SiniIai lo lhe assunplions vilh
iegaid lo Ialoui hunanizalion and high connilnenl nodeIs of HRM, lhe RV
lheoiizes on vhen and vhy dislinclive hunan iesouices vouId conliilule lo
suslained oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Hovevei, ialhei lhan pulling enpIoyee veII-
leing al lhe heail of lhis ieIalionship, il focuses on lhe oiganizalions need foi
enpIoyee discielionaiy effoil as a souice of oiganizalionaI conpeliliveness. ased
32
on lhe iilish WLRS98 dala fion 125O voikpIaces and 23OOO enpIoyees, a sludy ly
Ieccei (2OO4) on lhe HRM piaclices lhal do posiliveIy ieIale lo enpIoyee veII-leing
lhe findings suppoil a sceplicaI appioach. Iecceis iesuIls suggesl lhal lhe sel of HR
piaclices lhal heIp lo naxinize enpIoyee veII-leing aie nol lhose piaclices lhal
nake up supposedIy noie highIy effeclive high peifoinance voik syslens. As a
consequence il vas queslioned vhelhei happy voikpIaces aie aIso IikeIy lo le
econonicaIIy vialIe. SiniIai lo KeIIys (1992) findings lhis vouId indicale lhal
enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance do nol shaie lhe sane
deleininanls. AIleinaliveIy, Coff (1997) does lake inlo accounl enpIoyee veII-leing
as pail of lhe RV fianevoik, ly slaling lhal lhe 'fiins |hunanj assels vaIk oul lhe
dooi each day, Ieaving sone queslions aloul vhelhei lhey viII ieluin (p. 375). Iion
lhis peispeclive, Iooking aflei enpIoyee needs and inleiesls pievenls lhe luinovei of
lhose hunan iesouices lhal aie iaie and vaIualIe lo oiganizalions. This posils lhal
fosleiing enpIoyee veII-leing is of indiiecl inpoilance lo nainlain high IeveIs of
oiganizalionaI peifoinance, lul is noie diieclIy ieIaled lo lhe ieduclion of enpIoyee
luin ovei. The diiecl ieIalionship of enpIoyee veII-leing vilh enpIoyee luin ovei
ialhei lhan vilh oiganizalionaI peifoinance has aIso leen noled ly olhei aulhois
(Cuesl, 2OO2, IuiceII, Kinnie, Hulchinson, Raylon & Svail, 2OO3).


2.6 INTEGRATIVE PER5PECTIVE5 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF WELL-BEING AND
PERFORMANCE
Lasl, inlegialive nodeIs vilh iegaid lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and
peifoinance expIicilIy neige lhe ialionaIes undeiIying veII-leing and peifoinance
piocesses. The diffeience vilh lhe oplinislic appioach is consideialion of lolh sociaI
enpIoyee and econonic oiganizalionaI needs vilh equaI veighl. AIlhough
inlegialive nodeIs suppoil lhe possiliIily of lhe nuluaI gains foi enpIoyee and
enpIoyei, lhey lake a slep fuilhei ly assuning lhal oiganizalionaI peifoinance
cannol go vilhoul enpIoyee veII-leing and vice veisa. The pioposed dynanics
lelveen enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance is cenliaI lo lvo
inlegialive nodeIs. They aie discussed leIov.

Organltatlona| hea|th
OiganizalionaI heaIlh enconpasses an inlegialive appioach lo veII-leing and
peifoinance issues, vhich oiiginaIIy has leen insligaled ly jol sliess schoIais (Cox,
33
0rgar|zal|ora|
Craracler|sl|cs

lrd|v|dua|
Craracler|sl|cs

Erp|oyee
we||-oe|rg
1988, Muiphy & Coopei, 2OOO, Hail & Coopei, 2OO1, Hofnann & Teliick, 2OO3). Hail
el aI. (2OO1) slale lhal one of lhe nain ieasons foi lhe fuilhei deveIopnenl of lhe
concepl of heaIlh in oiganizalions aie lhe Iinilalions of liadilionaI individuaI IeveI
sliess lheoiies. These lheoiies have, foi inslance, lioadened fion lhe voik lo lhe
ieIalionships oi spiIIoveis vilh lhe non-voik donain, ialhei lhan leing 'inlegiaIIy
Iinked lo lhe ongoing vialiIily and piofilaliIily of voik oiganizalions (p. 99).
ConsequenlIy, lhe oiganizalionaI heaIlh fianevoik enphasizes lhe need lo
sinuIlaneousIy focus on enpIoyee veII-leing and lhe oiganizalions lollon-Iine.
As Hail el aI. (2OO1) slale:

'A fundanenlaI iequiienenl foi nosl oiganizalions lhal vish lo inpiove lheii 'lollon-Iine,
is lhe need lo deveIop appiopiiale sliucluies and piocesses lhal viII ieduce occupalionaI
sliess and, al lhe sane line, enhance enpIoyee salisfaclion and peifoinance. |.j lhe
oiganizalionaI heaIlh peispeclive iecognizes lhe facl lhal having salisfied and happy peopIe is
of IillIe vaIue lo an oiganizalion unIess enpIoyee aie aIso peifoining efficienlIy and
pioducliveIy. Likevise, having an efficienl and pioduclive oiganizalion is of IillIe vaIue if lhis
is achieved al lhe expense of enpIoyee veII-leing (p. 99).

Iiguie 2-7 shovs lhe dynanics undeiIying lhe oiganizalionaI heaIlh appioach. The
lhickei aiiovs in lhe figuie depicl lhe nain oiganizalionaI heaIlh piocesses. The ciux
is lhal lhe dynanic inleipIay lelveen individuaI enpIoyees and lheii voik
oiganizalionaI enviionnenl affecls enpIoyee veII-leing vhich in luin conliilules lo
oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Hovevei, lhe nodeI aIso assunes lhal individuaI and
oiganizalionaI chaiacleiislics have a diiecl Iink vilh oiganizalionaI peifoinance,
vhich inlegiales sone of lhe sceplicaI eIenenls as discussed alove.











F|gure 2-7: 0rgan|zat|ona| hea|th Hode| (hart & 6ooper, 2001; Cr|ff|n et a|., 2000}
0rgar|zal|ora|
Perlorrarce

34
Iuilhei, lhe dolled Iines in lhe nodeI iepiesenl feedlack Ioops lhal indicale lhal,
iecipiocaIIy, oiganizalionaI peifoinance aIso can affecl individuaI and
oiganizalionaI peiceplions and ciicunslances. To sone exlenl, lhis aIso Ieaves ioon
foi pessinislic slances vhiIe nechanislic oiganizalionaI chaiacleiislics can diieclIy
loosl oiganizalionaI peifoinance in such vay lhal il liiggeis oiganizalions lo adopl
fuilhei efficiency in lhe fuluie vilh a iisk of a deciease in enpIoyee veII-leing. The
exlenl lo vhich individuaI enpIoyees can cope vilh sliongIy efficienl fuluie
piocesses vouId deleinine lhe vialiIily of lhe oiganizalionaI unil undei sludy.
Vieving oiganizalionaI heaIlh as a dynanic ialhei lhan a slalic oulcone of voik and
oiganizalionaI faclois neans lhal enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance aie
enlvined and affecl each olhei ovei line. InleieslingIy, in eaiIiei voik of Kaiasek
and TheoieII (199O) lhese veII-leing-peifoinance dynanics veie aIieady addiessed,
lul haidIy fuilhei inlegialed in enpiiicaI ieseaich (see Taiis (2OO7) foi a discussion).
AII in aII, oiganizalionaI heaIlh ieseaich poinls lo lhe exaninalion of hov
oiganizalions can conslanlIy keep lheii piocesses and enpIoyees in shape in oidei
lo deIivei enduialIe peifoinance. This issue connecls lo lhe iecenl Iileialuie on
suslainalIe voik syslens, vhich viII le discussed nexl.

Sustalnab|e uork sstems
SuslainalIe voik syslens (SWS) Iileialuie (e.g., Docheily el aI., 2OO2) lakes lhe
incieased conpIexily of nodein day jols as a slailing poinl foi discussing hov lhis
inlensifies conlenpoiaiy voik and vhal undeiIying piocesses nighl inpiove
suslainaliIily of nev voik oiganizalions. SuslainalIe voik syslens aie posilioned
opposile lo inlensive voik syslens in vhich lheie is a dyadic nisfil lelveen
peisonaI and silualionaI chaiacleiislics (MoIdaschI in Van Lijnallen, 2OOO). In such an
inlensive voik syslen, hunan iesouices (e.g. skiIIs, heaIlh, liusl) aie consuned
ialhei lhan iegeneialed. In conpaiison lo lhe oveiconsunplion of naluiaI iesouices
Iike oiI, aIso lhe oiganizalions hunan iesouices can gel exhausled. This couId iesuIl
in, foi inslance, unliidgealIe knovIedge gaps, iiieveisilIe heaIlh danage oi non-
iesloialIe liusl. ul hov lo le suslainalIe as an oiganizalion` In ieaclion lo lhe fasl
shiinking voiId oiI suppIy, one can deveIop nachines lhal aie econonicaI in lhe use
of oiI oi one can svilch lo olhei eneigy iesouices. In ieaclion lo lhe oveiconsunplion
of hunan iesouices, svilches lo lhe aulonalion oi conpuleiizalion of ceilain
unheaIlhy and heavy voik piocesses have ceilainIy conliiluled lo lhe pievenlion of
hunan iesouices exhauslion. Hovevei, nev lhieals lo lhe hunan iesouice in
35
oiganizalions aie Iess a consequence of unheaIlhy, slalIe voik sliucluies and
nelhods, lul ialhei a consequence of incieasing fIexiliIily acconpanied ly
insecuiilies and conliadicloiy voik denands (idnei & IoisIin, 2OO2). Like
svilching fion finile oiI iesouices lo infinilive eneigy souices (e.g., vind, valei,
lionass), suslainalIe voik syslens Iileialuie encouiages lo lake a siniIai appioach
lo nunan iesouices. SuslainalIe voik syslens aie chaiacleiized ly luiIding lhe
fuluie inlo lhe piesenl (Lvans, 1999). This neans lhal in lhe piocess of lhe
depIoynenl of hunan iesouices lovaids peifoinance lhey sinuIlaneousIy gel
iepioduced lo guaianlee lolh shoil-lein oiganizalionaI conpeliliveness and
enpIoyee veII-leing vilhoul conpionising fuluie peifoinance and enpIoyee veII-
leing. SiniIai lo lhe oiganizalionaI heaIlh peispeclive, gieal enphasis is pIaced on
veII-leing and peifoinance as a dynanic oulcone of voik, as lhey infIuence each
olhei ovei line. TypicaI suslainalIe voik piaclices aie, foi inslance, Iife-Iong
Ieaining and enpIoyaliIily piogians as lhey specificaIIy ain al lhe conlinuous
iepioduclion of nev skiIIs and knovIedge in oidei lo pievenl skiII exhauslion in lhe
fuluie. On lhe olhei hand, lhe iepioduclion of voik-ieIaled enpIoyee heaIlh and
affeclive veII-leing can le caughl in, foi exanpIe, age and/oi Iife span specific
poIicies and piaclices vhich piovide lhe oppoilunily lo heaIlhiIy conlinue voiking
al a highei age oi lhiough diffeienl Iife slages. IinaIIy, il nusl le ienaiked, lhal
lhese issues appeai lo ieceive noie allenlion in a Luiopean conlexl lhan in AngIo-
Saxon counliies.


2.7 TOWARD5 A COMMON GROUND FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF WELL-BEING AND
PERFORMANCE?
The calegoiizalion of a nuIlilude of lheoielicaI nodeIs and seveiaI slieans of
Iileialuie alove, shovs lhe inpoilance lul al lhe sane line diveisily in lhe
appioaches lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance. As sunnaiized in
TalIe 2-4, lheie is an ongoing inleiesl in knoving vhelhei and/oi hov oiganizalions
can foslei a connon giound foi inpioving veII-leing and (oiganizalionaI)
peifoinance. Hovevei, lhe conpeling assunplions undeiIying, in pailicuIai,
oplinislic, pessinislic and sceplicaI nodeIs indicales lhe difficuIlies in diaving
geneiaI concIusions on vhal couId lenefil piofil and peopIe. The iecenl allenlion
foi inlegialive appioaches Iike oiganizalionaI heaIlh and suslainalIe voik syslens
seen lo fuilhei enphasize lhal decades of ieseaich on veII-leing-peifoinance
36
inpiovenenl has leen unsalisfacloiiIy alIe lo painl a coheienl picluie of hov
oiganizalions can sinuIlaneousIy inpiove lheii peifoinance and enpIoyee affeclive
veII-leing and ieduce jol sliain.




Tab|e 2-4: 8ummary of we||-be|ng - performance approaches
Theoret|ca|
Approach
as|c Assumpt|ons we||-be|ng-
Performance re|at|onsh|p
Theoret|ca| Hode|s|
8treams
6ore
Authors
Dpr|m|sr|c
/pproacn
Tre lu|l||rerl ol psycro|og|ca| ard soc|a|
erp|oyee reeds |eads lo lre We||-oe|rg ard
|rlr|rs|c rol|val|or lo corlr|oule lo
orgar|zal|ora| perlorrarce. Erp|oyer ard
erp|oyee rulua||y ga|r lror erp|oyee reed
sal|slacl|or
Joo Craracler|sl|cs Vode|
Joo 0erards-Corlro| Vode|
l|gr Corr|lrerl lRV
l|gr lrvo|vererl lRV
lac|rar & 0|drar
(1980)
Karase| (19Z9)
wa|lor (1985)
LaW|er (198)
Pleller (1991)
Pess|m|sr|c
/pproacn


Trere |s a lrade oll |r lre rax|r|sal|or ol
erp|oyee We||-oe|rg ano orgar|zal|ora|
perlorrarce. Ell|c|ercy cores al lre experse
ol joo sal|slacl|or jusl |||e urrea|lry Wor|
|rlers|l|cal|or |s lre pr|ce lor joo err|crrerl.
lrlerd|sc|p||rary wor| 0es|gr
Laoour Process Treory
wor| lrlers|l|cal|or
Carp|or (1988)
Rarsey el a|. (2000)
0reer (2000)
$cepr|ca|
/pproacn
0rgar|zal|ora| perlorrarce ard erp|oyee
We||-oe|rg do rol srare lre sare
delerr|rarls per se. 0|llererl Wor| ard
orgar|zal|ora| delerr|rarls allecl We||-oe|rg
ard perlorrarce. wrelrer orgar|zal|ora|
perlorrarce cores al lre experse ol
erp|oyee We||-oe|rg |s ar erp|r|ca| quesl|or.
TW|r-Trac| Vode| ol wor|
0es|gr
l|gr Perlorrarce wor| 3yslers
Resource-8ased v|eW ol lre
F|rr

Ke||y (1992)
Appe|oaur el a|.
(2000)
8arrey (1990)
lnregrar|ve
/pproacn
A|lrougr r|gr orgar|zal|ora| perlorrarce car
oe a d|recl srorl-lerr oulcore ol Wor| ard
orgar|zal|ora| laclors, lre exlerl lo Wr|cr
orgar|zal|ora| perlorrarce |s erdurao|e
deperds or a sull|c|erl regereral|or ol rurar
resources as opposed lo lre corsurpl|or ol
rurar resource We||-oe|rg. A susla|rao|e
Wor| sysler dep|oys ano reproduces rurar
resources. we||-oe|rg ard perlorrarce
|rl|uerce eacr olrer over l|re.
0rgar|zal|ora| lea|lr
3usla|rao|e wor| 3yslers


larl & Cooper (2001)
0ocrerly el a|. (2002)
37
2.7.1 PnssIb!c rcasnns fnr dIffcrcntIatInn In thcnrctIca! apprnachcs
The sunnaiy in TalIe 2-4 of lhe calegoiizalion of diffeienl lheoielicaI nodeIs and
appioaches lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance shovs lhe sonevhal
inliiguing conpIexily of lhe issue. In oidei lo idenlify lhe aspecls of a connon
giound veII-leing and peifoinance inpiovenenl, five possilIe ieasons foi lhe
diffeienlialion in lheoielicaI assunplions and ieseaich findings aie desciiled leIov.

Reason #1: Mlsseclflcatlons of ue||-belng and erformance
The fiisl ieason vhy nodeIs nighl fundanenlaIIy diffei aie lhe diffeiences in lhe
specificalion of lhe veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones. In lhe leginning of lhis
chaplei, peifoinance vas defined as cosl-effeclive discielionaiy effoil as an
indicaloi of Ialoui pioduclivily. Hovevei, vhen Iooking al lhe }ol Chaiacleiislics
ModeI, aIso lhe ieduclion of enpIoyee luinovei and sickness alsence aie incIuded.
As a consequence, lhe ialionaIe undeiIying lhe veII-leing-peifoinance Iink lecones
lhe ieduclion of enpIoyee luin ovei-ieIaled cosls (foi inslance, in lhe case of W/O
faclois pionoling enpIoyee salisfaclion/connilnenl) and lhe ieduclion of sickness
alsence-ieIaled cosls (foi inslance, in lhe case of W/O faclois ieducing enpIoyee jol
sliain). The cosls slenning fion enpIoyee unveII-leing (e.g., ieciuilnenl cosls,
lenpoiaiy iepIacenenl cosls, cosls due lo pay foi unpioduclive sick enpIoyees,
lack-lo-voik liajecloiy cosls) aie IikeIy lo affecl an oveiaII Ioss of pioduclivily
(Danna & Ciiffin, 1999). InveiseIy, lhis nakes lhal good W/O faclois ieIale lo a
ieduclion of pioduclivily Iosses. Hovevei, nanagenenl lased on lhe pievenlion of
pioduclivily Iosses vouId signify a cosl-nininisalion appioach lo Ialoui
pioduclivily, vhich vouId nc| expIain hov oiganizalions couId inpiove ils
voikfoices effeclive discielionaiy effoil (oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). Iuilheinoie, lhe
nodeIs diffei in lheii concepluaIizalions of enpIoyee veII-leing. In sone nodeIs lhe
focus is on affeclive veII-leing (e.g., high connilnenl nodeI, lvin-liack nodeI), in
olhei nodeIs enpIoyee veII-leing is noie jol sliain ieIaled (e.g., jol denands-
conlioI nodeI) and in sone nodeIs lolh aspecls of voik ieIaled veII-leing aie
addiessed (e.g., oiganizalionaI heaIlh nodeI). We considei lolh veII-leing aspecls lo
le inpoilanl, aIlhough lhey cannol le iegaided lo le siniIai concepls vilh siniIai
anlecedenls (Waii, 199O, SchaufeIi & akkei, 2OO4). Theiefoie, naking a cIeai
dislinclion lelveen affeclive veII-leing and voik-ieIaled heaIlh and lelveen cosl-
effeclive peifoinance and cosl-nininisalion is IikeIy lo seive a lellei undeislanding
of veII-leing and peifoinance inpiovenenl.
38
Reason #2: The dlsregard of (changlng) organltatlona| needs
A second ieason is lhe disiegaid of changing oiganizalionaI needs. As desciiled, jol
iedesign and high connilnenl HRM Iileialuie have expIicilIy pul lhe individuaI
enpIoyees psychoIogicaI and sociaI needs cenliaI lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing
and peifoinance. Hovevei, fion a sceplicaI poinl of viev, lhe fuIfiInenl of
enpIoyee needs nighl onIy affecl enpIoyee veII-leing and nol conliilule lo lhe
expendiluie of cosl-effeclive discielionaiy effoil. In olhei voids, lhe oplinislic
nodeIs IaigeIy disiegaid lhe oiganizalionaI needs vhen il cones lo lheii hunan
iesouices. As desciiled eaiIiei, lhe iesouice-lased viev of lhe fiin (RV) does lake
inlo accounl lhese oiganizalionaI needs lhal piovide conpelilive hunan iesouice
advanlages. In idenlifying lhe hunan capilaI pooI chaiacleiislics lhal vouId eIicil
lhese hunan iesouice advanlages, a lehaviouiaI peispeclive on slialegic hunan
iesouices (}ackson & SchuIei, 1995) aigues lhal lhe needed skiIIs/voik ioIe
lehaviouis shouId fil given oiganizalionaI conlingencies such as slialegy,
lechnoIogy, cusloneis and lhe Iike. This neans lhal diffeienl oiganizalionaI
slialegies iequiie diffeienl enpIoyee lehaviouis in oidei lo le successfuIIy execuled.
Hovevei, as lhe conlenpoiaiy oiganizalions naikel conlexl is in conslanl
fIux, lhe peifoinance effecls of a fil lelveen slialegy and enpIoyee lehavioui is
incieasingIy conlesled. Theiefoie, iecenl allenlion has focused on lhe dynanic
capaliIilies an oiganizalion shouId possess lo suivive in incieasing dynanic and
insecuie oiganizalionaI enviionnenls (Teece, Iisano & Schuen, 1997, VoIleida,
1996). In incieasing unslalIe oiganizalionaI conlexls, oiganizalions can no Iongei
ieIy on lelling on one doninanl slialegy, lul have lo ienain fIexilIe oi agiIe (Dyei
& Schafei, 1999, Iaauve, 2OO4) lo effecliveIy iespond lo and cope vilh exleinaI
(Ialoui) naikel, inslilulionaI oi lechnoIogicaI changes. In lhis conlexl, discielionaiy
effoil lhal is iaie and vaIualIe is possilIy iefIecled in pioaclive enpIoyees lhal, foi
inslance, shov high IeveIs of peisonaI inilialive, have a conlinuous Ieaining
oiienlalion, knov hov lo effecliveIy coopeiale/connunicale and feeI iesponsilIe
foi issues and piolIens oulside of lhe liadilionaI voik conlexl (IIgen & IuIakos,
1999, Dyei & Schafei, 1999, Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, Iaikei, 2OOO, eIlin-Mailn, Roca-
Iuig, Lsciig-Tena, ou-LIusai, 2OO8). OveiaII, lhe disiegaid of lhe exacl lype of
discielionaiy lehaviouis lhal vouId conslilule hunan iesouice advanlage olsliucls
ieseaicheis lo nake sense of a connon sel of faclois pionoling veII-leing and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance in a conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl.

39
Reason #3: The causa| |lnk betueen ue||-belng and erformance
Anolhei diffeience lelveen lhe nodeIs is lhe assuned causaI diieclion lelveen
enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance. A Iaige lody of individuaI IeveI ieseaich has
addiessed lhe causaI ieIalionship of giealei enpIoyee veII-leing Ieading lo highei
enpIoyee jol peifoinance. Reseaich on lhis happy/connilled-pioduclive voikei
lhesis (}udge el aI. 2OOO, Meyei & AIIen in Cuesl, 2OO2) has, hovevei, nol geneialed
convincing evidence lhal indicales lhal highIy salisfied/connilled enpIoyees
peifoin lellei. In Iine vilh lhe sceplicaI appioaches, KeIIy (1992) and Cuesl (2OO2)
caII inlo queslion vhelhei W/O faclois can affecl peifoinance lhiough veII-leing
and, consequenlIy, vhelhei lhey shaie a connon sel of deleininanls oi nol.
Olheivise, lhe pessinislic appioach aigues lhal veII-leing and peifoinance effecls
aie sinuIlaneous oulcones of voik ialhei lhan lhal lheie is a sequenliaI ieIalionship
lelveen lhe lvo. As such, veII-leing can le dininished in lhe puisuil of high
peifoinance (ly excessive effoil expendiluie).

In a siniIai vein, Canpion el aI. (2OO5) aIso aigue lhal high peifoinance can le
undeinined in lhe oiganizalions puisuil of enpIoyee veII-leing. In lhe inlegialive
appioach, nuch noie allenlion is given lo lhe iecipiocaI naluie of lhe veII-leing-
peifoinance ieIalionship. In olhei voids, veII-leing and peifoinance can affecl
each olhei in lolh diieclions. Heie, Ieaining piocesses enhance lhe knovIedge lo
peifoin veII and efficienlIy, vhich saves line and eneigy foi lhe nexl line. AIso, lhe
aIleialions (Iike inveslnenls) in lhe voik piocesses as a consequence of high
oiganizalionaI peifoinance nighl posiliveIy affecl enpIoyee veII-leing. In lhis
suslainalIe viev, veII-leing and peifoinance aie dynanicaIIy enlvined ovei line.
Iindings in IongiludinaI sludies aIieady ieveaI lhal enhanced oiganizalionaI
peifoinance can piecede inpioved affeclive enpIoyees veII-leing. Ioi inslance,
Schneidei, Hanges, Snilh and SaIvaggio (2OO3) find oveiaII jol salisfaclion lo fIov
noie sliongIy fion financiaI and naikel peifoinance lhan lhe olhei vay aiound.
SiniIai iesuIls veie found ly Ryan, Schnil & }ohnson (1996) and Koys (2OO1) foi
cuslonei salisfaclion expIaining enpIoyee salisfaclion ialhei lhan lhe olhei vay
aiound. InleieslingIy, Koys (2OO1) found lhal oiganizalionaI cilizenship lehavioui
(OC, Oigan, 1988), as a foin of discielionaiy effoil (Iodsakoff, MacKenzie, Iaine &
achaiach, 2OOO), piedicled piofilaliIily and nol lhe olhei vay aiound. AII in aII,
lhese findings do nc| suppoil a peispeclive in vhich lhe inveslnenl in enpIoyee
veII-leing vouId diieclIy and piospecliveIy le ieIaled lo lellei voik peifoinance.
40
Reason #4: Lack of seclflcatlon of dlfferences betueen W/O factors
When addiessing lhe oiganizalion and nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance,
lhe assunplion is lhal oiganizalions can inleivene ly choosing foi and invesling in
ceilain voik and oiganizalionaI faclois oi piaclices. Hovevei, lhe enpIoyee and
oiganizalionaI oulcones of W/O inleivenlions cannol le sludied in isoIalion as lhey
aie aII in pIace al lhe sane line, vhich nakes lhal enpIoyees aie exposed lo lhen al
lhe sane line (Lepak, Takeuchi, Lihaidl and CoIakogIu, 2OO6). As lolh jol
eniichnenl nodeIs and high connilnenl HRM nodeIs assune sone soil of
conlined effecl of nuIlipIe W/O inleivenlions lovaids enpIoyee veII-leing and
peifoinance, each of lhese inleivenlions can le of a diffeienl naluie. Ioi inslance,
KeIIys (1992) findings lhal jol iedesign faclois can have a diffeienliaI inpacl on jol
salisfaclion (jol eniichnenl) and voik peifoinance (lighl slaffing, goaI selling, pay
IeveIs) shovs lhe possiliIily lhal W/O inleivenlions diffei in lhe oulcones lhey
eIicil. In a siniIai vein, Tsui el aI. (1997) dislinguish lelveen inleivenlions lhal
enphasize shoil-lein enpIoyee conliilulions (appiaisaI, goaI selling and funclionaI
liaining) and Iong-lein oiienled enpIoyei inducenenls (caieei suppoil, inleinaI
slaffing and enpIoynenl secuiily).

The diffeienl naluie of W/O inleivenlions and possilIe diffeienliaI inpacl on
enpIoyee oulcones has aIso leen iecognized in Heizleigs (1966) Tuc |ac|cr Tnccrq.
Heie, Heizleig diffeienliales lelveen W/O faclois lhal eilhei couId nolivale
enpIoyees (e.g., pionolion and deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies, jol aulonony), vhiIe
hygiene faclois aie onIy alIe lo pievenl enpIoyees fion gelling dissalisfied
(saIaiy, Ialoui condilions, inleinaI sociaI ieIalionships). Diffeienl calegoiisalions of
W/O faclois can expIain diffeienl oulcones, vhich nakes il inpoilanl lo caiefuIIy
exanine lhose conlined inleivenlions lhal affecl noie veII-leing ieIaled oulcones
and lhose lhal vouId ieIale lo peifoinance ieIaled oulcones. In oidei lo undeisland
hov a connon sel of W/O couId foslei lolh veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones,
a noie exacl exaninalion of lhe naluie and W/O and possilIe oulcones of diffeienl
W/O inleivenlions is of inpoilance.

41
Reason #5: The |ack a seclflcatlon of hou W/O factors lnteract
ReIaled lo lhe pievious poinl aie lhe diffeienl vays ieseaich has gone aloul lhe
inleiaclions lelveen diffeienl W/O faclois. Ioi inslance, al lhe jol IeveI, lhe jol
chaiacleiislics nodeI dislinguishes lelveen jol enIaiging eIenenls (e.g. lask vaiiely)
and jol eniiching eIenenls (e.g., aulonony, pailicipalion). ConsequenlIy, a jol
conlaining lhe fiisl vilhoul lhe Iallei couId jusl nean lhal one has noie diffeienl
lhings lo do, lul undei lhe iesliiclion lhal an enpIoyee does nol have any conlioI
ovei hov lo nanage lhe execulion of a vaiiely of lasks. In conlinalion lhese
chaiacleiislics have leneficiaI oulcones foi lhe enpIoyee, lul in alsence of jol
eniiching eIenenls il has no oi Iess leneficiaI oulcones. This slielches lhe
inpoilance of lhe inleiaclion lelveen W/O faclois. The sane accounls foi
oiganizalionaI piaclices vhich can foin poveifuI conneclions as veII as deadIy
conlinalions (eckei, HuseIid, Iickus & Spiall, 1997) aIso vilh iegaid lo veII-leing
and peifoinance oulcones. Ioi inslance, DeIeiy (1998) noles lhal invesling in
liaining and deveIopnenl piogians vilhoul ensuiing lhal pay-IeveIs aie
conpelilive, oiganizalions iun lhe iisk lhal lhe liaining/deveIopnenl inveslnenls
viII piolalIy nol pay off vhen enpIoyees vouId choose lo Ieave lhe oiganizalion
foi highei pay eIsevheie. Regaiding W/O faclois as isoIaled faclois lhal each
conliilule lo ceilain veII-leing and/oi peifoinance oulcones nay lIui lhe picluie
of hov a sel of W/O faclois can inpacl veII-leing and peifoinance. Theiefoie, noie
specificalion on lhe possilIe inleiaclions and lheii eilhei leneficiaI oi deliinenlaI
effecls on veII-leing and peifoinance is needed.


2.8 A RE5EARCH FRAMEWORK AND NEXT CHAPTER
Taken logelhei, lhe diffeienl appioaches and undeiIying nodeIs do nol niceIy painl
an easy picluie of hov lo exanine lhe possiliIily foi oiganizalions lo pionole
peifoinance, vhiIe suslaining enpIoyee veII-leing. ul ly ievieving lhe nodeIs
and lheii undeiIying assunplions and discussing lhe possilIe ieasons foi lheii
diffeiences, Iiguie 2-8 piesenls an inlegialive ieseaich fianevoik conlaining
concepluaI luiIding lIocks, Iinkages and lhe queslions ienaining. As shovn in
Iiguie 2-8, lhe inlegialive ieseaich fianevoik luiIds on lhe High Ieifoinance Woik
Syslens Iileialuie (AppeIlaun el aI, 2OOO), vhich assunes an effecl of a syslen of
voik piaclices lhal in inleiaclion vilh each olhei Iead lo high oiganizalionaI
peifoinance lhiough effeclive discielionaiy enpIoyee effoil.
42





















F|gure 2-8: |ntegrat|ve Research Framework and 0uest|ons Rema|n|ng


ul olhei lhan lhe idea lhal enpIoyee veII-leing is consideied an enpiiicaI side
effecl, lhe fianevoik seeks lo inlegiale enpIoyee veII-leing in lhe HIWS-
Ieifoinance Iinkage. Heie, lhe nign peifoinance ciileiion excIudes lhe ialionaIe
lased on lhe prctcn|icn of pioduclivily/efficiency Iosses lhiough ieduced enpIoyee
luinovei and/oi sickness alsence. AIlhough lhey conslilule Iegilinale aieas of
invesligalion, il does nol piovide insighl in hov enpIoyee veII-leing couId ieIale lo
lhe prcnc|icn of oiganizalionaI peifoinance. This Ieaves lhe foIIoving lhiee ieseaich
issues vhich viII guide lhe chapleis lo cone:

Iiisl, lhe lIack aiiovs and loxes depicl lhe dynanic ieIalionships lelveen
enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance vhich aie cenliaI lo lhe fianevoik.
Heie, chaplei 3 and 4 Iook inlo aclive enpIoyee veII-leing and

?

Emp|oyee
hea|th


Effect|ve
0|scret|onary
Effort


Affect|ve
we||-be|ng

?
?
?

w|0
Factors




w|0
Factors

w|0
Factors

?
?
?

?



0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

43
peifoinance concepls lhal signify a voikfoice lhal has vhal il lakes and
adheie lo lhe oiganizalions needs lo suivive in a conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl.

Iion lheie, lhe vhile aiiovs depicl lhe exaninalion of hov enpIoyee veII-
leing and effeclive discielionaiy effoil enhance each olhei inlo oiganizalionaI
peifoinance inpiovenenl (ialhei lhan pievenling Iosses).

Lasl, lhe giey aiiovs and loxes depicl lhe invesligalion of lhose voik and
oiganizalionaI deleininanls lhal affecl oiganizalionaI peifoinance vhiIe aIso
suslaining enpIoyee veII-leing. These viII le fuilhei exanined in chaplei 5
and 6. Heie, lhe lhiee diffeienl and oveiIapping lIocks of voik and
oiganizalionaI (W/O) faclois signify lhe possiliIily lhal veII-leing and
peifoinance piocesses do nol shaie lhe sane deleininanls, lul lhal lhey can
inleiacl inlo leneficiaI oulcones foi lolh veII-leing and peifoinance. In
chaplei 7, lhe nedialion of enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance lelveen
W/O faclois and oiganizalionaI peifoinance is exanined.

AddilionaIIy, lhe dolled aiiovs signify lhe feedlack Ioops lelveen lhe W/O
faclois and oiganizalionaI peifoinance. These aie assuned, lul viII nol le
expIicilIy lesled. AII in aII, lhe lhiee ieseaich issues alove piovide lhe ioon lo
inlegiale nuIlipIe lheoielicaI peispeclives in lhe concepluaI and enpiiicaI
sludies lo cone. Togelhei, lhey lake inlo accounl aII 5 ieasons foi vhy
lheoielicaI peispeclives and pasl ieseaich findings nay diffei.


44
45
Chaptez 3
A rationaIe for empIoyee vitaIity:
the dynamica and conceptuaIization of an
active weII-being performance concept
4

3.1 INTRODUCTION
As oiganizalions seek lo knov if ils enpIoyees have vhal il lakes lo slay
conpelilive and suivive lhe denands of lhe piesenl day naikel dynanics, lhe
assessnenl of lhose enpIoyee alliilules lhal couId nake a conpelilive diffeience is
an incieasing oljecl of piaclicaI and acadenic invesligalion (Van Dyne, Ciahan &
Dienesch, 1994, IIgen & IuIakos, 1999, Iaikei, 2OOO, Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, Sonnenlag &
Iiese, 2OO2). This has Ied lo defining and neasuiing lhose discielionaiy alliludinaI
and lehaviouiaI phenonena lhal aie 'in sone vay leyond lhe ieach of liadilionaI
neasuies of jol peifoinance lul hoId lhe pionise foi Iong-lein oiganizalionaI
success (Van Dyne el aI., 1994: 765). WeII knovn exanpIes aie lhe Iasling slieans of
ieseaich on lhe (oiganizalionaI) deleininanls and (oiganizalionaI) peifoinance
effecls of concepls Iike jco sa|isfac|icn (IaffaIdano & Muchinsky, 1985, }udge,
Thoiesen, ono & Iallon, 2OO1), crganiza|icna| ccnni|ncn| (Movday, Sleeis & Ioilei,
1979, AIIen & Meyei, 199O) and crganiza|icna| ci|izcnsnip ocnaticur (OC, Oigan, 1988,
Iodsakoff el aI., 2OOO). These diffeienl enpIoyee peifoinance concepls lhal have
leen suljecl lo ieseaich foi sone decades nov, cannol le consideied lo have

4
A pail of lhis chaplei vas lased on an eaiIiei veision of a papei ly Doienlosch, L.W. & Van
VeIdhoven, M.}.I.M. & Iaauve, }. (2OO6). An Inlegialive ConcepluaI appioach lo lhe WeII-leing -
Ieifoinance Link in lhe Modein WoikpIace: Tovaids a concepl of Woikfoice VilaIily. Iapei
piesenled al lhe WAOI confeience, Nijnegen, NL.
46
eneiged hisloiicaIIy independenl of each olhei. Wilh iegaid lo lhe ieIalionships
lelveen lhese concepls in line, Cuesl (2OO2) olseives lhe foIIoving:

'One of lhe oiiginaI ieasons foi lhe iise of inleiesl in lhe concepl of oiganizalionaI
connilnenl vas lhe peisislenl inaliIily lo find a sliong ieIalionship lelveen salisfaclion and
peifoinance (IaffaIdano & Muchinsky, 1985). Whal vas needed vas a noie oiganisalion-
cenlied and polenliaIIy noie slalIe concepl and connilnenl lo lhe oiganizalion seened lo
offei lhis pionise. Hovevei, aflei noie lhan lvo decades of ieseaich, oiganizalionaI
connilnenl appeais lo le no sliongei associaled vilh peifoinance lhan jol salisfaclion,
lhough lolh shov a consislenl associalion vilh Ialoui luin-ovei (Malhieu & Zajac, 199O,
Meyei and AIIen, 1997). (p. 34O)

Cuesls (2OO2) olseivalion nakes cIeai lhal in lhe Iighl of gaining lellei
oiganizalionaI peifoinance lhiough enpIoyees, salisfied and connilled enpIoyees
aie nol lhe key peifoinance concepls foi oiganizalionaI HRM piaclices and poIicies
lo focus on. Cuesl conlinues ly slaling:

'This second iesuIl piovides a ialionaIe foi lhe viev lhal lhe goaIs of HRM nighl le defined
in leins of connilnenl, quaIily and fIexiliIily (Cuesl, 1987).Wheie lhis is achieved, lhe
peifoinance viII cone fion lhe quaIily and fIexiliIily of voikeis ialhei lhan lheii
connilnenl. (p. 34O)

In conliasl lo enpIoyee alliludinaI aspecls Iike salisfaclion and connilnenl,
giasping enpIoyee alliilules lhal ieIale lo lheii geneiic quaIily and fIexiliIily vouId
le heIped ly a focus on neasuiing acluaI enpIoyee lehaviouis. Nol suipiisingIy, lhe
ieseaich allenlion foi OCs (as a foin of discielionaiy effoil) and oiganizalionaI
effecliveness has exponenlionaIIy giovn ovei lhe Iasl decade (foi an exlensive
oveiviev see Iodsakoff el aI., 2OOO). Hovevei, iecenlIy, seveiaI schoIais aie focusing
on enpIoyee peifoinance concepls lhal vouId signify a voikfoice has vhal il
lakes lo conliilule lo oiganizalionaI success in a conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl (IIgen
& IuIakos, 1999, Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, Ciiffin, NeaI & Iaikei, 2OO7, Iay & Kanps, 2OO6).
Refeiied lo as aclive peifoinance concepls, Iiese and Iay (2OO1) slale il enlaiIs
enpIoyees lhal can go leyond assigned lasks, vho can deveIop lheii ovn goaIs, can
seIf-slail lhese goaIs, and lake a Iong lein peispeclive on lheii voik and caieei. Il is
pioposed lhal in nodein voik silualions, jol sliucluies and caieei palhs gel noie
unceilain, anliguous, noie pooiIy defined and naIIealIe, vhich Ieaves IillIe oi no
sliucluie one can easiIy adapl lo (Muiphy & }ackson, 1999, Iaikei, WaII & }ackson,
47
1998). Theiefoie, unceilain silualions piinaiiIy vouId iequiie of enpIoyees lo
lehave pioacliveIy lovaids voik and seIf-deveIopnenl in oidei lo conslilule a high
peifoinance voikfoice in a nodein voik aiena (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6, Ciiffin el aI.,
2OO7). Iion enpIoyees lhis iequiies lhe expendiluie of nev lype of quaIilalive voik
effoil, lul vhal aie lhe inpIicalions foi lhe iequiied IeveIs of heaIlh and veII-leing`
And hov do lhey inleiacl` y focusing on a concepl of cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q, enpIoyee
peifoinance and veII-leing issues can le conlined.

3.1.1 Gna! and 5tructurc nf thIs chaptcr
Taking lhe iecenl Iileialuie on aclive enpIoyee peifoinance as a conlenpoiaiy
concepluaI donain of discielionaiy enpIoyee effoil, lhe goaI of lhis chaplei is lo
eIaloiale on lhe vaIue of a concepl of cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q. CenliaI queslions aie: (a) Whal
chaiacleiizes a heaIlhy and highIy pioduclive voikfoice in a conlenpoiaiy voik
conlexl` (l) Hov does a nev concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily connecl and fuilhei
conliilule lo lhe ieseaich on enpIoyee heaIlh and peifoinance` (c) Whal aie lhe
specifics of such a enpIoyee vilaIily consliucl` To do so, ve viII focus on enpIoyee
peifoinance as lhe expendiluie of voik effoil vhich can diffei in ils anounl,
diieclion and lype. Iion lheie ve aigue vhal lhe inpIicalions of diffeienl
nanifeslalions of voik effoil aie foi enpIoyee veII-leing and heaIlh and vhy a foin
of dynanic voik effoil signifies enpIoyee vilaIily. Lasl, ve fuilhei specify lhe
dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily, vhich viII le neasuied and vaIidaled in lhe nexl
chaplei.


3.2 EFFORT EXPENDITURE AND "HIGH" EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
The concepl of voik effoil can le consideied a luiIding lIock foi undeislanding lhe
peifoinance/oulpul of Ialoui. LnpIoyees vho invesl giealei effoil inlo lheii voik
inciease lhe IikeIihood lhal lhey viII conliilule oiganizalionaI Ialoui pioduclivily
and conpeliliveness (iovn & Leigh, 1996). Hovevei, voik effoil is an anliguous
lein and lolh haid lo define and neasuie (Yeo & NeaI, 2OO4). To cIaiify lhe lein
effoil in ieIalion lo conlenpoiaiy jol peifoinance Iileialuie (see Sonnenlag & Iiese,
2OO2 foi an oveiviev), ve viII dislinguish lelveen (1) lhe anounl, (2) lhe diieclion
and (3) lhe lype of voik effoil expendiluie and lhe liansIalion inlo vhal conslilules
high enpIoyee peifoinance (as shovn in Iiguie 3-1).
48







F|gure 3-1: 0verv|ew of Effort Expend|ture and "h|gh" Emp|oyee Performance


The amount of uork effort
Yeo el aI. (2OO4) iefei lo voik effoil as lhe |ctc| oi ancun| of iesouices lhal is
expended in lhe jol. AddilionaIIy, Cieen (2OO1) dislinguishes lelveen lvo calegoiies
of voik effoil: 'exlensive and 'inlensive effoil. Lxlensive effoil iefeis lo lhe |inc
spenl al voik (i.e. lhe anounl of voiking houis one nakes). Olheivise, inlensive
effoil iefeis lo lhe in|cnsi|q of voik duiing lhal line of voik. One couId lhink of lhe
nenlaI and physicaI cncrgq an enpIoyee expends in his voik (iovn el aI., 1996,
Iau, 1993). The diffeience lelveen lhese calegoiies of effoil is lhal an enpIoyee
voiking 8 houis couId expend Iess eneigy lhan an enpIoyee couId in 6 houis,
depending on lhe poiosily of lhe voiking day. This iefeis lo lhe exlenl lo vhich a
voiking day knovs gaps lelveen lasks duiing vhich lhe lody and nind iesls
(Cieen, 2OO1). Togelhei, line and eneigy aie consideied lasic (hunan) iesouices
avaiIalIe lo enpIoyees of vhon lhe inveslnenl in voik is vilhin lhe discielion of
enpIoyees. In addilion lo line and eneigy, olhei enpIoyee iesouices lhal cannol le
oveiIooked aie lhe skiIIs, knovIedge and expeiience of enpIoyees (Kanfei &
Ackeinan, 2OO4, Cieen, 2OO1). NaluiaIIy, lhe use of lhe fuII anounl of peisonaI
conpelencies is aIso al lhe discielion of enpIoyees.

The dlrectlon of uork effort
Hovevei, a giealei inveslnenl of line, eneigy and conpelencies aie nol consideied
lo diieclIy ieIale lo incieased peifoinance. Cieen (2OO1) slales lhal enpIoyee
pioduclivily is aIso affecled ly oiganizalionaI efficiency. Ioi oiganizalions,
enpIoyees vho aie nolivaled lo invesl lheii line, eneigy and skiIIs/knovIedge inlo
lheii jol can inciease lheii quaIilalive lask peifoinance, lul vhen inpoilanl aspecls
of lhe voik oiganizalion (e.g., oideiing of lasks, connunicalion) aie inefficienl, jol
Effort Expend|ture


- Arourl ol Ellorl
- 0|recl|or ol Ellorl
- Type ol Ellorl




"h|gh"
Emp|oyee
Performance


49
peifoinance viII nol ieach oplinaI IeveIs. InleieslingIy, incieasing lhe efficiency of
inleinaI voik piocesses oi pioceduies is nol onIy in lhe hands of nanagenenl, il is
aIso associaled vilh lhe conlexluaI enpIoyee peifoinance dinension in lhe
videIy accepled dislinclion lelveen lask and conlexluaI jol peifoinance (Ciiffin,
NeaI & NeaIe, 2OOO, Sonnenlag & Iiese, 2OO2).
Olhei lhan lhe iesouices lhal aie expended on foinaI and in-ioIe coie jol
iequiienenls (|as| peifoinance), ccn|cx|ua| peifoinance iefeis lo non jol-specific oi
exlia-ioIe effoil vhich 'does nol conliilule lo lhe lechnicaI coie lul vhich suppoil
lhe oiganizalionaI, sociaI, and psychoIogicaI enviionnenl in vhich oiganizalionaI
goaIs aie puisued (Sonnenlag & Iiese, 2OO2, p. 6). Wilh iegaid lo lhe effoil-
peifoinance ieIalionship, high peifoinance vouId iequiie lhe expendiluie of
peisonaI iesouices on in-ioIe and exlia-ioIe aclivilies vhich enphasizes lhe
inpoilance of lhe dircc|icn of effoil expendiluie. IiefeialIy, lhe expendiluie of line,
eneigy and skiIIs/knovIedge iesouices is diiecled lovaids oc|n lhe lask and voik
conlexluaI donain.

The te of uork effort
Aiguing lhal a high anounl of enpIoyee effoil diiecled lovaids in-ioIe and exlia-
ioIe peifoinance conslilules lhe luiIding lIocks of high enpIoyee peifoinance, does
nol specify lhe |qpc of effoil and conciele enpIoyee lehaviouis oi aclivilies lhal
vouId le ieIevanl in nodein day oiganizalions. Wilh iefeience lo lask peifoinance
one couId lhink of voik-specific oiaI, viiling oi up-lo-dale lechnicaI
skiIIs/knovIedge lo do a good jol. Wilh iegaid lo conlexluaI peifoinance,
Sonnenlag & Iiese (2OO2) nake a dislinclion lelveen (1) slaliIizing enpIoyee
lehaviouis vhich piinaiiIy ain al lhe snoolh funclioning of lhe oiganizalion as il is
al lhe piesenl nonenl and (2) pioaclive lehaviouis lhal focus on seIf-inilialed,
fuluie-oiienled aclions lhal ains lo change and inpiove lhe voik silualion
(pioceduies and piocesses) oi oneseIf (Cianl, 2OOO, Iaikei, WiIIians & Tuinei, 2OO6,
Iiese & Iay, 2OO1). The slaliIizing enpIoyee lehaviouis aie aigued lo incIude
liadilionaI oiganizalionaI cilizenship lehaviouis (Oigan, 1988) Iike heIping co-
voikeis, spoilsnanship, oiganizalionaI IoyaIly, oiganizalionaI conpIiance and lhe
Iike. Van Dyne and LeIine (1998) slale lhal nosl facels of OC can le consideied
affiIialive lehaviouis vhich iefeis lo lhe degiee lo vhich lehavioui is oiienlaled al
pieseiving inleinaI ieIalionships - sliII vilhin slalIe lask sliucluies and in Iine vilh
nanageiiaI oljeclives. Olheivise, pioaclive lehaviouis vouId incIude concepls Iike
50
peisonaI inilialive (Iiese, Iay, HiIluigei, Leng, & Tag, 1997), voice (Van Dyne &
LeIine, 1998), laking chaige (Moiiison & IheIps, 1999), seIf-deveIopnenl (Ceoige &
iief, 1992) oi aclive Ieaining (Taiis el aI., 2OO3). In conpaiison lo liadilionaI OCs,
enpIoyee pioaclivily is consideied lo chaIIenge lhe slalus quo (Cianl, 2OOO),
cause lhings lo happen (Van Dyne & Lepine, 1998) and go leyond lhe piocesses
piesenlIy inpIenenled vilhin lhe oiganizalion (Iay & Sonnenlag, 2OO3).
Wilh iegaid lo lhe inpoilance of pioaclive enpIoyees lhal lake inilialive
lovaids voik and caieei deveIopnenl, Iiese and Iay (2OO1) aigue lhal in lhe
nodein jol concepl, individuaI iesponsiliIilies aie incieased as veII as lhe pace of
changes in lhe voik and Ialoui naikel. To keep up vilh lhese changes, individuaI
enpIoyees lhenseIves need lo engage in aclive lehavioui lovaids inpioving
voik piocesses and inpioving ones skiIIs and knovIedge. This sliean of Iileialuie,
lheiefoie, chaIIenges lhe liadilionaI viev on effeclive enpIoyees leing a salisfied,
connilled oiganizalionaI cilizen, as il enphasizes a passive enpIoyee lhal is nol
necessaiiIy alIe lo deaI vilh lhe conpIexily and conlinuous changes in nodein day
jols and oiganizalions. Ioi lhe ienaindei of lhis chaplei, ve speak of passive and
aclive peifoinance concepls lhal signify lhe diffeiences in lhe lype of effoil
enpIoyees can expend. Iiguie 3-2 sunnaiizes hov lhe anounl, diieclion and lype
of voik effoil define high enpIoyee peifoinance in lhis chaplei.










F|gure 3-2: 8pec|f|cat|on of Effort Expend|ture and "h|gh" Emp|oyee Performance


3.2 CON5TRAINT5 TO HIGH EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
Defining high enpIoyee peifoinance aIongside lhe anounl, diieclion and lype of
effoil oi iesouices an enpIoyee invesl in his voik, piepaies lhe vay lo discuss lhe
work Effort Expend|ture

- Arourl ol Ellorl


- 0|recl|or ol Ellorl


- Type ol Ellorl

"h|gh" Emp|oyee Performance

- l|gr lrveslrerl ol T|re, Erergy,
Corpelerce

- 0r Tas| ano Corlexlua| dora|rs

- lr a Proacl|ve Way (oerav|our)

51
consliainls lo high enpIoyee peifoinance. Wilh iegaid lo lhe anounl of line,
eneigy and conpelencies as lhiee inpoilanl iesouices lhal eveiy enpIoyee can
expend, enpIoyees can diiecl oi aIIocale a ceilain anounl of lhese iesouices lo lhe
lask oi conlexluaI donain eilhei spending il on, foi inslance, in-ioIe skiII usage,
oiganizalionaI cilizenship lehaviouis oi pioaclive aclion lovaids voik and caieei.
In lhis iespecl, Schnake (2OO7) desciiles a conlinuun of effoil expendiluie - fion
naxinun effoil lo zeio effoil - vhich depicls lhal lhe piopensily lo expend a
naxinun of effoil is associaled vilh enpIoyee engagenenl in conlexluaI
peifoinance on lop of lhe nininaIIy acceplalIe anounl of effoil needed lo shov
good lask peifoinance. Hovevei, line and eneigy aie consideied Iiniled capacily
iesouices (Yeo & NeaI, 2OO4, Hockey, 1997), vhich neans lhal lhese iesouices aie
naluiaIIy scaice and consliain individuaIs in lheii aIIocalion of line and eneigy
anong lask and conlexluaI aclivilies. Looking al daiIy jol peifoinance, enpIoyees
have conliacluaI voik houis and incidenlaI oveivoik houis lo expend vhich
conpeles vilh lhe houis spend on piivale Iife and sIeeping (see eigeion, 2OO7). The
physicaI eneigy an enpIoyee can expend conpeles vilh psychicaI and psychoIogicaI
cosls (e.g., faligue, exhauslion) lhal aie associaled vilh effoil expendiluie (Meijnan
& MuIdei, 1998). Iuilheinoie, vilh iegaid lo lhe expendiluie of conpelencies,
cuiienl knovIedge and skiIIs aie aIso Iiniled as lhey iun lhe iisk of gelling ouldaled.
LspeciaIIy in conlenpoiaiy voik sellings, iapid slialegic and lechnoIogicaI
deveIopnenls iequiie a conslanl updale of enpIoyee conpelencies (Sennell, 2OO6).
Theiefoie, lhe expendiluie of cuiienl inleIIecluaI iesouices conpeles vilh fuluie
inleIIecluaI iequiienenls. Wilh iegaid lo high enpIoyee peifoinance (adequale
aIIocalion of pioaclive effoil lo lolh lask and conlexluaI peifoinance) vhich
iequiies a naxinun anounl of iesouices (Schnake, 2OO7), lhiee lensions nighl
lhiealen lhe puisuil of high enpIoyee peifoinance:

(1) lhe lension lelveen lask and conlexluaI peifoinance
(2) lhe lension lelveen naxinun effoil expendiluie and heaIlh
(3) lhe lension lelveen cuiienl and fuluie high peifoinance

Tlme Constralnts: Tenslon betueen task and contextua| erformance
RecenlIy, eigeion (2OO7) addiessed lhe possilIe liadeoffs lelveen lask and
conlexluaI peifoinance (OC in pailicuIai) as individuaIs aie consliained ly |inc.
As eigeion aigues: 'Ioi individuaIs consliained ly line, il is unIikeIy lhal lhey viII
52
have high lask peifoinance and high OC. Ralhei, iesouice aIIocalion foices a
choice such lhal nosl individuaIs viII focus on one aclivily al lhe expense of lhe
olhei (p. 1O84). ased on a synlhesis of ieseaich findings lhal indicale lhal
enpIoyeis give ieIaliveIy giealei veighl lo lask peifoinance lhan OC in
deleinining oveiaII peifoinance evaIualions, ievaids and lo Iessei exlenl caieei
advancenenl, eigeion (2OO7) poses lhal spending line on OC nighl le good foi
lhe oiganizalion lul coslIy foi lhe individuaI. y choosing lo aIIocale line lo OCs
Iike heIping olheis oi voIunleeiing in exlia-ioIe aclivilies, enpIoyees do nol choose
lo invesl lheii Iiniled anounl of line in lask peifoinance. Heie il is aigued lhal
enpIoyees nighl iisk a Ioss of vaIue lecause, in conpaiison lo lask peifoinance,
OC is voilh Iess lo lhe individuaI. AddilionaIIy, in a sanpIe of aii liaffic
conlioIIeis, Ciiffin el aI. (2OOO) found lhal aIso lhe difficuIly of lhe jol consliains lhe
expendiluie of OC, as a difficuIl jol iequiies noie of lhe enpIoyees allenlion (e.g.
line) diiecled lovaids lhe lask peifoinance donain. In sun, foi enpIoyees lo
engage in high peifoinance (high lask and conlexluaI peifoinance) lhey viII face
ceilain lensions due lo lhe Iinilalions in lhe anounl of line lheie is lo expend.
AddilionaIIy, conlexluaI peifoinance can le coslIy lo lhe individuaI, vhich nighl
foice hin/hei lo aIIocale effoil lo lask peifoinance al lhe expense of conlexluaI
peifoinance.

Energ Constralnts: Tenslon betueen maxlmum effort exendlture and em|oee
hea|th
In a siniIai vein, lhe aIIocalion of eneigy lo lolh high lask and conlexluaI
peifoinance is aIso consliained. As high enpIoyee peifoinance iequiies a
naxinun anounl of effoil, il aIso iequiies giealei eneigy inveslnenls vhich liing
inlo pIay lhe ioIe lhe physioIogicaI and psychoIogicaI cosls lhal cone vilh lhe
expendiluie of (exlia) effoil (Meijnan & MuIdei, 1998, Iay & Sonnenlag, 2OO3). The
lension enlaiIs lhal lo lhe exlenl lhal naxinun peifoinance oveilaxes lhe anounl
of eneigy an enpIoyee possesses, lhe naxinaI anounl of eneigy an enpIoyee can
expend gels diained and giaduaIIy diops (Meijnan el aI., 1998). IndividuaIs vho
peifoin naxinaIIy vhiIe leing faligued, diain lheii eneigy iesouices lo a poinl lhal
lhey expeiience heaIlh piolIens. ased on lhe conseivalion of iesouices (COR)
lheoiy (HolfoII, 1989), il is slaled lhal peopIe/enpIoyees vanl lo conseive a heaIlhy
anounl of lheii physicaI and psychoIogicaI iesouices and choose lo diiecl a nininaI
anounl of eneigy lovaids in-ioIe aclivilies expecled fion lhen (akkei, Deneiouli
53
& Veileke, 2OO4). So in lhe piocess of engaging in lolh high lask and conlexluaI
peifoinance, lhe need foi high IeveIs of eneigy can cone al lhe expense of enpIoyee
heaIlh vhen il vouId oveilax lhe anounl of eneigy avaiIalIe. ConsequenlIy, lhis
vouId iesuIl in a vilhdiavaI fion effoil expendiluie diiecled lovaids lhe
conlexluaI donain. Hovevei, vhen lolaI peifoinance denands seveieIy diain
enpIoyee eneigy iesouices, giealei vilhdiavaI (aoscn|ccisn) oi lolaI vilhdiavaI
fion effoil expendiluie (|urn ctcr) nighl foIIov (Schnake, 2OO7). Theiefoie, eneigy
iesouices consliain lhe naxinaI anounl of effoil expendiluie and can negaliveIy
affecl conlexluaI and lask peifoinance lo lhe exlenl il is oveilaxed.

Cometence Constralnts: Tenslon betueen current and future hlgh erformance
A Iasl consliain lo high peifoinance is lhal a naxinun expendiluie of conpelences
in lhe jol is no guaianlee of enduialIe high peifoinance. Novadays, skiIIs and
knovIedge need conlinuous updaling lo nalch lhe oiganizalionaI iequiienenls.
Theiefoie, inleIIecluaI iesouices aie Iess and Iess slalIe iesouices one can expend.
Sennell (2OO6) expiesses lhe lension lelveen cuiienl and fuluie enpIoyee
peifoinance in lhe speclie of useIessness, vhich iefeis lo lhe conlinuous lhieal lo
enpIoyees lhal lheii cuiienl skiIIs devaIuale and viII nol seive lhen foi Iife. Sennell
(2OO6) aigues lhal 'skiII exlinclion has sped up nol onIy in lechnicaI voik, lul aIso in
nedicine, Iav, and vaiious ciafls. One eslinale foi conpulei iepaiinen is lhal lhey
have lo ieIeain lheii skiIIs lhiee lines in lhe couise of lheii voiking Iifeline, lhe
figuie is aloul lhe sane foi doclois. Thal is, vhen you acquiie a skiII, you donl have
a duialIe possession (p. 95). Civen lhe lension lelveen cuiienl and fuluie
conpelences, enduialIe high enpIoyee peifoinance is consliained up lo lhe poinl
lhal enpIoyees aie unalIe lo deveIop nev up-lo-dale skiIIs and knovIedge.


3.3 OVERCOMING TEN5ION5: THE CONCEPT OF EMPLOYEE VITALITY
As sunnaiized in Iiguie 3-3, lhe ciux of effoil expendiluie in ieIalion lo high
enpIoyee peifoinance is lhe anounl, diieclion and lype of enpIoyee effoil
expendiluie lhal (a) vouId le effeclive and discielionaiy foi oiganizalions in a
conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl and (l) vouId le enduialIe despile lhe facl lhal high
enpIoyee peifoinance is consliained ly Iinilalions of peisonaI line, eneigy and
conpelence iesouices.
54














F|gure 3-3: The dynam|cs between d|scret|onary effort & endurab|e Effort


Effectlte Dlscretlonar Effort
Wilh iegaid lo lhe lype of effoil lhal is effeclive lovaids oiganizalionaI peifoinance
in a nodein voik conlexl, ve desciiled aclive peifoinance concepls incIuding
enpIoyee pioaclivily lovaids voik and deveIopnenl in conpaiison lo liadilionaI
and noie passive peifoinance concepls of enpIoyee connilnenl/salisfaclion
and OC. SiniIai lo passive peifoinance, aclive conlexluaI peifoinance is aIso
consliained ly line and couId cone al lhe expense of vaIualIe lask peifoinance
(eigeion, 2OO7). Hovevei, il pioposed lhal pioaclivily lovaids voik incIudes
soIving opeialionaI and piocess inefficiencies and couId acluaIIy save line (Iay &
Sonnenlag, 2OO3). As such, pioaclivily lovaids voik vouId nol necessaiiIy conpele
vilh lhe line avaiIalIe foi lask peifoinance and couId even enhance lask
peifoinance. AddilionaIIy, foi pioaclivily lovaids ones deveIopnenl il can le
aigued lhal acliveIy upgiading ones skiIIs and knovIedge couId heIp lo ieduce lhe
exlia eneigy and line needed foi difficuIl lask peifoinance lhal Ciiffin el aI. (2OOO)
found lo cone al lhe expense of conlexluaI (OC-Iike) peifoinance. Iuilheinoie, il
is lhe enpIoyees ovn aclions lovaids lhe deveIopnenl of nev skiIIs and knovIedge
lhal enalIes lhe enpIoyee lo highIy peifoin nov and in lhe fuluie. As such,


work Effort
Expend|ture

T|me-
Energ,-
0omperence-

0onsrra|nrs



"h|gh" Emp|oyee
Performance

Ellecl|ve 0|screl|orary Ellorl ( Perlorrarce)
(we||-oe|rg ) Erdurao|e Ellorl
55
expending an aclive lype of effoil vouId le noie alIe lo iesuIl in high enpIoyee
peifoinance.

Endurab|e Effort
LnduialIe voik effoil iefeis lo voik effoil vhich in ils expendiluie does nol diain
iesouices needed foi fuluie effoil expendiluie. As lhe sun of lask and conlexluaI
peifoinance iequiies high effoil expendiluie (Schnake, 2OO7), il aIso iequiies a high
anounl of eneigy lo cope vilh lhe peifoinance denands. AddilionaIIy, in oidei lo
suslain lhe anounl of eneigy lo expend on high peifoinance aclive peifoinance
concepls couId aIso pIay a ioIe. SiniIai lo lhe ieIalionship lelveen aclive
peifoinance concepls and oveiconing lhe line consliainls lo high peifoinance,
aclive voik effoil lypes couId aIso cieale lhe line lo iecovei fion high eneigy
expendiluie ly laking inilialive lovaids exlensifying eneigy inlensive voik
aclivilies. Recoveiy line (e.g., on-lhe-jol lieaks and off-lhe-jol iecoveiy line) is
consideied a ciuciaI eIenenl in suslaining enpIoyee eneigy as il pievenls eneigy
diainage lo a poinl lhal il negaliveIy inpacls enpIoyee heaIlh and lhe polenliaI
anounl of eneigy lo expend (Meijnan & MuIdei, 1998).

Effectlte + Endurab|e Effort = Em|oee Vlta|lt
Wilh lhe focus on lhose enpIoyee effoil aspecls lhal vouId noie diieclIy le
associaled vilh high and enduialIe enpIoyee peifoinance in a nodein voik
conlexl, lhe high anounl of eneigy and a aclive lype of effoil expendiluie
chaiacleiize a tigcurcus and prcac|itc cnp|cqcc inslead of an ccnni||cd
crganiza|icna| ci|izcn. AIlhough lhese chaiacleiizalions do nol have lo fuIIy excIude
each olhei, lhe ialionaIe piesenled alove depicls lhal lo lhe lackdiop of an
incieasing dynanic voik conlexl, dynanic voik effoil is iequiied in oidei lo
peifoin and keep peifoining undei conlinuousIy changing condilions. Iion heie,
high anounls of eneigy and lhe engagenenl in pioaclive lehavioui is chaiacleiized
as cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q. As dynanic voik effoil, cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q aIIovs foi liidging lhe
enpIoyee peifoinance and enpIoyee heaIlh-oiienled Iileialuie. In a geneiaI sense,
Ryan & Iiedeiick (1997, aIso Nix, Ryan, ManIy & Deci, 1999) iefeiied lo vilaIily as a
dynanic iefIeclion of veII-leing vhich enconpasses a feeIing of possessing
eneigy avaiIalIe lo ones seIf logelhei vilh feeIing lhal one is lhe oiigin of aclion. In
lhis iepiesenlalion, vilaIily depicls a hunan alliilule of aIiveness and vigoui in
vhich a peison has lhe conlioI ovei ones eneigy lo iniliale aclion. This indicales lhal
56
vilaIily is noie lhan jusl feeIing eneigelic - il aIso invoIves lhal soneone iniliales lo
do sonelhing vilh il (i.e., pioaclivily). TiansIaled lo lhe voik conlexl, enpIoyee
vigoui and pioaclivily is pioposed lo give noie insighl in lhe lehaviouiaI dynanics
associaled vilh high, aclive and suslainalIe enpIoyee peifoinance and heaIlh. In
lhe nexl seclion, ve viII eIaloiale on lhe dinensions undeiIying lhe enpIoyee
vilaIily concepl and ieIalionships lelveen lhose dinensions.


3.5 THE DIMEN5ION5 OF EMPLOYEE VITALITY
Iiguie 3-4, fion lop lo lollon, depicls a concepluaI oveiviev of lhe lvo enpIoyee
vilaIily conponenls (pioaclivily and vigoui) and lhe foui dinensions lhal ve viII
discuss in lhis paiagiaph.

















F|gure 3-4: 6onceptua| overv|ew of emp|oyee v|ta||ty components and d|mens|ons


3.5.1 Emp!nycc prnactIvIty
AIieady desciiled in lhe pievious paiagiaphs, Iiese and Iay (2OO1) iefei lo aclive
peifoinance concepls as concepls lhal ieIale lo alliludinaI and lehaviouiaI aspecls
of enpIoyee peifoinance lhal nalch lhe chaiacleiislics of lhe nodein voik conlexl.

Emp|oyee
V|gour

Emp|oyee
Proact|v|ty


Emp|oyee
V|ta||ty

Job
Proact|v|ty

0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty


w||||ngness
to |nvest Energy

Ava||ab|||ty
of Energy

57
In lhis iespecl, ve aIieady sunned up lhe focus of sone aulhois on, foi exanpIe,
|a|ing cnargc (Moiisson & IheIps, 1999), pcrscna| ini|ia|itc (Iiese el aI., 1997) and
prcac|itc ucr| ocnaticur (Iaikei el aI., 2OO6). A connon diffeience lelveen aclive
concepls and passive concepls is lhe enphasis on lhe enpIoyee as an acloi in
conliasl lo lhe enpIoyee as an oljecl of oiganizalionaI slinuIi and voikpIace
condilions. Accoiding lo Iiese & Iay (2OO1) lhis enlaiIs enpIoyees lhal can go
leyond assigned lasks, vho can deveIop lheii ovn goaIs, can seIf-slail lhese goaIs,
and lake a Iong lein peispeclive on lheii voik and caieei. Il is pioposed lhal in
nodein voik silualions, jol sliucluies gel noie anliguous, noie pooiIy defined
and naIIealIe, vhich Ieaves IillIe oi no sliucluie one can adapl lo (Muiphy &
}ackson, 1999, Iaikei, WaII & }ackson, 1998).
Theiefoie, unceilain silualions piinaiiIy iequiie a pioaclive appioach lo voik
lhal heIps lo idenlify lhe piesenl lasks and Iong-lein needs of lhe oiganizalion
(Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, Iaikei, 2OOO). As iecenl Iileialuie liies lo capluie lhose enpIoyee
lehaviouiaI eIenenls of aclive peifoinance, pioaclive effoil can le diiecled al lvo
voik-ieIaled donains. Iiisl, an enpIoyee can le pioaclive and lake inilialive
lovaids ils ovn aclivilies in lhe voik piocess in vhich he/she acls in a seIf-slailing
nannei and shovs a Iong-lein peispeclive in oidei lo keep lhe voik piocess al an
oplinun IeveI, aIso vhen ciicunslances change oi piocess eiiois occui (Iay &
Sonnenlag, 2OO2). We viII iefei lo lhis aclive peifoinance-oiienled enpIoyee
alliilule as jco prcac|iti|q. Second, Waii & Iay (2OO1) aIso dislinguish an aclive
oiienlalion an enpIoyee can hoId lovaids lheii ovn deveIopnenl vilhin lhe cuiienl
jol and lovaids fuluie jol oppoilunilies. This lehavioui ieIales lo concepls Iike
cnp|cqaoi|i|q cricn|a|icn (Van Dan, 2OO4) oi |carning nc|ita|icn (Taiis, Konpiei, De
Lange, SchaufeIi & Schieuis, 2OO3), in vhich enpIoyees acliveIy scan fuluie
iequiienenls and seek lo gain nev knovIedge oi appioach knovIedgealIe peisons
lo keep ones ovn aliIilies al an oplinun IeveI. Ioi lhe ienaindei of lhesis lhis is
iefeiied lo as dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q. Togelhei, jol and deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily
conslilule coie eIenenls of lhe enpIoyee pioaclivily concepl vhen defined as 'seIf-
inilialed and fuluie-oiienled aclion lhal ains lo change and inpiove lhe silualion oi
oneseIf (Iaikei el aI., 2OO6: p. 636).

3.5.2 Emp!nycc VIgnur
Wheie aclive peifoinance concepls have leen pilled againsl noie passive enpIoyee
peifoinance alliilules Iike salisfaclion, connilnenl and OC, lhe occupalionaI
58
heaIlh psychoIogy Iileialuie diffeienliales lelveen negalive/passive and
posilive/aclive concepls of enpIoyee heaIlh and veII-leing. The nosl inpoilanl
fealuie is lhal in conliasl lo sliain-ieIaled and negalive concepls of heaIlh (e.g.,
iIIness, faligue, anxiely, depiession and luin oul), aclive and posilive heaIlh incIudes
concepls lhal go leyond lhe neie alsence of unveII-leing (Waii, 1994, SchaufeIi &
akkei, 2OO4). In lhis viev, enpIoyee veII-leing is defined ly lhe piesence of
posilive veII-leing, filness oi aIiveness (SchaufeIi & akkei, 2OO4, Spieilzei el aI.,
2OO5). SpecificaIIy addiessing lhe possilIe lenefils of posilive and aclive indicalois of
nenlaI heaIlh iefIecls an eneiging liend lovaids 'posilive psychoIogy oi 'posilive
oiganizalionaI lehavioui (Lulhans, 2OO2) lhal focuses on hunan slienglhs and
oplinaI funclioning ialhei lhan on veaknesses and naIfunclioning (SeIignan and
CsikszenlnihaIyi, 2OOO).
` SeveiaI aulhois dislinguish ieIaled aspecls Iike ucr| cngagcncn| (SchaufeIi &
akkei, 2OO4), f|cu (CsikszenlnihaIyi, 1998, Deneiouli, 2OO6) oi |nriting a| ucr|
(Spieilzei, SulcIiff, Dullon, Sonenshein & Cianl, 2OO5). An eIenenl cenliaI lo aclive
heaIlh consliucls Iike voik engagenenl and lhiiving al voik, is lhe exlenl lo vhich
an enpIoyee feeIs vigoious as opposed lo a negalive focus on feeIing faligued and
exhausled. MasIach, SchaufeIi and Leilei (2OO1: 417) iefei lo lhe concepl vigoui as
'high IeveIs of eneigy and iesiIience, lhe viIIingness lo invesl effoil in ones jol, lhe
aliIily lo nol le easiIy faligued, and peisislence in lhe face of difficuIlies. Theiefoie,
al lhe consliucl IeveI, enpIoyee vigoui signifies nol onIy lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy,
lul aIso lhe viIIingness lo expend eneigy inlo voik. As aIieady oulIined, in oidei lo
adequaleIy peifoin in lhe nodein voik conlexl, physicaIIy fil and vigoious
enpIoyees aie consideied desiialIe (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6).

3.5.3 RccIprnca! rc!atInnshIps bctwccn prnactIvIty and vIgnur
In ieIalion lo enpIoyee pioaclivily, vhich signifies lhe |qpc and dircc|icn of effoil
expendiluie, enpIoyee vigoui enconpasses lhe anounl oi atai|aoi|i|q of eneigy
logelhei vilh lhe ui||ingncss lo expend eneigy al voik. Iion a conseivalion of
iesouices lheoiy (COR, HolfoII, 1989), lheie is lhe causaI nolion lhal diained
eneigelic iesouices inpaii ones heaIlh and lheiefoie one viII liy lo nininize exlia
effoil expendiluie Iike pioaclivily lo conseive a nininun IeveI of heaIlh. Hovevei,
lhis ieIalionship couId aIso le lidiieclionaI as il is aIso aigued lhal pioaclivily affecls
enpIoyee vigoui.

59
Vlgour Proactltlt
Wilh iegaid lo lhe concepls of vigoui and pioaclivily, Sonnenlag (2OO3: p. 52O)
desciiles seveiaI ieasons vhy eneigy iesouices ieIale lo enpIoyees shoving
pioaclive lehavioui. Iiisl, lhe anounl of eneigy is iegaided a key eIenenl foi
enpIoyees lo acluaIIy expend exlia effoil on seIf slailing and peisisling in pioaclive
lehavioui. Second, eneigelic enpIoyees can acconpIish lheii in-ioIe lasks vilh Iess
effoil (Hockey, 2OOO), vhich Ieave exlia iesouices lo le spenl on pioaclivily.

Proactltlt Vlgour
esides vigoui posiliveIy affecling pioaclivily, enpIoyee pioaclivily is aIso expecled
lo iesloie and iegeneiale enpIoyee vigoui. Refeiiing lo lhe vay of coping vilh
eneigy-depIeling voikpIace denands, pioaclivily (Iaikei & Spiigg, 1999) and aclive
coping slyIe (De Rijk, Le Ianc, SchaufeIi & De }onge, 1998) aie lhoughl lo luffei
adveise effecls of pioIonged enpIoyee sliain. Il is expecled lhal peopIe vho acliveIy
engage in lheii voik and peisonaI deveIopnenl nol onIy luffei lhe diaining of
eneigy due lo high voik denands, lul viII aIso seek nev iesouices lhal fueIs lhe
eneigy one is alIe lo expend. As Cianl (2OOO: p. 436) iefeis lo pioaclivily as laking
inilialive in inpioving cuiienl ciicunslances oi ciealing nev ones, lhis enpIoyee
oiienlalion ains al an oplinaI efficiency in caiiying oul voik.
AddilionaIIy, enpIoyees vho puisue an aclive Ieaining slialegy vouId
conlinuousIy engage in acquiiing, nainlaining, and using skiIIs and knovIedge lo le
alIe lo keep up vilh changing iequiienenls. In voik sliess coping Iileialuie, lhe
joinl aclivily of leing pioaclive lovaids lhe jol and Ieaining enconpasses an aclive,
innovalive and piolIen-focused coping slyIe in deaIing vilh high denands oi
chaIIenges (see Caivei, Scheiei & Weinliaul, 1989, IngIedev, Haidy & Coopei, 1997,
Lazaius & IoIknan, 1984, unce & Wesl, 1996, De Rijk, Le Ianc, SchaufeIi & De
}onge, 1998). This slyIe iepiesenls allenpls lo ienove oi ciicunvenl lhe sliessoi
(sliain souice) oi lo aneIioiale ils effecls (Caivei el aI., 1989: p. 268 in }ex el aI.,
2OO2). As such, enpIoyee pioaclivily enlaiIs lehavioui lo aIlei cx|crna| faclois lo gain
efficiency in piocesses, pioceduies and designs lhal aie leIov an oplinaI IeveI (Iay
& Sonnenlag, 2OO2). Olheivise, enpIoyees engaging in aclive Ieaining slialegies
vouId seek lo inpiove lheii ovn in|crna| quaIificalions lhal aie leIov cuiienl oi
fuluie oplinaI IeveI.

60
Proactltlt Vlgour
In sun, shoving pioaclivily does nol onIy heIp lhe enpIoyee lo pieseive en
iegeneiale nev eneigy, lul can onIy occui undei lhe condilion lhal one has enough
anounl of eneigy lo expend. As such, ve piopose a iecipiocaI ieIalionship lelveen
pioaclive nolivalionaI and physicaI eneigelic iesouices (see aIso Ryan & Iiedeiick,
1997, SaIanova, akkei & LIoiens, 2OO6). As a consequence, ve do nol piesune a
sliicl causaI ieIalionship lelveen lhe pioaclivily and vigoui, lul iegaid lhen aIso
nuluaIIy suppoilive conponenls, vhich in lheii coexislence signify lhe cnp|cqcc
ti|a|i|q concepl.


3.6 CHAPTER CONCLU5ION AND NEXT CHAPTER
To lhis poinl, ve have given lhe lackgiound and concepluaI specifics of lhe
enpIoyee vilaIily as an aclive peifoinance and veII-leing concepl lhal vouId le
associaled vilh enduialIe high enpIoyee peifoinance in lhe dynanics of lhe
conlenpoiaiy voikpIace. We dislinguished lelveen lhe noie opeialionaI
peifoinance-oiienled conponenl of enpIoyee pioaclivily, and lhe noie heaIlh and
veII-leing ieIaled conponenl of enpIoyee vigoui. A fuilhei specificalion of lhese
conponenls loiIed dovn lo foui aclive enpIoyee dinensions. jco prcac|iti|q,
dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q, atai|aoi|i|q cf cncrgq and ui||ingncss |c intcs| cncrgq. Iiguie 3-5
shovs hov lhe dislinguished enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions nighl fil inlo lhe oveiaII
ieseaich fianevoik piesenled in Chaplei 2. The giey loxes shov lhe fuilhei
specificalion of lhe aclive enpIoyee veII-leing (vigoui) and discielionaiy effoil
(pioaclivily) vaiialIes in lhis ieseaich.

As pioposed in lhis chaplei, lhe ieIalionships lelveen lhe vilaIily dinensions aie
expecled lo le independenl, lul lo sone exlenl coexislenl and nuluaIIy suppoilive.
In lhe nexl chaplei, lhe neasuienenl and a fiisl vaIidalion of lhese pioposilions
undeiIying lhe enpIoyee vilaIily concepl viII le addiessed.
61















F|gure 3-5: Th|s 6hapter's 6ontr|but|on to the overa|| Research Framework

?

Ava||ab|||ty
of energy


Job &
0eve|opmenta|
proact|v|ty


w||||ngness to
|nvest energy

?
?
?

w|0
Factors





w|0
Factors


w|0
Factors

?
?
?

?



0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

62
63
Chaptez 4
The meaaurement and vaIidation
of empIoyee vitaIity
5

4.1. INTRODUCTION
IoIIoving lhe ialionaIe foi enpIoyee vilaIily and lhe dinensions lhal veie
eIaloialed on in lhe pievious chaplei, in lhis chaplei nevIy deveIoped neasuies aie
inlioduced as veII as a fiisl vaIidalion of lhe enpIoyee vilaIily concepl. Ioi lhe aclive
peifoinance dinensions of jol pioaclivily, deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily, and lhe aclive
heaIlh dinensions of avaiIalIe eneigy al voik and lhe viIIingness lo expend eneigy,
ve fiisl deveIoped neasuies. Second, sanpIe ciileiia foi adequaleIy lesling lhe
quaIily of lhe neasuies veie foinuIaled. They aie desciiled in lhe nelhod seclion.
To vaIidale vhelhei lhe foui vilaIily consliucls neel lhe lheoielicaI piopeilies
oulIined in pievious chaplei, ve foinuIaled specific hypolheses on lhe exlenl lo
vhich:

(1) The deveIoped enpIoyee vilaIily neasuies giasp dislinclive aspecls of lhe
enpIoyee vilaIily consliucl and neel lhe psychoneliic slandaids (fac|cria|
ta|idi|q),
(2) The vilaIily conponenls of enpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui aie
inleiieIaled (ccns|ruc| rc|a|icnsnips),

5
A pail of lhis chaplei vas lased on an eaiIiei veision of a papei ly Doienlosch, L.W. & Van
VeIdhoven, M.}.I.M. (2OO7). Woikfoice VilaIily: VaIidalion of an Aclive Ieifoinance Concepl al lhe
Cioup LeveI. Iapei piesenled al lhe LAWOI confeience, May 2OO7, SlockhoIn, Sveden.
64
(3) aie noie sliongIy inleiieIaled, jusl as avaiIaliIily of eneigy and lhe
viIIingness lo invesl eneigy aie noie sliongIy inleiieIaled (dincnsicna|
ta|idi|q),
(4) LnpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui consliucls aie dislinclive fion
passive peifoinance and heaIlh ieIaled concepls (discrininan| ta|idi|q) and
(5) Scoies on foui dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily aie highei foi enpIoyees
voiking in highIy effeclive depailnenls (prcdic|itc ta|idi|q).


4.2. VALIDATION HYPOTHE5E5

|actorla| ta|ldlt
To lesl vhelhei lhe ilen conlenl of each of lhe neasuies acluaIIy foIIov lhe pallein
of foui dislinclive and ieIialIe aclive consliucls ve viII exanine lhe facloiiaI vaIidily
of lhe ilens in noie delaiI. ased on lhe dislinguished aclive enpIoyee alliilules, ve
leIieve lo find pioaclivily lovaids lhe voik piocess (jol pioaclivily) and pioaclivily
lovaids Ieaining and deveIopnenl (deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily) lo le lvo dislincl
lypes of enpIoyee pioaclivily. The sane accounls foi lhe lvo dinensions of
enpIoyee vigoui. Hence, lhe fiisl hypolheses iead:

HypnthcsIs 1a: Ilens foi enpIoyee pioaclivily (jol pioaclivily and
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily) and enpIoyee vigoui (avaiIaliIily of eneigy and
viIIingness lo invesl effoil) Ioad on foui sepaiale faclois.

HypnthcsIs 1b: The foui scaIes foi enpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui
shov adequale ieIialiIilies.

Construct re|atlonshls
Iuilhei, foIIoving lhe facloiiaI vaIidily, ve deveIoped foui scaIes vhich foi a good
undeislanding of lhe consliucl in ieIalion lo lhe olhei consliucls shouId nol coiieIale
lolh loo Iov (queslions lhe ieIaledness of lhe consliucls) oi loo high (nasks lhe
idiosynciasy of lhe scaIe conlenl). Mediun-sized coiieIalions (lhal iange fion .3O lo
.5O, Cohen, 1988) lelveen lhe lhiee consliucls suggesl sepaiale lul dependenl
consliucls. Wilh iegaid lo lhe ieIalionship lelveen jol pioaclivily and
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily, Waii & Iay (2OO1) did find nediun-sized coiieIalions
65
lelveen siniIai consliucls, vheieas Sonnenlag (2OO3) found a high coiieIalion
(i=.65) lelveen siniIai consliucls. Wilh iegaid lo lhe ieIalionship lelveen lhe
avaiIaliIily of eneigy and pioaclivily, Sonnenlag (2OO3) iepoiled (aInosl) nediun-
sized coiieIalions lelveen lhe voik engagenenl scaIe (vhich incIudes vigoui-ilens,
see SchaufeIi & akkei, 2OO4) and jol pioaclivily (r = .39) and deveIopnenlaI
pioaclivily (r =.51). ased on lhese findings and laking inlo accounl lhe pioposilion
lhal pioaclivily and vigoui in piaclice have a iecipiocaI ieIalionship vilhoul any
sliicl assunplions of causaIily invoIved, ve foinuIaled lhe foIIoving hypolhesis:

HypnthcsIs 2: ReIalionship lelveen lhe foui scaIes foi pioaclivily and vigoui
shov nediun-sized coiieIalions

Dlmenslona| ta|ldlt
Moie specific lhan lhe expeclalion lhal aII aclive enpIoyee consliucls viII shov
nediun-sized coiieIalions, il is aIso expecled lhal lhe lvo consliucls foi enpIoyee
pioaclivily shov sliongei coiieIalions, jusl as ve expecl lhal lhe lvo consliucls
undeiIying enpIoyee vigoui viII shov sliongei coiieIalions vilh each olhei lhan
vilh lhe pioaclivily consliucls. Hence, ve expecl lhal lhe dinensions of pioaclivily
and vigoui undeipinning lhe nolion of lhe aclive enpIoyee can aIso le
dislinguished. Tvo addilionaI hypolheses iead:

HypnthcsIs 3a: The lvo scaIes foi pioaclivily shov highei coiieIalions vilh each
olhei lhan vilh lhe lvo scaIes foi enpIoyee vigoui

HypnthcsIs 3b: The lvo scaIes foi vigoui shov highei coiieIalions vilh each
olhei lhan vilh lhe lvo scaIes foi enpIoyee pioaclivily

Dlscrlmlnant ta|ldlt
To lesl vhelhei lhe aclive peifoinance concepls aie dislincl fion lolh passive
peifoinance indicalois as veII as passive/negalive heaIlh indicalois ve expecl lhal
lhey viII dispIay dislincl ieIalionships. In siniIai vein, Iaikei (2OOO) aIieady found
in a second-oidei facloi anaIysis lhal pioaclive nolivalion neasuies can le
diffeienlialed fion lhose noie passive enpIoyee neasuies (incIuding sliain,
salisfaclion and connilnenl) liadilionaIIy used in ieseaich. We viII lesl lhis
pioposilion ly incIuding passive neasuies foi oveiaII jol salisfaclion and
66
oiganizalionaI connilnenl. AIso, ve incIude neasuies foi passive heaIlh incIuding
lhe voik-ieIaled faligue and voik-ieIaled voiiying. Ioi lhe aclive alliilules lo le
dislincl fion noie passive enpIoyee alliilules, lhe coiieIalions lelveen lhe scaIes
shouId ieveaI such diffeiences. Hence, lhe hypolhesis ieads:

HypnthcsIs 4: The foui scaIes foi enpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui
shov highei coiieIalions vilh each olhei lhan vilh lhe passive peifoinance
and passive heaIlh scaIes.

Predlctlte Va|ldlt
IinaIIy, lo Iook inlo lhe undeiIying pioposilion lhal lhe foui enpIoyee vilaIily
dinensions acluaIIy vouId ieIale lo highei oiganizalionaI effecliveness, lhe
foIIoving hypolhesis is lesled.

HypnthcsIs 5: In highIy effeclive voik unils, enpIoyees scoie highei on
enpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui lhan enpIoyees voiking in Iess
effeclive voik unils.


4.3. METHOD5

4.3.1 Prnccdurc and Rcspnnsc
The dala foi lhis sludy veie coIIecled lelveen May 2OO6 and Ieliuaiy 2OO7 fion a
heleiogeneous sel of a lolaI of 13 snaII, niddIe and Iaige-sized Dulch oiganizalions
in a diveisily of seclois, incIuding nca||n carc (hospilaI, chiId caie), indus|rq (noliIe
phone iepaii, lechnicaI suppoil, consliuclion naleiiaI pioduclion), scrticc scc|cr (IT
seivices, secuiily seivices, inslilule foi sociaI poIicy deveIopnenl), (scni) gctcrnncn|
(civiI seivice, cuslons), cduca|icn (eIenenlaiy schooIs) and lhe financia| scc|cr
(lanking inslilulions). Aflei conlacl vilh heads of depailnenls/voik unils, Iine
nanageis oi inleinaI HR advisois vilhin lhe oiganizalions, suiveys veie disliiluled
anong enpIoyees. Slanped enveIopes veie allached lo lhe queslionnaiies, vhich
veie diieclIy addiessed lo lhe aulhois univeisily addiess. Ioi lhe disliilulion of
suiveys vilhin a Iaige hospilaI, lanking inslilulions and quaIily conlioI agency, ve
coIIaloialed vilh an agency speciaIized in enpIoyee suivey ieseaich. Ioi lhese lhiee
oiganizalions, haid-copy as veII as eIeclionic suiveys veie disliiluled of vhich lhe
67
iav dala cane avaiIalIe lo lhe aulhoi via lhis agency. In lhe 13 oiganizalions a lolaI
of 2983 enpIoyee suiveys veie disliiluled.

A lolaI of 1769 enpIoyee suiveys (iesponse iale of 59) oul of 112 voik unils veie
ieluined. Ioi lhe puipose of lhis sludy ve chose lo laIance oui sanpIe (as fai as
possilIe) vilh iegaid lo lhe incIuded indusliy lypes, jol lypes, enpIoyee age, gendei
and educalionaI IeveI. ecause lhe dala coIIeclion in coIIaloialion vilh lhe suivey
oiganizalion vas ained al aII enpIoyees vilhin lhe oiganizalions, lhe lolaI sanpIe
conlained an oveiiepiesenlalion of hospilaI and lank enpIoyees. Theiefoie, ve
seIecled lhe finaI enpIoyee dala fion 51 voik unils vhich ieduced oui sanpIe lo
736 enpIoyees (lolaI iesponse iale 25). See TalIe 4-1 foi an oveiviev of lhe
disliilulion of enpIoyee dala ovei diffeienl seclois in lhis sludys voiking sanpIe.

Tab|e 4-1: 0|str|but|on of response - 8ector
8ector 0rgan|zat|ons # 0epartments # Emp|oyee 8urveys
Veo|ca|/0are losp|la|, Cr||d care agercy 21 330
lnousrr, Tecrr|ca| 3upporl, Repa|r 3erv|ces,
Corslrucl|or, 0ua||ly Corlro|
13 18Z
$erv|ces 3ecur|ly 3erv|ces, lT Corsu|larcy,
Po||cy Researcr, F|rarc|a| / 8ar|
10 1Z
Sovernmenr Cuslors, Loca| 0overrrerl 2 30
Eoucar|on E|ererlary 3croo|s 2 22
Tola|/Average 51 (100) Z3 (100)


4.3.2 WnrkIng samp!c spccIfIcs
We chose lo slialify oui sanpIe lased on lhe lype of selling in vhich voik in lhe
diffeienl voik unils vas conducled. This vas done lo conlioI foi lhe facl lhal iesuIls
nighl gel infIuenced ly oljeclive chaiacleiislics of lhe jol lype. AIso il aIIoved us lo
voik vilh a laIanced, heleiogeneous sanpIe lhal is lellei geneiaIizalIe lo lhe
voiking popuIalion. As such, lased on an inspeclion of lhe jol lilIes and conpany
68
lackgiound infoinalion, ve coded and aIIocaled each of lhe voik unils fion lhe 13
oiganizalions inlo lhe calegoiies o|uc cc||ar voik, uni|c cc||ar voik and pin| cc||ar
voik. To avoid a dispiopoilionaI anounl of voik unils vilh siniIai jol lypes, ve
chose lo incIude an equaI anounl of voik unils vilhin each jol lype calegoiy. As
shovn in TalIe 4-2, ve dislinguished lelveen 17 unils in lIue coIIai voik sellings,
17 unils in vhile coIIai sellings and 17 unils in vhal ve leined pink coIIai voik
sellings consisling of nuising, caiing and nedicaI suppoilive piofessions. A lolaI of
51 voik unils fion aII 13 oiganizalions veie incIuded in lhe laIanced sanpIe vhich
conlained lhe dala fion 736 enpIoyees consisling of 282 lIue coIIai enpIoyees, 234
vhile coIIai enpIoyees and 22O pink-coIIai enpIoyees.


Tab|e 4-2: 0|str|but|on of response - Job Type
Job Type Job T|t|es # 0epartments # Emp|oyee 8urveys
3|ue 0o||ar e.g., producl|or Wor|ers, a|arr |rsla||al|or
lecrr|c|ars, producl qua||ly corlro||ers,
operalors, d|srWasrers
1Z 282
wn|re 0o||ar e.g., cuslorer serv|ce, lT corsu|larls
adr|r|slralors, leacrers, l|rarc|a|
adv|sors
1Z 231
P|nk 0o||ar e.g., rurses, red|ca| ass|slarls, cr||d care
erp|oyees

1Z 220
Tola|/Average 51 (100) Z3 (100)


Iuilhei, TalIe 4-3 shovs lhal 55 of lhe enpIoyees in lhe voiking sanpIe veie
fenaIe of vhich lhe Iaigesl piopoilion (44 of lhe fenaIe iespondenls) vas occupied
in pink coIIai voik sellings. Tvenly-eighl peicenl of lhe enpIoyees in lhe lolaI
sanpIe veie Iovei educaled (Iovei vocalionaI liaining oi Iovei), 32 had niddIe
IeveI educalion (niddIe vocalionaI liaining oi equivaIenl), and 4O veie highIy
educaled (highei vocalionaI liaining oi univeisily IeveI educalion). The aveiage age
vas 4O yeais vilh a slandaid devialion of 1O.9. Thiily six peicenl of lhe iespondenls
veie undei lhe age of 35, 44 peicenl veie lelveen 35 and 5O, and 2O peicenl veie
oIdei lhan 5O yeais. On aveiage lhis foined a laIanced voiking sanpIe.
69
Tab|e 4-3: 0|str|but|on of response - Age, Educat|on and Cender
Age group Percentage Educat|on Percentage Cender Percentage
< 35 years 3 l|grer 10 Fera|e 55
35 - 50 years 11 V|dd|e 32 Va|e 15
> 50 years 20 LoWer 28

Tola|

100


Tola|

100


Tola|

100


4.4 MEA5URING EMPLOYEE VITALITY: MEA5URE5

4.4.1 Emp!nycc vIta!Ity mcasurcs
The enpIoyee vilaIily conponenls of pioaclivily and vigoui veie neasuied vilh
nev scaIes in lhe Dulch Ianguage. As desciiled alove, foi enpIoyee pioaclivily, ve
incIuded ilens in oui anaIyses lo neasuie pioaclivily lovaids lhe voik piocess (jol
pioaclivily) and pioaclivily lovaids Ieaining and deveIopnenl (deveIopnenlaI
pioaclivily) (see Waii & Iay, 2OO1).
6
Ioi neasuiing lhe concepl of vigoui, ve
incIuded ilens lhal iefei lo lhe anounl of physicaI eneigy one has lo expend duiing
lhe vhoIe voik day (avaiIaliIily of eneigy) and lhe viIIingness lo invesl lhis eneigy
inlo lhe jol (see MasIach el aI., 2OO1).

]co Prcac|iti|q Ioi jco prcac|iti|q, ve incIuded 5 ilens lhal veie pailIy deiived
fion lhe IeisonaI Inilialive ScaIe (Iiese Iay, HiIluigei, Leng, & Tag, 1997) and lhe
Taking Chaige ScaIe (Moiiison & IheIps, 1999). Iiisl, lhiee ilens iefIecl lhe exlenl lo
vhich enpIoyees iniliale nev vays of voiking and soIve piolIens vhen voik
piocesses conlain inefficiencies, (|n nq ucr|, | na|c suggcs|icns |c inprctc |nc uaq uc
ucr|, lncn ucr| nc|ncds cr prcccdurcs arc nc| cffcc|itc, | |rq |c dc scnc|ning aocu| i|
and 'lncn scnc|ning is nc| rign| in |nc uaq ucr| is dcnc arcund ncrc, | |rq |c inprctc i|).
Second, one ilen laps lhe degiee of enpIoyees laking inilialive lo chaIIenge lhe
slalus quo ('| |a|c ini|ia|itc ctcn uncn c|ncrs dcn|). Thiid, lecause inpIenenling nev
inilialives oflen needs supeivisoi suppoil, ve incIuded one ilen lo ask vhelhei

6
Soo Vnn VoIdhovon & oronbosch 2008 for n sfudy IncIudIng fhIs monsuro In roInfIon fo omIoyoo ngo
nnd cnroor dovoIomonf
70
enpIoyees lake aclion ly acliveIy discussing inpiovenenls vilh lheii diiecl
supeivisoi (| discuss ucr| nc|ncds ui|n nq supcrtiscr, uncn | |nin| |ncq ccu|d oc
inprctcd). Ilens veie ansveied on a 5-poinl (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q
agrcc).

Dctc|cpncn|a| Prcac|iti|q To neasuie dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q ve incIuded 5
ilens lhal veie pailIy deiived fion lhe Leaining Molivalion ScaIe (Taiis, Konpiei,
De Lange, SchaufeIi & Schieuis, 2OO3) and lhe }ol Aspiialion ScaIe (Waii, 199O).
IoIIoving lhe ieasoning of Kaiasek & TheoieII (199O) and Taiis el aI. (2OO3), lhe ilens
iefIecl lhe degiee of laking aclion lo change ones lehaviouiaI palleins. We incIuded
lhiee ilens lhal lapped lhe degiee lo vhich enpIoyees sel chaIIenging goaIs and
acliveIy Iook foi silualions in vhich lhey can expand lheii skiIIs and knovIedge (|n
nq ucr| | sc| nqsc|f cna||cnging gca|s, '|n nq ucr|, | scarcn fcr pccp|c frcn uncn | can
|carn scnc|ning and |n nq ucr|, | |ccp |rqing |c |carn ncu |nings). Iuilheinoie, ve
incIuded lvo ilens lhal lapped lhe degiee lo vhich enpIoyees aie conceined vilh
and seIf-assess fuluie skiIIs and knovIedge needs, as veII as lake aclion lo adapl lo
lhese eslinaled fuluie needs (| |nin| aocu| ncu | can |ccp dcing a gccd jco in |nc fu|urc
and li|n rcgard |c nq s|i||s and |ncu|cdgc, | scc |c i| |na| | can ccpc ui|n cnangcs in nq
ucr|). Ilens veie ansveied on a 5-poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q
agrcc).

Atai|aoi|i|q cf |ncrgq Ioi neasuiing lhe atai|aoi|i|q cf cncrgq ve used 5 ilens
lhal veie nodeIIed aflei vigoui-ilens in lhe Uliechl Woik Lngagenenl ScaIe
(SchaufeIi, SaIanova, ConzaIez-Ron, & akkei, 2OO2) and lhe Suljeclive VilaIily
ScaIe (Ryan & Iiedeiick, 1997). The ansveiing scaIe asks iespondenls lo iale lhe
fiequency of feeIings of eneigy duiing lhe vhoIe voik day in 4 poinls (1 = nctcr, 2 =
scnc|incs, 3 = cf|cn, 4 = a|uaqs). Thiough lhis ve conlioI vhelhei IeveIs of eneigy do
nol syslenalicaIIy gel diained duiing lhe voikday. Wilh lhe ilens ve ained al
slalIe IeveIs of eneigy fion lhe leginning lo lhe end of lhe voik day (c.g., A| |nc
ocginning cf a ucr|ing daq | natc p|cn|q cf cncrgq, and 8q |nc cnd cf |nc ucr|ing daq | can
s|i|| adcqua|c|q ccnccn|ra|c cn nq ucr|).

li||ingncss |c |ntcs| |ncrgq Ioi neasuiing lhe enpIoyees ui||ingncss |c intcs|
cncrgq inlo lhe jol, ve used 4 ieveised coded ilens oiiginaIIy pail of lhe |as|
rcsis|ancc scaIe ieliieved fion lhe VA queslionnaiie (Van VeIdhoven, 1994, Van
71
VeIdhoven & Meijnan, 1994). Respondenls scoiing Iov on lheii iesislance lo do lheii
jol and invesl in lheii jol (lasks) aie IikeIy lo iepiesenl an enpIoyee vho is highIy
viIIing lo invesl and expend effoil inlo lheii jol lasks (c.g., | dc nq ucr| occausc | natc
|c, and |na| saqs i| a|| and | natc |c ccn|inua||q ctcrccnc nq rcsis|ancc in crdcr |c dc nq
ucr|, rctcrsc ccdcd, 1 = |argc|q agrcc |c 5 =|argc|q disagrcc).

4.4.2 PassIvc pcrfnrmancc and hca!th mcasurcs
To conducl addilionaI anaIyses on lhe dislinclion lelveen lhe vilaIily scaIes and
passive peifoinance/heaIlh scaIes, ve incIuded neasuies lhal aie iegaided as
passive oi negalive counleipails of pioaclivily and vigoui. ased on Iaikei (2OOO)
ve incIuded neasuies foi lhe passive nolivalionaI concepls of oiganizalionaI
connilnenl and jol salisfaclion as a passive counleipail of enpIoyee pioaclivily.
Ioi neasuiing lhe passive counleipail of enpIoyee vigoui ve incIuded indicalois of
voik-ieIaled faligue and voik-ieIaled voiiying.

Organiza|icna| Ccnni|ncn| Ioi neasuiing lhe degiee of lhe enpIoyees
connilnenl lo lhe oiganizalion ve incIuded 3 ilens foi affcc|itc crganiza|icna|
ccnni|ncn| ieliieved fion lhe VA (Van VeIdhoven & Meijnan, 1994), vhich aie
lased on AIIen and Meyeis (199O) affeclive connilnenl scaIe. The ilens lap lhe
exlenl lo vhich enpIoyees have sliong feeIings of leIongingness (e.g., '|n |nis
crganiza|icn | fcc| pcrfcc||q a| ncnc) and idenlificalion vilh lhe oiganizalion (e.g., Mq
cun cpinicns s|rcng|q rcscno|c |ncsc cf nq crganiza|icn). Ilens veie ialed on a 5-poinl
scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q agrcc). Cionlachs aIpha is .76.

]co Sa|isfac|icn Second, ve incIuded a singIe-ilen neasuie foi neasuiing lhe
iespondenls ctcra|| sa|isfac|icn vilh voiking foi his/hei oiganizalion. AIlhough
using singIe-ilen neasuies foi psychoIogicaI consliucls is usuaIIy discouiaged
lecause of lhe piesuned Iov ieIialiIilies, a nela-anaIysis ly Wanous, Reicheis and
Hudy (1997) shoved lhal singIe-ilen neasuies highIy coiieIaled vilh a diveisily of
scaIe-lype neasuies of jol salisfaclion. Diaving on lheii concIusions, lhe use of a
singIe-ilen neasuie foi jol salisfaclion vas consideied acceplalIe. Respondenls
couId iespond on a 5-poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q agrcc).

lcr|-rc|a|cd |a|iguc To neasuie passive oi negalive enpIoyee heaIlh
indicalois, ve incIuded lvo sliain neasuies: ucr|-rc|a|cd fa|iguc and ucr|-rc|a|cd
72
ucrrqing. Woik-ieIaled faligue vas neasuied vilh a shoilened 6-ilen veision of lhe
Need foi Recoveiy ScaIe deveIoped and vaIidaled ly Van VeIdhoven and ioeisen
(2OO3). ConcepluaIIy, il is a neasuie of shoil-lein voik ieIaled faligue lhal liidges
lhe slage lelveen noinaI voik-ieIaled effoil and seiious Iong-lein voik ieIaled
faligue, such as luinoul (Van VeIdhoven el aI., 2OO3: 14). The 4-poinl iesponse scaIe
asks lhe iespondenl lo iale lhe fiequency of shoving synplons indicaling lhal
he/she did nol fuIIy iecovei fion lhe effecls of suslained effoil duiing lhe voiking
day (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs). SanpIe ilens aie | find i| difficu|| |c ccnccn|ra|c in nq
frcc |inc af|cr ucr| and lncn | gc| ncnc frcn ucr|, | nccd |c oc |cf| in pcacc fcr a uni|c.
Cionlachs aIpha is .83.

lcr|-rc|a|cd lcrrqing lcr|-rc|a|cd ucrrqing, indicales lhe exlenl lo vhich
iespondenls keep voiiying aloul lheii jol aflei voik and find il difficuIl lo dislance
oneseIf of lheii voik vhen coning hone. Ioi lhis ve used a 3-ilen veision of Waiis
(199O) ncga|itc jco carrq-ctcr neasuie. Respondenls couId iespond on a 4-poinl scaIe
(1 = nctcr|c 4 =a|uaqs). A sanpIe ilen is Af|cr | |catc nq ucr|, | |ccp ucrrqing aocu|
jco prco|cns. Cionlachs aIpha is .72.

4.4.3 AddItInna! mcasurcs

Cctaria|cs In oidei lo lake inlo accounl lhe possilIe confounding effecls of
individuaI and jol lype diffeiences vilh iegaid lo enpIoyee vilaIily, ve incIuded lhe
conlioI vaiialIes age (conlinuous), gendei (0= fcna|c, 1 = na|c), educalionaI IeveI (1 =
Iov lo 6 = high) and jol lype (dunnq ccding, o|uc cc||ar = 1, uni|c cc||ar = 1, pin| cc||ar
= 1) as covaiiales.

Gcncra| Uni| Pcrfcrnancc IinaIIy, foi lhe puipose of lesling lhe diffeiences in
vilaIily anong enpIoyees voiking in Iovei and highei effeclive depailnenls/voik
unils, a scaIe foi geneiaI unil peifoinance vas incIuded. The scaIe exisls of 6 ilens
lhal lap lhe degiee lo vhich voik unils (1) sickness alsence is undei conlioI, (2)
laigels aie nel, (3) cusloneis aie salisfied, (4) financiaI silualion is good, (5) lhe voik
unil dislinguishes ilseIf posiliveIy fion conpelilois and (6) lhe oveiaII funclioning is
consideied lo le al an oplinaI IeveI. Ioi 31 unils in oui sanpIe, fiisl Iine nanageis
ialed lhe geneiaI effecliveness of lheii voik unil on lhese 6 ilens on a 5-poinl scaIe
(1 = |c a tcrq |cu cx|cn|, 5 = |c a tcrq nign cx|cn|). Cionlachs aIpha is .67.
73
SulsequenlIy, lhe voik unils veie giouped inlo lvo calegoiies (Iovei effeclive and
highei effeclive unils) lased on lheii geneiaI peifoinance. Unils in lhe lop 35
peicenl of peifoinance scoies veie giouped inlo lhe highIy effeclive unil calegoiy -
lhe olhei 65 veie giouped inlo lhe Iovei effeclive unil calegoiy.


4.5. MEA5URING EMPLOYEE VITALITY: RELIABILITIE5 AND VALIDATION
To vaIidale lhe foui vilaIily neasuies, fiisl, ve ian facloi anaIyses on lhe individuaI
ilen scoies and caIcuIaled lhe ieIialiIilies foi each of lhe incIuded scaIes (fac|cria|
ta|idi|q). Second, il vas checked vhelhei lhe coiieIalions lelveen lhe individuaI
pioaclivily and vigoui scaIes veie nediun-sized and if lhey veie nol confounded
ly individuaI and jol lype diffeiences (sca|c rc|a|icnsnips). Thiid, lhe dinensionaIily
of lhe enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes vas fuilhei invesligaled lo see lo vhal exlenl
enpIoyee pioaclivily and vigoui conslilule sepaiale lhough inleiieIaled aspecls of
enpIoyee vilaIily (dincnsicna| ta|idi|q). Iouilh, ve conpaied lhe coiieIalions of lhe
pioposed enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes vilh lhe passive peifoinance and heaIlh
indicalois lo deleinine lhe disciininanl chaiaclei of enpIoyee vilaIily (discrininan|
ta|idi|q). Lasl, ve exanined vhelhei enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes acluaIIy neasuie a
consliucl lhal vouId nake a posilive diffeience vilh iegaid lo oiganizalionaI
effecliveness (prcdic|itc ta|idi|q).

|actorla| Va|ldlt
TalIe 4-4 depicls lhe iesuIls foi an expIoialoiy facloi anaIysis vilh vaiinax iolalion.
IncIuded aie lhe ilens foi jol pioaclivily, deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily, avaiIaliIily of
eneigy and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy al lhe individuaI IeveI. As expecled, foui
faclois veie exliacled fion lhe soIulion accounling foi 54.1 in lhe vaiiance and
eigenvaIues exceeding 1.OO. The Ioadings foi lhe foui consliucls appioxinaled a
sinpIe sliucluie, vilh aII cioss Ioadings leIov .4O. As such, lhe facloi anaIyses
suggesl lhal pioaclivily lovaids lhe jol and deveIopnenl aie dislinclive consliucls.
Ilens foi avaiIaliIily of eneigy and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy aie facloiiaIIy
dislinclive as veII.

74
Tab|e 4-4: Factor |oad|ngs for pr|nc|pa| factor ana|ys|s - var|max rotat|on
|tems Factors
F1 F2 F3 F4

Job Proactivity
lr ry Wor|, l ra|e suggesl|ors lo |rprove lre Way We Wor| .Z92
wrer Wor| relrods or procedures are rol ellecl|ve, l lry lo do
sorelr|rg aooul |l
.Z88
l d|scuss Wor| relrods W|lr ry superv|sor, Wrer l lr|r| lrey cou|d oe
|rproved
.ZZ3
wrer sorelr|rg |s rol r|grl |r lre Way lre Wor| |s dore arourd rere,
l lry lo |rprove |l
.Z11
lr ry Wor|, l la|e |r|l|al|ve ever Wrer olrers dor'l .590
Availability of Energy
0ur|rg ry Wor| l lee| l|l .822
Al ry Wor|, l lee| oursl|rg W|lr erergy .Z21
Al lre oeg|rr|rg ol a Wor||rg day l rave p|erly ol erergy .92
8y lre erd ol lre Wor||rg day l car sl||| adequale|y corcerlrale or ry Wor| .25
Tre |asl parl ol ry Wor||rg day jusl l||es oy .519
0evelopmental Proactivity
lr ry Wor|, l |eep lry|rg lo |earr reW lr|rgs .Z08
l lr|r| aooul roW l car |eep do|rg a good joo |r lre lulure .8
lr ry Wor|, l searcr lor peop|e ol Wror l car |earr sorelr|rg .15
l see lo |l lral, W|lr regard lo ry s||||s ard |roW|edge, l car cope W|lr
crarges |r ry Wor|
.32
lr ry Wor|, l sel ryse|l cra||erg|rg goa|s .5Z8
willingness to lnvest Energy
Aller l|ve years, l've seer |l a|| as lar as lr|s joo |s corcerred (r} .Z00
l do ry Wor| oecause l rave lo, ard lral says |l a|| (r} .Z3
l rave lo corl|rua||y overcore ry res|slarce |r order lo do ry Wor| (r} .2
Tre lrougrl lral l W||| rave lo do lr|s joo url|| l rel|re |s very oppress|ve (r} .3

ln|r|a| E|genva|ues 6.JJ 2.58 '.6J '.5J
/ ol var|ance exp|a|neo JJ.J4 'J.59 8.55 8.07
Note: r = Z3; (r) = llers Reverse Coded; Load|rgs < .10 Were suppressed ard are rol sroWr
75
TalIe 4-5 shovs lhe desciiplives and ieIialiIilies foi lhe foui enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes.
In aII cases, Chionlachs aIpha feII lelveen .8O and .9O vhich is consideied lo
conslilule adequale scaIe ieIialiIilies (NunnaIIy, 1978).


Tab|e 4-5: 8ca|e 0escr|pt|ves & Re||ab|||ty |nd|ces
8ca|es 0escr|pt|ves



# |tems Range Hean 80 d N
Joo Proacl|v|ly 5 1-5 3.80 .5Z .88 Z3
0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly 5 1-5 3.8 .50 .82 Z3
Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy 5 1-1 2.88 .53 .81 Z3
w||||rgress lo lrvesl Ellorl 1 1-5 3.ZZ .82 .80 Z3

Sca|e re|atlonshls
TalIe 4-6 depicls lhe coiieIalions lelveen lhe foui scaIes coveiing lhe vilaIily
dinensions and lhe covaiiales. The iesuIls indicale lhal aII foui vilaIily dinensions
aie nodeialeIy coiieIaled. The highesl coiieIalions aie lelveen jol pioaclivily and
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily (r = .49, p < .O1) and eneigy al voik and viIIingness lo
invesl (r = .45, p < .O1). Wilh avaiIaliIily of eneigy, jol pioaclivily shovs a Iighl
nodeiale coiieIalion (r = .3O, p < .O1) as does deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily (r = .32, p <
.O1). Wilh lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy, jol pioaclivily shovs a Iighl nodeiale
coiieIalion (r = .31, p < .O1) as does deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily (r = .32, p < .O1). AII in
aII, lhe scaIe coiieIalions coveiing lhe pioposed enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions shov
lhe expecled nodeiale-sized coiieIalions, vhich indicales sepaiale lhough
inleiieIaled consliucls.

Looking al lhe coiieIalions lelveen lhe vilaIily neasuies and covaiiales, lhe sane
TalIe shovs lhal jol lype, gendei, age and educalion have no sliong ieIalionships
vilh enpIoyee pioaclivily. Ioi enpIoyee vigoui, age has a noie sliongei posilive
ieIalionship vilh lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy (r = .21, p < .O1) and lhe viIIingness lo
invesl eneigy (r = .3O, p < .O1). ul oveiaII, lhe coiieIalion naliix depicls snaII-sized
coiieIalions lelveen lhe covaiiales and lhe vilaIily neasuies.
76
Tab|e 4-: 6orre|at|on Hatr|x of Hajor Var|ab|es and covar|ates (n = 73}

N 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1 Joo Proacl|v|ly Z3
2 0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly Z3 .19
3 Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy Z3 .30 .32
1 w||||rgress lo lrvesl Erergy Z3 .31 .32 .15

5 Joo Type (1 = 8|ue Co||ar) Z3 -.0Z -.12 -.05 -.22
Joo Type (1 = wr|le Co||ar) Z3 .03 .05 .0Z .0Z -.51
Z Joo Type (1 = P|r| Co||ar) Z3 .05 .0Z -.02 .1 -.52 -.15
8 0erder (1 = Va|e) Z2 .0Z .01 -.03 -.10 .32 .01 -.35
9 Educal|or (1 - = l|gr) Z21 .0Z .13 -.10 .02 -.11 .23 .21 -.0
10 Age Z13 .15 -.02 .21 .30 -.01 .05 -.03 .0Z -.23

Nole: p < .05; p < .01


Dlmenslona| ta|ldlt
Iuilheinoie, vilh iegaid lo lhe dinensionaI vaIidily, il lecones cIeai fion lhe
coiieIalions lelveen lhe foui vilaIily dinensions (as shovn in TalIe 4-6) lhal lhe
ieIalionship lelveen lhe lvo pioaclivily scaIes is lhe sliongesl. The sane appIies lo
lhe ieIalionship lelveen lhe lvo vigoui scaIes. Hovevei, lo exanine lhe shaied
conliilulions of lhe foui scaIes vilh iegaid lo a highei oidei vilaIily consliucl, TalIe
4-7 shovs vhelhei lhe enpIoyee pioaclivily and vigoui scaIes conslilule a siniIai oi
a diffeienl highei oidei sliucluie. The second-oidei facloi anaIysis incIuding foui
vilaIily scaIes suppoiled a shaied highei oidei consliucl, vhiIe il exliacled onIy one
facloi accounling foi 52 of lhe scaIe vaiiance.





77
Tab|e 4-7: Unrotated 8econd-order Factor Ana|ys|s - v|ta||ty sca|es on|y (n= 73}
8ca|es Factor 1

0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly .3Z
Joo Proacl|v|ly .12
w||||rgress lo lrvesl Erergy .588
Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy .580

E|genva|ue 2.095
/ var|ance exp|a|neo 52.J7

Dlscrlmlnant ta|ldlt
To deleinine vhelhei lhe vilaIily scaIes aie acluaIIy dislincl fion liadilionaI
passive peifoinance and heaIlh indicalois, ve incIuded foui exlia scaIes in lhe
coiieIalion naliix (see TalIe 4-8).


Tab|e 4-8: 6orre|at|on Hatr|x of act|ve and pass|ve sca|es (n = 73 - n = 371}

N 1 2 3 4 5 7
1 Joo Proacl|v|ly Z3
2 0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly Z3 .19
3 Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy Z3 .30 .32
1 w||||rgress lo lrvesl Erergy Z3 .31 .32 .15

5 wor|-re|aled Fal|gue Z3 -.05 -.09 -.38 -.21
wor|-re|aled worry|rg 11Z .0Z .08 -.11 .03 .3Z
Z Joo 3al|slacl|or 111 .0 .23 .32 .1Z -.2 .05
8 0rgar|zal|ora| Corr|lrerl 3Z1 .1Z .31 .31 .3 -.11 .02 .52
Nole: p < .05; p < .01
78
As shovn in TalIe 4-8, jol pioaclivily shovs no oi, in lhe case of oiganizalionaI
connilnenl (r = .32, p < .O1), onIy a snaII significanl coiieIalion vilh lhe liadilionaI
passive scaIes. DeveIopnenlaI pioaclivily shovs a highei coiieIalion vilh
oiganizalionaI connilnenl (r = .34, p < .O1) and jol salisfaclion (r = .23, p < .O1).
OveiaII, lhe pioaclivily scaIes seen lo adequaleIy diffeienliale fion lolh lhe passive
peifoinance and heaIlh indicalois. Ioi avaiIaliIily of eneigy and viIIingness lo
invesl eneigy ve olseive a Iess dislinclive coiieIalionaI pallein. AvaiIaliIily of
eneigy coiieIales nodeialeIy vilh voik-ieIaled faligue (r = -.38, p < .OO1) and Iovei
vilh voik-ieIaled voiiying (r = -.11, p < .O5). Il aIso shovs nediun-sized
coiieIalions vilh oiganizalionaI connilnenl (r = .34, p < .O1) and jol salisfaclion (r =
.32, p < .O1). Olheivise, lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy shovs Iess sliong
ieIalionships vilh voik-ieIaled faligue (r = -.24, p < .O1) and no significanl
ieIalionship vilh voik-ieIaled voiiying.
Hovevei, lolh oiganizalionaI connilnenl (r = .36, p < .O1) and jol
salisfaclion (r = .47, p < .O1) seen lo ieIale noie sliongIy lo viIIingness lo invesl
eneigy. Wilh each olhei, lhe lvo passive peifoinance scaIes shov a sliong
significanl coiieIalion (r = .52, p < .O1), jusl Iike lhe lvo passive heaIlh scaIes lhal
shov a nediun-sized coiieIalion (r = .37, p < .O1). As can le iead fion lhe nunlei of
iespondenls foi each scaIe in TalIe 4-8, ve veie sonevhal iesliicled in lhe coIIeclion
of dala foi oui passive indicalois. ecause ve couId nol incIude lhese scaIes in aII of
lhe disliiluled suiveys, sanpIe sizes aie snaIIei foi lhe passive indicalois.

To conlioI foi possilIe sanpIe liases ve iepealed lhe coiieIalion anaIysis (nol shovn
heie), nov foi a sulsanpIe of 363 enpIoyees vhich iepiesenls lhe sanpIe size in
vhich lhe disliiluled suivey incIuded aII eighl scaIes. AIlhough, in geneiaI, lhe size
of lhe coiieIalions sonevhal diopped, lhe coiieIalionaI pallein did nol ieveaI any
najoi devialions fion lhe iniliaI coiieIalion naliix in TalIe 4-8. This indicales lhal
lhe iniliaI coiieIalions in TalIe 4-8 veie nol disloiled due lo diffeienl sanpIe sizes.









79
Tab|e 4-9: 8econd-order Factor Ana|ys|s - var|max rotat|on- a|| sca|es (n = 33} *
8ca|es Factors
F1 F2 F3
Joo 3al|slacl|or .8Z5
0rgar|zal|ora| Corr|lrerl .58Z
w||||ngness to |nvest Energy .512 .309
Job Proact|v|ty .75
0eve|opmenta| Proact|v|ty .27
Ava||ab|||ty of Energy .3 .407 -.351
wor|-re|aled Fal|gue .831
wor|-re|aled worry|rg .125


E|genva|ues 2.777 '.462 '.'04
/ var|ance exp|a|neo J4.7' '8.28 'J.80
Nole: Load|rgs < .30 Were suppressed ard are rol sroWr

AddilionaIIy, lo exanine if lhe enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes veie facloiiaIIy dislincl fion
liadilionaI passive indicalois, a second-oidei facloi anaIysis vas conducled. As
shovn in TalIe 4-9, lhiee faclois veie exliacled, vhich shov lhal lhe passive
concepls of sa|isfac|icn/ccnni|ncn| and fa|iguc/ucrrqing Ioaded on lhe fiisl and lhiid
facloi. The lvo pioaclivily scaIes Ioaded on lhe second facloi. Wilh iegaid lo lhe
enpIoyee vigoui scaIes, lhe anaIysis shoved Iess cIeai facloi Ioadings. Heie, lhe scaIe
foi viIIingness lo invesl eneigy consliluled highei Ioadings on lhe fiisl
(salisfaclion/connilnenl) facloi. The scaIe foi avaiIaliIily of eneigy aIso piocessed
snaII cioss Ioadings on lhe fiisl (salisfaclion/connilnenl) and lhe lhiid
(faligue/voiiying) facloi. OveiaII, lhe second-oidei facloi anaIysis shovs lhal lhe
vilaIily scaIes sonevhal squeeze in lelveen lhe liadilionaI passive peifoinance
and heaIlh indicalois. AII in aII, lhe coiieIalion naliices and lhe second-oidei facloi
anaIyses shov a sIighl disciininanl pallein lelveen lhe vilaIily scaIes and lhe
liadilionaI passive indicalois. Hovevei, foi lhe lvo enpIoyee vigoui scaIes lhe
diffeience vilh lhe pioposed passive peifoinance and heaIlh scaIes is Iess saIienl.
The nodeiale coiieIalions lelveen jol and deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily, avaiIaliIily of
eneigy and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy and lhe Iovei coiieIalions of lolh
pioaclivily scaIes vilh aII of lhe passive scaIes suggesls lhal enpIoyee vigoui and
pioaclivily have noie in connon lhan lolh dinensions do vilh lhe passive scaIes.
80
Ioi lhe ienaining coiieIalions lelveen vigoui and lhe passive peifoinance and
heaIlh indicalois, lhe second-oidei facloi anaIysis indicales lhal aIlhough lheie is
sone oveiIap vilh lhe passive indicalois, lhe lvo vigoui scaIes do ieIale lo lhe
pioaclivily scaIes vhich lap lhe aclive peifoinance dinension.


Tab|e 4-10: |ndependent 8amp|e T-Test for Emp|oyee V|ta||ty and work Un|t Performance
work Un|t Performance
8ca|es Lower h|gher T-va|ue 8|g
Joo Proacl|v|ly Hean
30
n
3.84
.1
284
4.05
.5
'40
3.315 **
0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly Hean
30
n
3.80
.53
284
3.94
.51
'40
2.81 **
Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy Hean
30
n
2.84
.5
284
2.89
.53
'40
.91 r.s.
w||||rgress lo lrvesl Ellorl Hean
30
n

3.0
.90
284
3.97
.Z1
'40
1.1Z **
wor|-re|aled Fal|gue Hean
30
n
1.87
.53
284
1.85
.55
'40
-.355 r.s.
wor|-re|aled worry|rg Hean
30
n
1.
.51
''4
1.89
.5
59
2.Z82 **
Joo 3al|slacl|or Hean
30
n
3.91
.51
'''
3.97
.52
59
.Z1 r.s.
0rgar|zal|ora| Corr|lrerl Hean
30
n
3.3
.5Z
''4
3.47
.5
59
1.233 r.s.
Nole: p < .05; p < .01; r.s. = ror-s|gr|l|carl
81
Predlctlte ta|ldlt
Lasl, TalIe 4-1O shovs lhe iesuIls of a sinpIe T-lesl on lhe gioup neans of
enpIoyees voiking in Iovei and high peifoining voik unils. The goaI vas lo
piovide sone insighl in lhe pioposilions conceining lhe ieIevance of enpIoyee
pioaclivily and vigoui foi peifoinance in a nodein day voik conlexl. TalIe 4-1O
shovs lhe nean diffeiences foi lhe foui enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions and lhe
passive indicalois. ResuIls indicale lhal foi jol pioaclivily (| = 3.345, p < .O1),
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily (| = 2.684, p < .O1) and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy (| =
4.467, p < .OO1), lheie is a significanl diffeience lelveen enpIoyees voiking in Iovei
and highei peifoining voik unils. As lhe lhiee vilaIily scaIe neans aie giealei in
highIy effeclive voik unils il confiins lhal enpIoyee vilaIily nakes sense vilh
iegaid lo highei oveiaII oiganizalionaI effecliveness. The atai|aoi|i|q cf cncrgq-scaIe
did nol shov any significanl diffeience. Ioi lhe passive indicalois, lhe iesuIls shov
lhal enpIoyees in highIy effeclive voik unils aIso scoie significanlIy highei on voik-
ieIaled voiiying (| = 2.782, p < .O1). Ioi lhe olhei indicalois ve found no significanl
diffeiences.


4.6 CHAPTER CONCLU5ION5 AND NEXT CHAPTER
The goaI of lhis chaplei and lhe foinei chaplei vas lo undeisland and vaIidale lhe
concepluaI aspecls of enpIoyee vilaIily as an aclive peifoinance and veII-leing
concepl. As il vas aigued lhal passive jol salisfaclion, oiganizalionaI connilnenl
oi jol sliain aie possilIy Iess IikeIy lo giasp lhe chaiacleiislics of a nodein effeclive
voikfoice (Iaikei, 2OOO, Cuesl, 2OO2, Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, Iay & Kanps, 2OO6), lhis
chaplei Iooked inlo lhe concepluaI specifics and ieIalionships lelveen foui
enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes and lhe passive enpIoyee alliilules. In chaplei 3, ve
pioposed lhal vilaI enpIoyees (chaiacleiized ly high IeveIs of pioaclivily and
vigoui) viII expend a noie enduialIe and dynanic lype of voik effoil lhal couId
diffeienliale lelveen high and Iov enpIoyee and voik unil peifoinance. Diaving
on lhese lheoielicaI pioposilions, in lhis chaplei, lhe concepluaI specifics of
enpIoyee vilaIily veie fuilhei opeialionaIized in oidei lo neasuie and vaIidale
lhen. Ioi lhis ve ciealed nev ilens and used olhei exisling scaIe ilens lo neasuie
foui dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily: enpIoyee pioaclivily lovaids lhe jol and seIf-
deveIopnenl, and lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy and viIIingness lo expend eneigy. In
lesling lhe hypolheses vilh iegaid lo lhe quaIily and vaIidily of lhe vilaIily ilens
82
anong 736 enpIoyees of 13 oiganizalions fion diffeienl seclois, lhe foIIoving
lecane cIeai:

Iiisl, as expecled lhe enpIoyee vilaIily ilens Ioaded on foui faclois vhich
iesenlIed lhe vilaIily dinensions lhal veie diavn fion lheoiy. The ilens
veie facloiiaIIy dislincl fion each olhei and as foui sepaiale scaIes lhey
shoved good ieIialiIilies. This neans lhal lhe lasic psychoneliic piopeilies
foi neasuies of lhe foui vilaIily dinensions veie in lacl. This confiins
nqpc|ncscs 1a and 1o.

Second, lhe foui scaIes shoved nodeiale coiieIalions vilh each olhei and, as
vas expecled, lolh lhe lvo pioaclivily dinensions and lhe lvo vigoui
dinensions veie sIighlIy sliongei ieIaled. So, lelveen lhe vilaIily scaIes ve
found lhe expecled disciepancies lul aIso lhe expecled nediun-sized
coiieIalions. AddilionaIIy, in a second oidei facloi anaIysis, onIy one facloi
vas exliacled depicling lhe shaied vaiiance of lhe foui vilaIily scaIes and lhe
pIausiliIily of a singIe undeiIying consliucl. This confiins nqpc|ncsis 2, 3a and
3o.

Thiid, vhen exanining lhe disciininanl vaIidily ly incIuding passive
peifoinance/alliludinaI and heaIlh indicalois, lhe iesuIls foi jco prcac|iti|q
shov a dislincl coiieIalion pallein vilh iegaid lo lheii ieIalionship vilh lhe
noie liadilionaI oulcones of jol salisfaclion and oiganizalionaI connilnenl.
This iesuIl foIIovs lhe findings of Iaikei (2OOO) and Iaikei el aI., (2OO6) vho
found lhal enpIoyee pioaclivily neasuies veie facloiiaIIy dislincl fion jol
salisfaclion, oiganizalionaI connilnenl, OC and jol sliain. The sonevhal
sliongei significanl ieIalionships lelveen dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q and jol
salisfaclion/connilnenl vouId suggesl lhal lheie is a ieIalionship lelveen
acliveIy ollaining fuluie skiIIs and knovIedge and lhe connilnenl one feeIs
lo lhe oiganizalion. This connecls lo hunan capilaI lheoiy lasics (eckei,
1964) vhich assunes lhal enpIoyee inveslnenls in acquiiing fiin-specific
skiIIs aIso slienglhens lhe connilnenl lo lhe oiganizalion lo gain (fuluie)
ieluins on lhe peisonaI inveslnenls nade - as lhey aie of Iess vaIue oulside of
lhe oiganizalion. Al fiisl sighl, lhe coiieIalions lelveen lhe enpIoyee vigoui
scaIes and passive heaIlh indicalois do nol ieveaI a cIeai coiieIalionaI pallein.
83
As couId le expecled, lheie is a significanl negalive ieIalionship lelveen lhe
exlenl lo vhich an enpIoyee has cncrgq atai|ao|c and expeiiencing ucr|-rc|a|cd
fa|iguc. Hovevei, as lhe lvo concepls vouId seen veiy diiecl opposiles of
each olhei on a undeiIying lipoIai dinension, lhe coiieIalion lelveen lhe
scaIes is onIy nodeiale in size. This couId indicale lhal lhe avaiIaliIily of
eneigy and faligue aie concepluaIIy diffeienl, vhich has aIso leen found in a
sludy ly SchaufeIi and akkei (2OO4).

Iouilh, lhe coiieIalions lelveen lhe lvo vigoui scaIes and jol
salisfaclion/connilnenl aIso shov highei coiieIalions. This indicales sone
concepluaI oveiIap lelveen feeIing vigoious, and having affeclive alliludes
lovaids lhe jol and oiganizalion. This is consislenl vilh HaIIleig and
SchaufeIis (2OO6) sludy on lhe veII-lesled concepl of voik engagenenl
(vhich consisls of feeIing vigouious and dedicaled) in ieIalion lo
oiganizalionaI connilnenl, vhich lhey find lo le cIoseIy ieIaled lo each
olhei. Hovevei, an oveiaII concIusion on lhe diffeience lelveen lhe vilaIily
scaIes and lhe passive scaIes is lhal lhe high coiieIalions lelveen enpIoyee
pioaclivily and vigoui, veie nol found lelveen enpIoyee pioaclivily and
salisfaclion/connilnenl and faligue/voiiying. This pailIy vaIidales lhal
enpIoyee vigoui is noie akin lo enpIoyee pioaclivily. An addilionaI second-
oidei facloi anaIysis of lhe vilaIily scaIes and lhe passive indicalois, aIso
ieveaI lhe conlouis of enpIoyee vilaIily as leing concepluaIIy squeezed in
lelveen lhe noie affeclive alliludinaI donain and heaIlh-oiienled donain of
faligue and voiiying. So lheie is sone sIighl evidence foi enpIoyee vilaIily
scaIes leing diffeienl fion lhe passive indicalois vhich vouId confiin
nqpc|ncsis 4.

Lasl, lo nake sone infeiences vilh iegaid lo lhe vaIue of vilaI enpIoyees foi
oiganizalionaI effecliveness, enpIoyees veie divided inlo lvo gioups lased
on lhe geneiaI effecliveness of lhe depailnenl/voik unil lhey voik in. Heie,
il lecane cIeai lhal enpIoyees voiking in lhe lop 35 of effeclive voik unils
shoved highei pioaclivily and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy lhan enpIoyees
voiking in Iess effeclive voik unils. In conliasl, lheie veie no significanl
diffeiences foi 3 of lhe 4 passive indicalois (salisfaclion, connilnenl and
faligue). To a Iaige exlenl il confiins nqpc|ncsis 5.
84
In a sinpIified giaph, Iiguie 4-1 sunnaiizes lhe findings in lhis sludy vilh iegaid
lo lhe concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily. The pioposilion undeiIying lhis giaph is lhal in
lhe conlexl of idenlifying lhe enpIoyee lhal has gol vhal il lakes, il nakes noie
sense lo focus on vigouious and pioaclive enpIoyees lhan on nc| unheaIlhy,
connilled and salisfied enpIoyees - aIlhough lhese chaiacleiislics do nol nuluaIIy
excIude each olhei.

F|gure 4-1: 8ummar|z|ng overv|ew of va||d|ty aspects concern|ng emp|oyee v|ta||ty

4.6.1. Ncxt Chaptcr
AII in aII, lo a gieal exlenl lhe findings in lhis chaplei suppoil lhe fuilhei use of lhe
enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes lo neasuie an aclive lype of discielionaiy effoil consliucl.
eing lhe cenliaI consliucl in expIoiing lhe possiliIily of nanaging veII-leing and
peifoinance, lhe foIIoving lvo chapleis viII noie specificaIIy ain al lhe
idenlificalion, neasuienenl and vaIidalion of nanagealIe voik and oiganizalionaI
faclois in a high peifoinance voik syslens fianevoik. The conliilulion of lhis
chaplei lo lhe oveiaII ieseaich fianevoik is depicled ly lhe giey loxes and lIack
aiiovs in Iiguie 4-2.
Emp|oyee
Proact|v|ty

Joo &
0eve|oprerla|
Proacl|v|ly

Emp|oyee
V|gour


w||||rgress/Erergy
Ava||ao|||ly/Erergy


Pass|ve
Performance

Joo 3al|slacl|or
0rg. Corr|lrerl

Pass|ve hea|th
Fal|gue
worry|rg
l|gner louer work un|r Perlormance
"/cr|ve Emp|o,ee v|ra||r, "Pass|ve lno|carors
85

F|gure 4-2: Th|s 6hapter's 6ontr|but|on to the overa|| Research Framework

?
?

w|0
Factors





w|0
Factors


w|0
Factors

?

0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance


Ava||ab|||ty
0f Energy


Job &
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty


w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy


86
87
Chaptez 5
Identifying and meaauring
High Performance Work Practicea:
theoreticaI and methodoIogicaI iaauea
7

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Having concepluaIized enpIoyee vilaIily as lhe key consliucl lhal signifies an
aclive enpIoyee alliilule vhich ieIales lo lhe aliIily of oiganizalions lo ollain
lheii peifoinance goaIs vhiIe suslaining enpIoyee heaIlh, lhis chaplei ains al
idenlifying and neasuiing lhe voik and oiganizalionaI deleininanls of enpIoyee
vilaIily. SpecificaIIy, ve eIaloiale on lhe specifics of an oiganizalionaI-IeveI high
peifoinance voik syslens fianevoik (e.g., DeIeiy & Shav, 2OO1, HuseIid, 1995,
AppeIlaun el aI., 2OOO, Dalla, Culhiie & Wiighl, 2OO5, Sun, Aiyee & Lav, 2OO7). In
exanining lhe Iink lelveen lhe nanagenenl of Ialoui inpuls and lheii
peifoinance/pioduclivily oulpuls, nuch of conlenpoiaiy Iileialuie iefeis lo Hign
Pcrfcrnancc HRM oi Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cns (HIWSs) as a dislinclive
appioach lo nanaging hunan iesouice inpuls lovaids vaIualIe oiganizalionaI
oulpuls. CenliaI lo HIWSs is lhe nolion of peopIe as an inpoilanl assel oi souice
of conpelilive advanlage, ialhei lhan a cosl lo le nininized (eckei & Ceihail,
1996, Wood, 1999). SulsequenlIy, HRM piaclices lhal inpiove lhe oiganizalions
alliaclion, deveIopnenl and nolivalion of a unique, ininilalIe and non-
sulslilulalIe hunan iesouice pooI vouId conline inlo a syslen lhal noie diieclIy

7
A pail of lhis chaplei vas lased on an eaiIiei veision of a papei ly Doienlosch, L.W. & Van
VeIdhoven, M.}.I.M. (2OO6) Relhinking HRM piaclices neasuienenl. A cIassificalion of choices foi
ieseaicheis. Iapei piesenled al lhe LIASM 21sl Woikshop Slialegic Hunan Resouice Managenenl,
Aslon Univeisily. iininghan, UK.
88
conliilules lo lhe oiganizalions success lhiough peopIe (Wiighl and osveII, 2OO2).
So fai, enpiiicaI iesuIls shov lhal oiganizalions lhal syslenalicaIIy adopl an
inleinaIIy consislenl sel of High Ieifoinance voik Iiaclices (HIWIs) have leen
found lo geneiale giealei Ialoui pioduclivily (HuseIid, 1995, Dalla el aI., 2OO5,
Ichniovski, Shav & Iiennushi, 1997, Sun el aI., 2OO7), financiaI fiin peifoinance
(HuseIid, 1995, Cuesl, Michie & Sheehan, 2OO3) oi olhei indicalois of fiin
effecliveness (e.g., piofilaliIily, naikel giovlh, saIes, see oseIie, Dielz & oon, 2OO5
foi an oveiviev). A iecenl nela-anaIysis (Conls, Liu, HaII & Kelchen, 2OO6) on lhe
HIWS-oiganizalionaI peifoinance Iinkage, incIuding 92 sludies, fuilhei juslified lhe
posilive ieIalionships lelveen HIWS and vaiious indicalois of fiin peifoinance.
Hovevei, despile lhe Iaige lody of ieseaich on lhe Iink lelveen HRM inleivenlions
and sone indicaloi of oiganizalionaI peifoinance, Iess is enpiiicaIIy knovn aloul
lhe inleinedialing nechanisns and vaiialIes lhal couId expIain hov enpIoyees aie
inpacled and hov enpIoyees pioducliveIy ieacl lo HIWS (oseIie el aI., 2OO5, WaII
& Wood, 2OO5). ConsequenlIy, a nevei sliean of ieseaich has legun lo exanine
possilIe conlenls of lhe so-caIIed lIack lox lelveen HRM inleivenlions and
peifoinance oulcones. This has Ied ieseaicheis lo appIy a nuIlilude of exisling
psychoIogicaI (e.g., alliilulion-lheoiy), socioIogicaI (e.g., sociaI capilaI lheoiy) oi
econonic lheoiies (e.g. hunan capilaI lheoiy) and ieIaled advanced slalislicaI
lechniques lo undeisland lhe vay enpIoyee skiIIs, alliludes and lehavioui aie
affecled ly HRM and, in luin, aie eilhei leneficiaI oi counleipioduclive foi
oiganizalions (foi a good oveiviev see Lepak, Takeuchi, Liheidl & CoIakogIu, 2OO6).
Connecled lo lhis eneiging sliean of ieseaich on opening lhe lIack lox, lhis
disseilalion focuses on cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q as an inleinedialing nechanisn lelveen
HRM inleivenlions and enduialIe oiganizalionaI peifoinance.

5.1.1 Gna! nf thIs chaptcr
The inleivenlion-lased HIWS Iileialuie lypicaIIy invoIves lhe sludy of specific HRM
inleivenlions oi voik piaclices (e.g. funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl,
peifoinance appiaisaI) of vhich lhe adoplion vouId affecl oiganizalionaI
peifoinance. To piovide noie lackgiound on lhe fealuies of HIWS, lhis chaplei
addiesses lolh lhe lheoielicaI fealuies and lhe nelhodoIogicaI issues undeiIying
HIWS-peifoinance ieseaich. IiislIy, ve eIaloiale on lhe conlouis of lhe HIWS
fianevoik. SecondIy, lhis chaplei piesenls possilIe choices vilh iegaid lo lhe
neasuienenl of high peifoinance voik piaclices (HIWIs) as lheie is no ieaI
89
consensus anong ieseaicheis on HIWIs neasuienenl (oseIie el aI., 2OO5, Wood &
WaII, 2OO5). In Iine vilh lhe voik of Ceihail,, Wiighl, McMahan and SneII (2OOO), ve
aigue lhal lo adequaleIy sludy lhe effecls of HIWIs on enpIoyee oulcones, lheie is
(1) a need lo caiefuIIy choose and concepluaIize lhe specifics of lhe independenl
HIWIs and (2) lhe need lo nake adequale decisions in lhe ieseaich design vilh
iegaid lo lhe IeveI of anaIysis and vho iales lhe oljeclive voik piaclices. As such,
lhis lheoielicaI and nelhodoIogicaI lackgiound Iinks lo lhe acluaI neasuienenl and
vaIidalion of HIWIs in lhe nexl chaplei.


5.2 A HIGH PERFORMANCE WORK 5Y5TEM5 FRAMEWORK
Reseaich on lhe peifoinance effecls of lhe adoplion of HIWSs have pioposed
diffeienl vays lhiough vhich voik and HRM piaclices couId affecl oiganizalionaI
peifoinance. This is nol suipiising given lhe vaiious acadenic discipIines in vhich
HIWSs aie sludied, on vaiious IeveIs of anaIysis focusing on vaiious peifoinance
indicalois. As a fianevoik, HIWS lhinking diffeis fion piesciiplive, noinalive
nodeIs of voik and oiganizalionaI inleivenlions (Cuesl, 1997) vhich cIain lo le a
lesl piaclice oi lesl syslen vilh iegaid lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Ralhei,
lhan iunning lhe iisk of leconing a nanagenenl fad, lhe HIWS peispeclive
piovides a lheoielicaI skeIelaI fianevoik (IuiceII el aI., 2OO3) in oidei lo sludy lhe
oiganizalionaI peifoinance effecls of conlinalions of voikpIace, HR nanagenenl
and/oi Ialoui ieIalion inleivenlions. In lhe diveisily of vays schoIais have
addiessed and sludied HIWS (see oseIie el aI., 2OO5 foi an oveiviev) lhiee key
fealuies of a HIWS fianevoik undeiIie lhe najoiily of HIWS sludies.

|eature #1: Emhasls on Hlgh Performance Outcomes
A key fealuie of HIWS ieseaich is lhe focus on an oulcone lhal is diieclIy
neaningfuI and of ciilicaI inpoilance lo lhe oiganizalions oi oiganizalionaI unils
vialiIily and suslained conpeliliveness (oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). This diieclIy iaises
queslions vilh iegaid lo vhich oulcones can le consideied neaningfuI and ciilicaI.
Sludies have incIuded a lioad iange of financiaI, naikel, opeialionaI oi sociaI
peifoinance oulcones vhich couId le neaningfuI and ciilicaI lo oiganizalionaI
success. Iion a HIWS peispeclive, lhe ciileiion piolIen does nol have lo le a
piolIen pcr sc, as Iong as il can le aigued vhy lhe incIusion of ceilain peifoinance
oulcones vouId le neaningfuI and ciilicaI lo lhe oiganizalions vialiIily (aIso vilh
90
iegaid lo oiganizalions in a specific lianche/indusliy). Hovevei, vhal is aigued lo
le inpoilanl in lhe choice of lhe sludied peifoinance oulcone(s), is lhe expeclalion
lhal voik ieIaled aspecls in one vay oi anolhei can expIain vaiiance in lhese high
peifoinance oulcones. In chaplei 2 ve aIieady addiessed lhis vhen defining cosl-
effeclive Ialoui pioduclivily as a pioxinaI oiganizalionaI oulcone ialhei lhan a
dislaI peifoinance oulcone vhich aie IikeIy lo le aIso infIuenced ly non-Ialoui
ieIaled oiganizalionaI aspecls. Anolhei aspecl is lhe choice of lhe appiopiiale IeveI of
anaIysis lo exanine peifoinance oulcones. AIso lhis vaiies acioss sludies vhich
have incIuded HIWS ieIalionships vilh peifoinance al lhe conpany IeveI (HuseIid,
1995), al lhe eslalIishnenl IeveI (CapeIIi & Neunaik, 2OO1), al a pIanl IeveI
(AppeIlaun el aI., 2OOO), lul aIso al lhe individuaI IeveI (Zachaialos, aiIing &
Iveison, 2OO5). IiaclicaIIy, sludies incIuding peifoinance indicalois al each of lhese
IeveIs geneiale lheii ovn possiliIilies lo incIude specific voik-ieIaled oi noie
lusiness lioad peifoinance neasuies, oljeclive oi suljeclive peifoinance neasuies
via nanagei, peei oi enpIoyee (seIf-) iepoils of peifoinance.

|eature #2: Emhasls on lntermedlar Performance Mechanlsms
In Chaplei 2, ve desciiled seveiaI passive enpIoyee veII-leing nechanisns
lhiough vhich voik and oiganizalionaI faclois couId inpacl oiganizalionaI
peifoinance oulcones. Hovevei, in ieaclion lo lhe Iack of sliong findings vhich
suppoil enpIoyee jol salisfaclion, oiganizalionaI connilnenl oi jol sliain as
inleinediaiy vaiialIes (as assuned in jol iedesign and high connilnenl HRM
nodeIs), HIWS nodeIs have leen focusing on olhei, noie econonic and/oi
lehaviouiaI, peifoinance nechanisns lo Iook inside lhe 'lIack lox. AIlhough lhe
leins high connilnenl/invoIvenenl HRM and HIWSs have fiequenlIy leen used
inleichangealIy, Wood (1999l) olseives lhal HIWSs lioaden lhe focus avay fion
enpIoyee alliludes and connilnenl, so lhal such faclois as skiII foinalion, voik
sliucluiing, peifoinance nanagenenl and pay salisfaclion aie incIuded in lhe Iisl of
nechanisns lhiough vhich HR piaclices nay inpacl upon peifoinance (p. 371).
Moie sliongIy, LiIeen AppeIlaun, as one of lhe Ieading schoIais in lhis donain,
expIicilIy enphasizes lhe diffeiences lelveen HIWS peispeclive and high
connilnenl/invoIvenenl HRM nodeIs ly slaling lhe foIIoving:

'UnIike pasl allenpls lo hunanize voik oi inpiove lhe quaIily of voik Iife, lhese |HIWj
piaclices aie nol designed vilh lhe goaI of incieasing voikei conlioI oi aulonony oi jol
91
salisfaclion. Whelhei lhese piaclices iesuIl in such voikei oulcones is an enpiiicaI queslion,
lul achieving lhese oulcones is nol nanagenenls piinaiy nolive (AppeIlaun, 2OO2, p.
121).

Inslead, noie diiecl allenlion is pIaced on enpIoyee expendiluie of discielionaiy
effoil lhal conliilules lo lhe peifoinance oulcones undei sludy. ConsequenlIy,
seveiaI opeialionaIizalions of such discielionaiy effoil have leen lheoiized lo
funclion as inleinediaiy enpIoyee peifoinance nechanisns - aIlhough nol aIvays
diieclIy neasuied. Those HIWS sludies lhal did incIude diiecl neasuies of effeclive
discielionaiy effoil, have exanined a lioad iange of vaiialIes Iike nunan rcscurcc
f|cxioi|i|q (eIlian-Mailin el aI, 2OO8), in|cr-crganiza|icna| |ncu|cdgc |ransfcr (Kase,
2OO7), crganiza|icna| ci|izcnsnip ocnaticurs (Sun el aI., 2OO7), cnp|cqcc cccpcra|icn
(Lanlooij, Koslei, Sandeis & Zviei, 2OO6, Hoigan, 2OO3) and enpIoyee prco|cn-
sc|ting, s|i|| usagc (Moigeson, }ohnson, Canpion, Medskei & Munfoid, 2OO6). In
sun, a HIWS peispeclive does nol piesciile lhe lype of discielionaiy effoil lhal
vouId pionole peifoinance. Hovevei, lo lhe lackdiop of ceilain conlingencies
(e.g., slialegy, lechnoIogy, lype of indusliy) and a pailicuIai high peifoinance
indicaloi, il is consideied noie appiopiiale lo incIude lhose discielionaiy lehaviouis
lhal aie neaningfuI vilh iegaid lo lhe conlexl oi indicaloi of inleiesl.

|eature #3: Emhasls on a Sstem of Work/Organltatlona| lntertentlons
IIIuslialive foi a HIWS fianevoik is lhe exaninalion of lhe oiganizalionaI
peifoinance effecls of nu||ip|c voik and oiganizalionaI inleivenlions (Wiighl &
osveII, 2OO2). HIWS sludies have incIuded lhe conlined effecl of piaclices vilh
iegaid lo lhe vay voik is designed and oiganized (e.g., leanvoik, feedlack,
pailicipalion, jol desciiplions), lhe HRM piaclices goveining aspecls of lhe
enpIoynenl ieIalionship (e.g., incenlive pay, jol secuiily, pionolion oppoilunilies)
and lhe quaIily of lhe voikfoice (e.g., ieciuilnenl, seIeclion, liaining and
deveIopnenl) (Iaikei & Tuinei, 2OO2, CospeI in oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). Lxanining a
coIIeclive oi lundIe of voik and oiganizalionaI piaclices iefIecls lhe syslens viev,
lased on lhe aigunenl lhal 'sone conlinalion of HRM piaclices have advanlages
alove and leyond lhe caiefuI appIicalion of specific |HRj lechniques such as
sophislicaled seIeclion, pay, liaining oi jol design (Cuesl, Convay & Deve, 2OO4, p.
79). SiniIaiIy, Ichniovski el aI. (1997) poinled oul lhal vhen exanining piaclices
sepaialeIy lhis caiiies lhe inpIicil assunplion lhal effecls of HR decisions aie
92
addilive. And yel HRM piaclices aie inleiieIaled and shouId inleiacl oi voik
logelhei in achieving lheii effecls, lheiefoie, invesligalion of lhe effecls of individuaI
HR piaclices is inconpIele, and eiioneous concIusions nay le diavn. WhiIe lheie is
sliII nuch delale on vhich conlined voik and oiganizalionaI piaclices vouId
posiliveIy ieIale lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance, a fiequenlIy used ialionaIe lo
undeipin lhe choice foi HIWS is lhe AMO lheoiy of peifoinance (Iunleig &
IiingIe, 1982, CanpleII, 1999, AppeIlaun el aI., 2OOO, DeIeiy & Shav, 2OO2, oxaII &
IuiceII, 2OO3). The lheoiy piedicls lhal peopIe expend ceilain discielionaiy effoil
vhen lhey have lhe (A)liIily lo do so, vhen lhey aie (M)olivaled lo do so, and vhen
voik enviionnenl piovides lhe (O)ppoilunily lo do so (in oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). As
a syslen of HIWS aII lhiee AMO calegoiies shouId le sinuIlaneousIy enhanced in
oidei lo le effeclive. As WaII and Wood (2OO5) pul il: 'seIecling alIe peopIe vilhoul
liaining lhen, oi liaining enpIoyees lul nol nolivaling and enpoveiing lhen lo
use lhal liaining, viII have IillIe effecl, vheieas inpIenenling lhese piaclices
logelhei viII. Using lhis AMO iuliic as a 'skeIelaI sliucluie foi HRM (oxaII &
IuiceII, 2OO3), noves avay fion expIicilIy idenlifying lesl piaclices lhal aIvays
oulpeifoin olheis. Inslead, lhe AMO iuliic foins geneiic piincipIes foi HR poIicy
and piaclice deleininalion (IuiceII el aI., 2OO3), vhich aIIovs foi a vaiiely of voik
and oiganizalionaI piaclices and pioceduies (lhal fil lhe lhiee AMO calegoiies) lo
affecl oiganizalionaI peifoinance. In olhei voids, in a HIWS fianevoik each lype
of effeclive discielionaiy effoil can le piedicled ly an idiosyncialic syslen of voik
and oiganizalionaI piaclices undei lhe condilion lhal lhe voik piaclices aie
neaningfuI and ciilicaI lo lhe aliIily, nolivalion and oppoilunily lo expend lhe lype
of discielionaiy effoil of inleiesl. Ioi exanpIe, HIWIs lhal enhance lhe aliIily,
nolivalion and oppoilunily of enpIoyees lo deveIop nev pioducl innovalions do
nol need lo le lhe sane sel of HIWIs lhal aie IikeIy lo enhance cuslonei seivice
quaIily.

5.2.1 Emp!nycc VIta!Ity In HPW5 framcwnrk
AppIying lhe key fealuies of a HIWS fianevoik lo enpIoyee vilaIily, lhe goaI is lo
idenlify lhal conlinalion of HWIS piaclices lhal vouId ieinfoice each olhei inlo
slinuIaling enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclivily. As aIieady desciiled in Chaplei 3, and
olhei lhan AppeIlaun (2OO2) suggesls, ve do iegaid aclive veII-leing and heaIlh
inlegiaI lo an aclive peifoinance nechanisn lelveen HIWSs and oiganizalionaI
peifoinance. This nakes vilaIily a discielionaiy voikfoice chaiacleiislic, vhich
93
enalIes enpIoyees lo peifoin in a nodein voik aiena (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6). To
adequaleIy exanine lhe inpacl of a HIWS on enpIoyee vilaIily, lhe foIIoving
seclion viII Iook inlo HIWS neasuienenl issues, luiIding lovaids lhe adequale
neasuienenl of neaningfuI and ciilicaI HIWS piaclices in lhis disseilalion sludy.


5.3 MEA5UREMENT I55UE5 IN A HPW5 FRAMEWORK
TheoielicaIIy, vilh lhe gioving nunlei of HIWS-peifoinance sludies, sulslanliaI
advancenenls have leen nade vilh iegaid lo lhe inlegialion of peifoinance
lheoiies inlo oiganizalionaI and voikpIace nodeIs of inleivenlion. A iecenl
oveiviev ly oseIie el aI. (2OO5) of 1O4 enpiiicaI HRM-peifoinance sludies
pulIished lelveen 1994 and 2OO3, shovs lhal lhe najoiily of sludies define
HRM/HIWS vilh iegaid lo vhal oiganizalions dc in leins of HRM poIicies,
piaclices, pioceduies oi lechniques (see aIso eckei & Ceihail, 1996). OnIy a
ninoiily focuses on foi inslance lhe effecliveness of lhe HR depailnenl/nanageis
(HuseIid, }ackson & SchuIei, 1998, Tsui, 199O) oi lhe slienglh of an HRM syslen
(oven & Oslioff, 2OO4) in leins of HR aclivilies leing cIeai, consislenl and
unifoinIy appIied. Hence, HRM inleivenlions on nuIlipIe donains Iike slaffing,
liaining and pay ienain lo le lhe focaI ain and coie concepls lhal nake up lhe
oiganizalions HIWS. AIlhough lhis so-caIIed conlenl appioach lo HRM
(disciininaling lelveen HRM configuialions on lhe lasis of una| is done) undeiIies
nuch of lhe ieseaich nodeIs in HIWS-peifoinance Iileialuie, ieIialIe and vaIid
neasuienenl of lhe singIe high peifoinance voik piaclices (HIWIs) and ils
conposile HIWS syslen neasuies ienain a cenliaI issue in cuiienl nelhodoIogicaI
delales (see eckei & Ceihail, 1996, DeIeiy, 1998, Ceihail, Wiighl and McMahan,
2OOO, HuseIid & eckei, 2OOO, Kepes & DeIeiy, 2OO5, Ceihail, 2OO7).
MelhodoIogicaIIy, ieIialIe and vaIid neasuienenl of HIWIs can le
consideied lop piioiily in naking adequale infeiences fion enpiiicaI iesuIls in
HIWS-peifoinance ieseaich. Wilh iegaid lo lvo lheoielicaI deveIopnenls (conlenl
and IeveI of anaIysis) in HIWI consliucl specificalion, Ceihail and coIIeagues (2OOO)
and HuseIid and eckei (2OOO) delaled seveiaI souices of neasuienenl eiioi in
HIWS-peifoinance ieseaich due lo (a) lhe ilens used lo neasuie lhe HIWI conlenl
and (l) lhe ialeis used lhal piovide lhe infoinalion al a ceilain IeveI of anaIysis.
ConsequenlIy, Ceihail el aI. (2OOO) concIude lhal HIWS sludies conlain a gieal deaI
of neasuienenl unieIialiIily due lo lhe ilens incIuded and lhe lype of ialeis of
94

hPwP Heasurement

3. wr|cr lPwPs |rd|calors lo reasure?
2. wral ralure ol lPwPs lo reasure?

HIWI ilens. Accoiding lo Ceihail and coIIeagues lhis neans lhal lhe found effecl
size eslinales of lhe ieIalionship lelveen HIWS and peifoinance oulcones so fai,
shouId le inleipieled vilh gieal caulion. In olhei voids, aIlhough lheoielicaI
advancenenls have leen nade and iecognized ly a nunlei of HR ieseaicheis,
sulslanliaI fIavs in lhe vay HIWIs aie neasuied can have najoi inpIicalions foi
lhe vaIidily and concIusions lhal aie diavn fion HIWS-peifoinance sludies
conducled so fai. Taken logelhei, lhe nelhodoIogicaI conceins issued ly Ceihail and
coIIeagues vilh iegaid lo lhe neasuienenl of HIWIs can le calegoiized as (1)
HPlP-spccific ncasurcncn| issucs and (2) enlvined rcscarcn dcsign-spccific issucs. Wilh
lhe goaI of lhis chaplei lo syslenalicaIIy addiess lhe cuiienl lheoielicaI and
neasuienenl issues in a HIWS fianevoik, lhe nexl seclion viII eIaloiale on lhe
lype of queslions schoIais face vilh iegaid lo lhe neasuienenl of HIWS.
Iiguie 5-1 depicls a giaphicaI oveiviev of neasuienenl issues vilh iegaid lo
HIWIs. As shovn, lhis chaplei viII focus on six diffeienl neasuienenl
consideialions vilh iespecl lo eilhei HPlP-spccific ncasurcncn| issucs oi rcscarcn
dcsign-spccific ncasurcncn| issucs.

F|gure 5-1: 0verv|ew of hPwP Heasurement |ssues
1. wr|cr lPwPs lo reasure?


. wral researcr |rslrurerl lo use?


5. wro rales lPwPs?


1. 0r Wral |eve| lo reasure lPwPs?

hPwP-spec|f|c
measurement |ssues
Research 0es|gn-
spec|f|c Heasurement
|ssues

95
5.3.1 HPWP-spccIfIc mcasurcmcnt Issucs

lssue #1: Whlch HPWPs to measure?
As aIieady discussed, lhe fiisl lasic ieseaicheis queslion of vhich HIWIs lo
neasuie, is IaigeIy lheoiy-lased vilh iegaid lo lhe aliIily, nolivalion and
oppoilunily lo expend lhe inleinediaiy discielionaiy effoil of inleiesl. IoIIoving
lhis skeIelaI AMO fianevoik, lolh WaII and Wood (2OO5) and oseIie el aI. (2OO5)
concIude on lhe lasis of an oveiviev of enpiiicaI HRM ieseaich lheie is a gioving
consensus anong HRM ieseaicheis on vhich lype of inleivenlions lo neasuie.
CIassified undei eilhei infIuencing voikfoice aliIily, (exliinsic) nolivalion and
oppoilunily, TalIe 5-1 shovs vhich lop 1O of HIWIs have leen nosl incIuded in
1O3 HIWS-peifoinance sludies lelveen 1994-2OO3 (in oseIie el aI., 2OO5).
AddilionaIIy, lased Conls el aI.s (2OO6) nela-anaIysis incIuding 93 HIWS-
peifoinance sludies, TalIe 5-1 aIso incIudes vhich singIe HIWIs donains have
leen found lo le diieclIy ieIaled oi unieIaled lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance. When
conpaiing lhe findings of oseIie el aI. (2OO5) and Conls el aI. (2OO6) lhiee lhings
lecone appaienl. Iiisl, lolh sludies, independenlIy idenlified siniIai donains of
inleivenlions lhal pasl ieseaich have incIuded as HIWIs. This suppoils lhe gioving
consensus on vhich HWIS donains shouId le exanined in a HWIS fianevoik.
Second, lhe lype of HIWIs in lhe lop 1O of nosl incIuded HIWIs can le calegoiized
in Iine vilh lhe AMO sliucluie. As such, HIWIs focus on:

(1) alliacling, seIecling, liaining and deveIoping an alIe voikfoice,
(2) appiaising, paying and pionoling lo nolivale enpIoyees and
(3) lhe enpIoyee oppoilunily lo peifoin lhiough lean voiking, coIIaloialion,
connunicalion, infoinalion shaiing en eniiched jol design.

Thiid, Conls and coIIeagues nela-anaIysis shovs lhal nol aII HIWIs donains
ieIale diieclIy lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones. Ioi inslance, adopling
peifoinance appiaisaIs, lean voiking and connunicalion/ infoinalion shaiing
veie found lo le unieIaled lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Does lhis nean lhey
shouId le excIuded fion a HIWS fianevoik` If il is expecled lhal effeclive
discielionaiy lehavioui inleinediales lhe ieIalionship lelveen HIWS and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance, aion and Kennys (1986) Iav of lesling inleinedialing
effecls slales lhal in lhe fiisl pIace lheie shouId le a ieIalionship lelveen lhe
96
independenl (HIWS) vaiialIe and lhe dependenl (peifoinance) vaiialIe. Hovevei,
on lhe lasis of conlenl, il couId aIso le lhal lhe effecliveness of lhese independenl
HIWIs ieIy on lhe specific na|urc of lhese piaclices.


Tab|e 5-1: Host |nc|uded hPwPs and re|at|onsh|p w|th performance *

AH0 category

Host |nc|uded hPwPs |n Research

Rank
Re|at|onsh|p w|th
organ|zat|ona| Performance?
Ab|||ty Tra|r|rg & 0eve|oprerl #1 Yes
Recru|lrerl ard se|ecl|or #1 Yes
Hot|vat|on Corl|rgerl pay ard reWards #2 Yes
Perlorrarce raragererl/ appra|sa| #3 ho
'0ood (Aoove-Var|el) wages #Z Yes
lrlerra| prorol|or opporlur|l|es #9 Yes
0pportun|ty TearWor||rg ard co||aooral|or #5 ho
0|recl parl|c|pal|or # Yes
Corrur|cal|or / |rlorral|or srar|rg #8 ho
Err|cred Joo des|gr #10 ?(rol |rc|uded)
0ther lR (Career/3uccess|or) P|arr|rg #15 Yes
F|exl|re/wor|-L|le 8a|arce #23 Yes
0r|evarce Procedures #11 Yes
Erp|oyrerl 3ecur|ly #12 Yes
Nole: 8ased or 8ose||e el a|. (2005) ard Coros el a|. (200)


lssue #2: What nature of HPWPs to measure?
Choices on lhe naluie of HIWIs lo neasuie, concein choices vilh iegaid lo lhe IeveI
of alsliaclion oi consliucl specificily. In Iine vilh lhe voik of eckei and Ceihail
(1996), diffeienl IeveIs of alsliaclion can le foinuIaled lhal iesuIl in diffeienl
peispeclives on lhe naluie of HRM piaclices. Ioi inslance, eckei and Ceihail (1996),
Wiighl and Caidnei (2OO3), Cuesl, Convay and Deve (2OO4), Kepes and DeIeiy
(2OO6) and Ailhui and oyIes (2OO7) aIieady nade usefuI dislinclions lelveen
diffeienl IeveIs in lhe HR aichilecluie (aIlhough nol aIvays aIike) lhal vouId iesuIl
in diffeienl HIWIs aspecls lhal couId le neasuied. TalIe 5-2 shovs an oveiviev of
HIWI neasuienenl al diffeienl IeveIs of alsliaclion.
97
Tab|e 5-2: hPwP aspects at d|fferent |eve|s of abstract|on
Leve| of Abstract|on hR aspects Examp|e
very l|gr lR Pr|rc|p|es Erp|oyee perlorrarce |s r|gr|y va|ued
l|gr lR Po||c|es Perlorrarce Varagererl
Voderale lR Pracl|ces Perlorrarce Appra|sa|, lrcerl|ve Pay
LoW lR Tecrr|ques 0eve|oprerla| vs. Resu|l-8ased Appra|sa|


The diffeienl IeveIs of alsliaclion in neasuiing HR aspecls nake cIeai lhal lheie is a
hieiaichicaI oidei vilhin lhe HR aichilecluie. This iefeis lo a lop-dovn chain of
decision-naking in vhich lhe choice foi a guiding piincipIe Iike vaIuing enpIoyee
peifoinance cascades dovn lo (1) nalching poIicy aIleinalives (e.g. peifoinance
nanagenenl), (2) lhe acluaI piaclices lhal ieIale lo lhese poIicies (peifoinance
appiaisaI) and (3) lhe exacl lechnique lhal is used (deveIopnenlaI oi iesuIls-lased
appiaisaI). IoIIoving Kepes and DeIeiy (2OO6) and eckei and Ceihail (1996), lhe
dislinclions lelveen lhe IeveIs of alsliaclion in neasuienenl aie inpoilanl foi lvo
ieasons. Iiisl, il diavs lhe allenlion lo lhe conpIexily of HIWI consliucl definilions
vhiIe eveiy sepaiale HIWI donain is Iayeied and consisls of nuIlipIe conponenls
lhal aII couId le of inleiesl lo lhe HR ieseaichei.
Second, lhe dislinclions highIighl lhal oiganizalions vilh lhe sane guiding
piincipIes couId diffei on lhe lasis of lheii choices in lhe HR poIicy donain, jusl as
oiganizalions vilh siniIai HR poIicies couId depIoy diffeienl HR piaclices and HR
lechniques. In ieseaich, lhe specificalion of lhe IeveI of alsliaclion of inleiesl is
lheiefoie a ciuciaI one. Vaiiance in HIWIs lelveen oiganizalions is IikeIy lo
inciease vhen adding noie specificily lo lhe used neasuies. In enpiiicaI HR
ieseaich so fai, HIWIs have leen neasuied on vaiious IeveIs of alsliaclion (oseIie
el aI. 2OO5), vhich indicales a diveisily of possilIe inleipielalions of lhe naluie of
lhese HIWIs. This couId hovevei lecone piolIenalic lo fuilhei lheoiy lesling.
Tuining lack lo lhe fiisl neasuienenl issue, Conls el aIs (2OO6) finding lhal
peifoinance appiaisaI did nol ieIale lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance, vas aigued lo
slen fion lhe sludys focus on iesuIl-lased peifoinance appiaisaI. In discussing lhe
iesuIls, lhe aulhois aigued lhal olhei specific veisions of HIWIs Iike appiaisaIs
lased on an enpIoyees funclionaI deveIopnenl nighl nallei noie lo peifoinance
oulcones lhan appiaisaIs soIeIy lased on iesuIls. Anong HR ieseaicheis lheie is
sone confusion vilh iegaid lo lhe lein 'HRM piaclices. Ioi inslance, Wiighl and
98
osveII (2OO2) IaleI il as lhe ac|ua|, func|icning and coscrtao|c HR aclivilies (and
lheiefoie silualed on lhe sane IeveI of alsliaclion as HR lechniques/insliunenls) as
opposed lo nanagenenl in|cn|icns capluied in HR poIicies.

lssue #3: Whlch HPWP lndlcators to use?
Anolhei HIWI neasuienenl issue iesoIves aiound lhe scaIe of neasuienenl
(Wiighl & Caidnei, 2OO3) oi HIWI indicalois. Olhei lhan specifying lhe naluie of
HIWIs, indicalois iefei lo lhe exacl infoinalion piopeilies of lhe HIWIs. Ovei lhe
yeais, lhe najoiily of HIWI sludies ieIy on ilens neasuiing vhelhei oi nol an
oiganizalion nakes use of ceilain HIWIs (oseIie el aI., 2OO5, WaII & Wood, 2OO5).
One vay lo neasuie lhis is ly ollaining infoinalion on vhelhei an HIWI is
acluaIIy prcscn| ('yes oi 'no). Anolhei neasuienenl scaIe lhal has leen fiequenlIy
used is asking foi vhal piopoilion of lhe voikfoice lhe HIWI is in use - an
indicaloi of HIWI cctcragc. olh indicalois calegoiize infoinalion on lhe usage of
ceilain HIWIs, of vhich exanpIe ilens Q1 and Q2 aie shovn in TalIe 5-3.
AIlhough oseIie el aI.s (2OO5) oveiviev concIudes lhal lhe focus on lhe use of
HIWIs is lhe nosl connon indicaloi, sludies have aIso incIuded olhei indicalois
Iike inlensily oi effecliveness. A knovn piolIen vilh indicalois of usage is lhal il
pioduces supeificiaI neliics on HIWIs in piaclice vhiIe geneiaI queslions and
iesponse foinals lhal onIy aIIovs foi ansveiing (yes/no/coveiage) couId Iead lo a
unvaiianled conpaiison of HRM piaclices lelveen oiganizalions and voikpIaces.
Ioi exanpIe, endeis. Huijgen and IekiuhI (2OO1), iefeiiing lhe neasuienenl of
gioup/leanvoik, aigued lhal diieclIy asking nanageis aloul lhe incidence of
leanvoik in lheii conpany has 'lhe disadvanlage lhal iespondenls nay ansvei
lased on a diffeienl undeislanding |of leanvoikj lhan lhe ieseaichei has in nind
(p. 216).
As shovn in TalIe 5-3, neasuies iefIecling lhe sophislicalion of an HIWI
conlain indicalois lhal enphasize lhe conpiehensiveness of lhe HIWI. TalIe 2
shovs sone of lhe indicalois of sophislicalion lhal couId le dislinguished. Iiisl,
oljeclive neasuies couId ieIy on lhe intcs|ncn|s an oiganizalion nakes in lhe
piaclice (Q3: nunlei of veeks of liaining). Olhei indicalois of sophislicalion couId
focus on lhe intc|tcncn| of enpIoyees in lhe execulion of lhe piaclice. Ioi inslance,
endeis el aI. (2OO1) neasuied lhe inlensily of leanvoik ly specifying lhe gioups
decision iighls, vhich iefeis lo lhe anounl of decision Ialilude in, foi inslance, lhe
aIIocalion of voik, lhe scheduIing of voik oi lhe cooidinalion of gioup lasks (Q4).
99
Tab|e 5-3: Examp|es of hPwPs |nd|cators
|nd|cator 6ategory Examp|e-|tems Response format 8ource

Preserce 01: ls lrere a rer|l e|ererl |r slall pay
al a|| |eve|s?
(Yes/No) loque
(1999)
Use
Coverage

02: wral |s lre proporl|or ol lre
Wor|lorce Wrose perlorrarce
appra|sa|s are used lo delerr|re lre|r
corpersal|or?
Percerlage (0-100) luse||d
(1995)
lrveslrerl

03: Tre |eve| ol lra|r|rg prov|ded lo
reW|y r|red producl|or Wor|ers,
superv|sors ard erg|reers |r lre l|rsl
s|x rorlrs ol erp|oyrerl
0 = up lo 1 Wee|, 1 = 1-2
Wee|s, 2 = 2-1 Wee|s, 3 =
p|us 1 Wee|s
Vac0ull|e
(1995)
lrvo|vererl

04: las lre raragererl g|ver lre
lorra||y |rlroduced 0R0uP3 lre r|grl
lo ra|e dec|s|ors or roW lre|r Wor| |s
perlorred or a 0R0uP oas|s W|lroul
relererce lo ar |rred|ale rarager lor
ore or rore ol lre lo||oW|rg?
- a||ocar|on,
- scneou||ng,
- qua||r, ol uork
- r|me keep|ng,
- arrenoance/ aosence
conrro|,
- oo rorar|on,
- cooro|nar|on ol uork
- |mprov|ng uork
processes
Al |easl 1/8 dec|s|or
r|grls are ass|gred lo
groups = group-oased
Wor| sysler
EP0C/
8erders el
a|. (2001)
Ellorl

05: we rave gore lo greal |erglrs lo
eslao||sr lre oesl slall|rg procedure
poss|o|e..
Z-po|rl L||erl 3ca|e
(1 = lola||y d|sagree - Z =
lola||y agree)
3re|| &
0ear
(1992)
8oph|st|cat|on
Frequercy 06: Prorol|or rale: roW rary
erp|oyees rave oeer proroled |r lre
|asl year |r corpar|sor lo lre lola|
ruroer ol erp|oyees?
Tola| ruroer ol year|y
prorol|ors /
lola| ruroer ol
erp|oyees
lorgar
(2003)
Effect|veness 07: loW oller does your recru|lrerl
process gererale as rary
good/qua||l|ed app||carls as you reed?
5-po|rl L||erl-sca|e
(1 = rever - 5 = a|Ways)
0uesl el a|.
(2003)
100
AddilionaIIy, vilh iegaid lo lhe neasuienenl of liaining, il is IikeIy lhal asking
vhelhei enpIoyees aie invoIved in idenlifying lhe lype of skiIIs/knovIedge lhey
Iack, ollains iichei infoinalion on lhis specific HIWI. Likevise, foi peifoinance
appiaisaIs lo voik effecliveIy, lhe invoIvenenl of enpIoyees in selling lhe goaIs lhal
gel appiaised is aigued lo have a nolivalionaI effecl (Locke & Lalhan, 2OO4).
Suljeclive aspecls of sophislicalion aie ilens lapping lhe cffcr| nanagenenl leIieves
lo invesls in eslalIishing a ceilain HIWI (Q5). The frcqucncq (Q6) of HIWI aspecls
gives insighl in lhe conpiehensiveness of HIWIs in pIace. The nunlei of appiaisaIs
pei yeai, lhe nunlei of upvaid/financiaI pionolions pei enpIoyee oi lhe nunlei
of inleiviev iounds pei jol appIicanl couId lheiefoie le of inleiesl. Lasl, ilens
lapping lhe effecliveness of HIWIs, have aIso leen incIuded. If a nanagei evaIuales
lhe ieciuilnenl pioceduie in leins of deIiveiing quaIified appIicanls (Q7), such ilen
laps lhe funclionaI effecliveness of lhe ieciuilnenl/seIeclion piaclices in pIace.
OveiaII, vaiious indicalois can le used lo giasp lhe specifics of lhe HIWIs in pIace,
aIlhough nosl HIWS-peifoinance sludies have ieIied on neasuiing lhe use and
piesence of HIWIs (oseIie el aI., 2OO5). IncIuding olhei indicalois can le aigued lo
inciease fuilhei vaiialiIily in hov oiganizalions execule lheii HIWIs.

5.3.2 Rcscarch dcsIgn-spccIfIc Issucs
The lhiee neasuienenl issues alove shov lhal HIWS-Ieifoinance sludies
geneialed a consideialIe anounl of aIleinalives conceining lhe choice HIWIs lo
neasuie, lhe naluie of lhe piaclices lo neasuie and lhe choice of indicalois lhal gel
liansIaled lo acluaI ilens. Il aIso denonsliales lhal in lhe neasuienenl of HIWIs,
lelveen-oiganizalionaI vaiiance can inciease oi deciease lhiough lhe vay ilens aie
chosen and consliucled. eIov, ve shaII oulIine lhe lhiee polenliaI choices in lhe
HIWI ieseaich design lhal, lesides lhe consliuclion of neasuies, vaiy acioss lhe
vaiious HIWS sludies.

lssue #4: On uhat |ete| to measure HPWPs?
The IeveI on vhich HIWIs aie neasuied, iange fion foi inslance indusliy IeveI,
oiganizalionaI/fiin, voikpIace/pIanl IeveI, gioup/lean IeveI, jol IeveI oi on lhe
IeveI of lhe individuaI enpIoyee. oseIie el aI.s (2OO5) ieseaich shovs lhal
ieseaicheis have piedoninanlIy neasuied HIWIs al an oiganizalionaI/conpany
IeveI, asking senioi/HR nanagenenl aloul lhe piaclices lhal accounl foi lhe vhoIe
oiganizalion. Hovevei, lheie aie good ieasons lo considei olhei IeveIs of anaIysis lo
101
conducl HR ieseaich on. In lheii piocess and nuIli-IeveI nodeI, Wiighl and Nishii
(2OO4) and IuiceII and Kinnie (2OO7) nake a dislinclion lelveen inlended, acluaI and
peiceived HRM piaclices, as lhey aigue lhal lheie is nuch noie vaiiance vilhin
oiganizalions and lelveen oiganizalionaI unils/jols in HRM piaclices lhan is
connonIy assuned. In lhe piocess of HRM, in|cndcd HR piaclices aie shaped ly
oiganizalions enviionnenl, (HR) slialegy oi olhei inslilulionaI conlingencies and
oflen viillen dovn in conpany poIicies oi piolocoIs.

F|gure 5-4: The hRH - Performance process mode| (e.g., wr|ght & N|sh||, 2004; Purce|| & K|nn|e, 2007}

The ac|ua| piaclices iefei lo cnac|cd HRM piaclices, lhal oflen nay diffei fion lhe
inlended piaclices iesuIling. Wiighl and Nishiis (2OO4) aigunenl iefeis lo lhe
'disconnecl lelveen inlended and acluaI piaclices due lo a nunlei of
oiganizalionaI-poIilicaI, inslilulionaI oi ialionaI ieasons. These faclois cause lhal
acluaI key execuleis (HR/Iine nanagenenl, supeivisois oi liaineis) viII nol le
unifoin in lheii execulion of lhe HRM piaclices. Ioi exanpIe, an inpIenenled
peifoinance appiaisaI syslen lhal seeks lo piovide incenlives foi good peifoinance
nay in ils execulion Iose neaning vhiIe supeivisois do nol vanl lo diffeienliale
lelveen good-nodeiale and lad peifoineis. As a consequence, HRM piaclices
neasuienenl on piedoninanlIy oiganizalionaI-IeveI aclivilies onIy giasps lhe
inlended HRM piaclices and Ieaves lhe acluaI and peiceived HRM piaclices
unieveaIed. Iocusing al lhe acluaI/enacled HIWI inleivenlions, IuiceII and
Hulchinson (2OO7) aigue lhal lhe fiisl-Iine nanagenenl IeveI is lhe IeveI on vhich
lheie is vaiialion in lhe execulion of HRM piaclices due lo choices fiisl Iine nanageis
nake.

lssue #5: Who rates the HPWPs?
The fiflh neasuienenl issue iesoIves aiound lhe ialei/iespondenl vho gels
invoIved in lhe neasuienenl of HR piaclices. Whal is lhe nosl ieIialIe souice lo
piovide lhe infoinalion on HRM piaclices` On lhis nallei, oseIie el aIs (2OO5)



lrlerded
lPwPs

Aclua|/
Eracled
lPwPs


Erp|oyee
Exper|erces
0l lPwPs





ur|l-|eve|
0ulcores

Erp|oyee
All|lud|ra|
8erav|ora|
Reacl|ors
102
oveiviev of HRM sludies delecl lhal lhe nosl used designs anong ieseaicheis aie
sing|c-ra|cr dcsigns (in vhich one key iespondenl iales aII lhe HRM piaclices in pIace),
foIIoved ly nu||i-ra|cr dcsigns (nuIlipIe ialeis fion lhe sane sul-popuIalion - such
as diffeienl Iine nanageis - each iale aII HRM piaclices in pIace) and nu||i-ac|cr
designs (nuIlipIe aclois fion a diffeienl sul-popuIalion - such as a Iine nanagei,
enpIoyee iepiesenlalive and HR nanagei - each iale aII HRM piaclices in pIace). In
addilion, one couId aIso dislinguish a so-caIIed cxpcr|-ra|cr dcsigns, in vhich onIy lhe
iespondenls vho aie nosl infoined aloul ceilain HRM piaclices - such as a liaining
expeil, a quaIily nanagei, oi a pay and lenefils expeil- each iale onIy lhe HIWIs
lhal aie in lheii Iine of expeilise (see NeaI, Wesl and Ialleison (2OO5) foi an
exanpIe). Liioi in lhe neasuienenl due lo ialeis vho aie loo dislaI fion lhe
infoinalion needed lo cieale an accuiale picluie, foins a seiious piolIen foi lhe
ieIialiIily of lhe neasuienenl (Ceihail, Wiighl, McMahan & SneII, 2OOO, HuseIid &
eckei, 2OOO). The inlei ialei ieIialiIily of HIWIs is found lo le dangeiousIy Iov,
and lo conlioI foi unieIialiIily Ceihail el aI. (2OOO) ieconnend al Ieasl lhiee ialeis
pei unil of anaIysis lo aveiage lhe ialeis scoies pei independenl HIWI inlo a noie
ieIialIe vaiialIes.

lssue #6: What research lnstrument to use?
The Iasl choice lhe ieseaichei is confionled vilh lo nake conceins lhe lype of
ieseaich insliunenl lo use. In geneiaI, one has lhe choice lelveen (seni)-sliucluied
face-lo-face oi leIephone inleivievs and lhe suivey-insliunenl (queslionnaiie). An
indicaloi foi vhal choice lo nake is fiisl of aII lhe ieseaich piolIen ilseIf and
sulsequenlIy lhe ilens consliucled lo galhei lhe needed infoinalion. oseIie (2OO2),
lased on lhe voik of (Yin, 2OO2), noles lhal a noie quaIilalive ieseaich design
nalches vilh open inleivievs on 'ncu? and unq? queslions. A noie quanlilalive
appioach nalches vilh queslionnaiies oi highIy sliucluied (leIephone) inleivievs
vilh fixed iesponse foinals vilh iespecl lo 'unc?, una|?, uncrc?, ncu nanq?, ncu
nucn? queslions. The veII-knovn liade off lelveen lhe iichness and lhe anounl
dala galheied vilh iespecliveIy line-consuning inleivievs and lhe quick lick-a-lox
queslions in a queslionnaiie iIIusliales lhe choice ieseaicheis have lo nake. To
oveicone lhe possilIe dovnsides of each of lhe ieseaich insliunenls, one can nake
use of nelhodoIogicaI liianguIalion in vhich lolh quanlilalive and quaIilalive
nelhods aie incIuded, lo check vhelhei lhe ieseaichei diavs possilIe viong
concIusions fion eilhei lhe inleiviev oi a queslionnaiie on HRM piaclices in pIace.
103
h|gh Performance
work 8ystem
5.4 CHAPTER CONCLU5ION AND NEXT CHAPTER
In lhis chaplei lhe specifics of a High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens Iianevoik veie
piesenled. The gioving lody of Iileialuie and enpiiicaI ieseaich on HIWIs seen lo
indicale lhal oveiaII ceilain conlinalions of HR piaclices expIain vaiiance in
oiganizalionaI peifoinance (Conls el aI., 2OO6). NeveilheIess, lheie aie sliII gaps
lelveen lhe pioposed lheoielicaI assunplions and lhe acluaI neasuienenl of lhe
High Ieifoinance Woik Iiaclices in lhe fianevoik. The issues vilh iegaid lo lhe
adequale neasuienenl of HIWIs in piaclice can le calegoiized in HPlP-spccific
ncasurcncn| issucs and rcscarcn dcsign-spccific ncasurcncn| issucs. Lach of lhese issues
pose choices foi ieseaicheis vhen neasuiing lhe individuaI HIW piaclices lhal foin
lhe key luiIding lIocks foi neasuiing lhe uIlinale HIW syslen in ieIalion lo
peifoinance oulcones. InadequaleIy addiessing lhose choices can seiiousIy affecl
lhe HIWS neasuienenl ieIialiIilies. Taking lhe pilfaIIs lo HIWI neasuienenl inlo
consideialion, lhe deveIopnenl and vaIidalion of lhe HIWIs neasuies used in lhis
disseilalion is piesenled in lhe nexl chaplei. As shovn in Iiguie 5-5, lhis chaplei
eIaloialed on lhe vaIue and specifics of lhe High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens
fianevoik foi lhe fuilhei invesligalion of voik and oiganizalionaI deleininanls of
veII-leing and peifoinance.

F|gure 5-5: Th|s 6hapter's 6ontr|but|on to the overa|| Research Framework

w|0
Factors





w|0
Factors


w|0
Factors

?

0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance


Ava||ab|||ty
0f Energy


Job &
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty


w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy


?
?
104
105
Chaptez 6
The meaaurement and vaIidation of
High Performance Work Practicea
8

6.1 INTRODUCTION AND GOAL OF THI5 CHAPTER
Having idenlified voik and oiganizalionaI piaclices in a lheoielicaI high
peifoinance voik syslens fianevoik and lhe nelhodoIogicaI issues conceining ils
neasuienenl, lhis chaplei ains al lhe acluaI neasuienenl and vaIidalion of High
Ieifoinance Woik Iiaclices (HIWIs). y piesenling lvo sludies, S|udq 1 ains al
consliucling ieIialIe and neaningfuI HIWIs on seveiaI hunan iesouice
nanagenenl donains. S|udq 2, viII piesenl lhe oulcones of a sludy Iinking lhe
consliucled HIWIs lo enpIoyee expeiiences of lhe HIWIs in oidei lo vaIidale lhe
pioposed on lhe expeiienced voik enviionnenl.


6.2 5TUDY 1: THE MEA5UREMENT OF HIGH PERFORMANCE WORK PRACTICE5
IoIIoving lhe nelhodoIogicaI issues in chaplei 5, lhis seclion piesenls lhe HIWI
neasuienenl specifics in lhis disseilalion. Iiisl, lhe specific neasuienenl choices aie
fuilhei eIaloialed on. Second, ve piesenl lhe quaIily indices of lhe neasuied
HIWIs. IinaIIy, ve discuss lhe finaIIy consliucled HIWI neasuies.

8
A pail of lhis chaplei vas lased on an eaiIiei veision of a papei ly Doienlosch, L.W., Van
VeIdhoven, M. & Iaauve, }. (2OO7). LnpIoyee Lxpeiiences of SingIe and undIed High Ieifoinance
Woik Iiaclices. Iapei piesenled al lhe Dulch HRM Nelvoik Confeience, Novenlei 2OO7, TiIluig
Univeisily, The NelheiIands.
106
6.2.1 ChnIccs In thc Dcvc!npmcnt nf HPWP Mcasurcs In thIs DIsscrtatInn

Whlch HPWPs uere measured?
TalIe 6-1 shovs lhe HIWI donains of inleivenlion lhal veie incIuded in lhis sludy.
In lolaI, ve iniliaIIy focused on 8 sepaiale HIWI donains. To a gieal exlenl, lhe lop-
1O nosl incIuded HIWIs in HRM ieseaich (lased on lhe oveiviev of oseIie el aI.,
2OO5, see pievious chaplei) veie lhe laigels of invesligalion. The HIWIs lhal ve
addilionaIIy focused on veie voik-Iife laIance aiiangenenls and HR
pIanning/slaffing vhich in lhe nela-anaIysis of Conls el aI. (2OO6) veie found lo le
posiliveIy ieIaled lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance. AIlhough lhe sane nela-anaIysis
shoved lhal lhe HIWI donain of peifoinance nanagenenl/appiaisaI vas nol
ieIaled lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance, il vas incIuded in lhis disseilalion sludy foi
lvo ieasons. IiislIy, lecause peifoinance nanagenenl/appiaisaIs aie consideied lo
le a cenliaI voik piaclice in lhe HIWS fianevoik (Legge, 2OO5, Wood, 1999a,
AppeIlaun, 2OO2). SecondIy, lecause il is ianked of one of lhe nosl incIuded voik
piaclices in HRM ieseaich (oseIie el aI., 2OO5). To adequaleIy posilion lhis ieseaich
in Iine vilh pievious HIWS ieseaich, ve choose lo incIude lhe peifoinance
nanagenenl/appiaisaI donain.

Tab|e -1: hPwPs |nc|uded |n th|s 0|ssertat|on

Host |nc|uded hPwPs
|n research
(8ased or 8ose||e el a|., 2005)
hPwPs re|ated organ|zat|ona|
performance?
(8ased or Coros el a|., 200)
hPwPs
|nc|uded |n th|s study

Tra|r|rg & 0eve|oprerl Yes Yes
Recru|lrerl ard se|ecl|or Yes Yes
Corl|rgerl pay ard reWards Yes Yes
Perlorrarce raragererl/ appra|sa| ho Yes
'0ood (Aoove-Var|el) wages Yes Yes
lrlerra| prorol|or opporlur|l|es Yes Yes
lR (Career/3uccess|or) P|arr|rg/3lall|rg Yes Yes
wor|-L|le 8a|arce Arrargererls Yes Yes

107
What nature and lndlcators of HPWPs uere measured?
Ioi deveIoping lhe ilens foi each of lhe HIWIs in oui sludy, ve focused on
neasuienenl al lhe Iovesl IeveIs of alsliaclion in oidei lo gel iichei infoinalion on
vhal is exaclIy done vilh iegaid lo each of lhe HIWI donains. Wheieas nosl
HIWI sludies incIuded singIe ilens on diffeienl HIWIs, ve foIIov foi inslance SeIs
el aI. (2OO6a, 2OO6l) and Cuesl el aI., (2OO3) ly incIuding nuIlipIe ilens pei HIWIs
piaclice. Connecled lo lhe IeveI of alsliaclion aie lhe indicalois ve used (see TalIe 6-
2). Ioi each HIWI oljeclive lechniques oi insliunenls can le used. Ioi inslance,
vilh iegaid lo caieei deveIopnenl, an oiganizalion can nake use of diffeienl
lechniques Iike inslaIIing a noliIily cenlie, voiking vilh caieei deveIopnenl pIans
oi having ie-educalion piogians in pIace. y asking aloul lhe piesence of seveiaI
diffeienl caieei deveIopnenl lechniques/insliunenls, ve conlioIIed foi lhe iisk lhal
asking vhelhei oi nol lhis piaclice vas in pIace vouId le liased ly lhe iespondenls
undeislanding of lhe lein caieei deveIopnenl. Iuilhei, lo gel a iichei
undeislanding of lhe HIWI in pIace foi each piaclice ve added ilens lhal lap lhe
IeveI of sophislicalion of each piaclice, vhich couId le ained al lhe inveslnenl,
enpIoyee invoIvenenl, degiee of effoil oi fiequency of HIWIs-ieIaled aspecls. Lasl
foi each HIWI, iespondenls couId iale lhe effecliveness of each HIWI - i.e. lo vhal
exlenl does il do vhal il is neanl lo do.


Tab|e -2: hPwP |nd|cators |nc|uded |n th|s 0|ssertat|on
hPwP |nd|cators 0ef|n|t|on
hPwP Presence
Nuroer ol d|llererl lecrr|ques/|rslrurerls lral are used/preserl re|aled lo lre
lPwP dora|r

hPwP 8oph|st|cat|on

0egree ol corprerers|veress |r lre raragererl ol lre lPwP dora|r

hPwP Effect|veness

Eva|ualed raragererl ellecl|veress ol lre lPwP dora|r


On uhat |ete| uere HPWPs measured?
ased on lhe aigunenls ly Wiighl and Nishii (2OO4), Lepak and SneII (1999) and
IuiceII el aI. (2OO7) on lhe IikeIihood of vilhin-oiganizalionaI and lelveen voik-unil
108
vaiialiIily in lhe enaclnenl of acluaI HIWIs, ve coIIecled HIWIs dala al a (Iovei)
voik unil IeveI of anaIysis. Moie specificaIIy, il invoIves lhe fiisl-Iine nanagenenl
(ILM) IeveI, vhich neans lhal HIWIs aie neasuied al lhe hieiaichicaI IeveI al
vhich lhey aie nosl connonIy execuled oi vheie decisions on lhe appIicalion of
ceilain HIWIs aiiangenenls, lechniques aie nade. As nol eveiy oiganizalion is lhe
sane in hieiaichicaI sliucluie, il vas lo nake suie lhal ve laigeled al lhe
appiopiiale ILM-IeveI

Who rated the HPWPs?
ased on Ceihail el aI.s (2OOO) indicalion of a najoiily of HIWS sludies lhal aie
IikeIy lo conlain neasuienenl eiioi due lo lhe incIusion of onIy one ialei/infoinanl,
oi incIuding ialeis lhal do nol have adequale infoinalion on hov HIWIs aie
enacled, ve incIuded fiisl-Iine nanageis and inleinaI HR advisois vhich veie
funclionaIIy ieIaled lo lhe fiisl-Iine nanagei. In diffeienl oiganizalions lhis
funclionaI ieIalionship couId lake diffeienl foins. Ioi inslance, in Iaigei
oiganizalions al one Iocalion, inleinaI HR advisois aie silualed in lhe sane Iocalion.
In Iaigei oiganizalions vilh depailnenls/unils al diffeienl Iocalions, inleinaI HR
advisois couId aIso le silualed in a cenliaI HR depailnenl. y incIuding lvo ialeis
foi lhe sane voik unil ve conlioI foi suljeclivily lias vhen incIuding onIy one
ialei. Ceihail el aI. (2OO3) advise lo incIude as fev as lhiee ialeis vhen galheiing
HIWI dala al lhe oiganizalionaI-IeveI. ul since ve aIieady piined lhe ieseaich al a
noie specific voik-unil IeveI of anaIysis, lvo lesl-infoined ialeis vas lhe naxinaI
appioach possilIe al lhis IeveI.

What research lnstrument uas used?
Ioi lhe dala coIIeclion ve used sliucluied face-lo-face inleivievs vilh noslIy cIosed
queslions, in vhich iespondenls veie asked lo ansvei using a piedefined iesponse
foinals. On aveiage, each sliucluied inleiviev look aloul 9O ninules lo finish.
AIlhough ve piIoled lhe queslions lo iuIe oul najoi nisundeislandings, diveise
lackgiounds of lhe fiisl-Iine nanageis nade nisundeislanding of jaigon oi leins
used possilIe. In aII cases, pioviding an exanpIe oi fuilhei cIaiificalion nade il
possilIe lo conlinue and finish lhe inleiviev. This avoided lhe incidence of nissing
dala (see NeaI, Wesl & Ialleison (2OO5) foi an aInosl siniIai ieasoning).

109
6.2.2 HPWP Data Cn!!cctInn, Prnccdurc and 5amp!c 5tructurc
The dala on HIWIs veie coIIecled lelveen May 2OO6 and Ieliuaiy 2OO7 fion a
heleiogeneous sel of a lolaI of 12 snaII, niddIe and Iaige-sized Dulch oiganizalions
in a diveisily of seclois (see TalIe 6-3 foi an oveiviev). Thiough conlacl peisons in
each of lhe 12 oiganizalions, fiisl Iine nanageis and inleinaI HR advisois veie asked
lo pailicipale in sliucluied inleivievs. This iesuIled in a voiking sanpIe of 53 voik
unils foi vhich a lolaI of 51 ILMs and 25 HR advisois piovided 1OO nalched
ialings foi aII of lhe pailicipaling voik unils. Wilh iegaid lo lvo voik unils, Iine
nanageis had an inleiin-iesponsiliIily foi one olhei voik unil. This nakes lhal 51
Iine ialeis accounl foi 53 HIWI ialings al lhe voik unil IeveI. Iuilheinoie, in sone
oiganizalions inleinaI HRM advisois veie funclionaIIy ieIaled lo nuIlipIe ILMs.
They veie asked lo iale HIWIs foi each of lhe sepaiale voik unils undei lheii
iesponsiliIily, vhich nakes lhal 25 HR ialeis piovide HIWI dala foi 53 voik unils.
Iuilheinoie, TalIe 6-3 aIso shovs lhe diffeiences in ILMs jol lypes. In nosl cases, a
unil-nanagei vas piesenl. Wilhin a snaII poIicy ieseaich inslilule, lhe diiecloi vas
inleivieved vilh iegaid lo lvo sepaiale voik unils. Wilhin 7 eIenenlaiy schooIs al
diffeienl Iocalions, lhe schooI diieclois veie inleivieved. Wilhin a Iaige hospilaI, il
lecane cIeai lhal lhe execulion of ceilain HIWIs poIicies vas done ly leanIeadeis
vhich aIso conliiluled diieclIy lo lhe piinaiy voik piocess. In sone voik unils
lheie vas a cIeai unil nanagei iesponsilIe foi lhe execulion of HIWIs aspecls. Of
lhe 51 ILMs, 8O veie naIe vilh aveiage jol lenuie of 4 yeais. Of lhe 25 HR
advisois 56 vas naIe, vilh aveiage jol lenuie of 5 yeais. Line nanageis iepoiled
an aveiage fiequency of 3-4 lines pei nonlh lhal lheie vas foinaI conlacl lelveen
Iine and HR (e.g., neelings).

6.2.3 CnnstructInn nf HPWP Mcasurcs
Ioi lhe consliuclion of lhe HIWIs ilens ve ieIied pailIy on lhe ilens used in
pievious HRM ieseaich. Hovevei, as said lefoie, ve veie confionled ly lhe Iack of
unifoinily in lhe neasuienenl of HRM piaclices. In lheii oveiviev, oseIie el aI.
(2OO5) concIuded lhal nosl of lhe sludies used ilens lhal neasuie use/piesence and
coveiage of a ceilain HRM piaclice oi lechnique. Ioi lhe neasuienenl of lhe HIWIs
donains ve consliucled nev ilens lhal indicale lhe use/piesence, inlensily and
effecliveness of inleivenlions vilhin lhe chosen HIWI donains (shovn in TalIe 6-
1).

110
Tab|e -3: 8amp|e structure, number of raters, matched ||ne-hR rat|ng
8ector 0rgan|zat|on # work
un|ts
# hR
raters
# FLH
raters
# Hatched
rat|ngs
FLH respondent
type
3erv|ces 3ecur|ly 3erv|ces 3 1 3 3 ur|l Varager
lT Corsu|larcy 1 1 1 1 ur|l Varager
Po||cy Researcr 2 2 1 2 0|reclor
F|rarc|a| / 8ar| ur|l Varager
lnousrr, Tecrr|ca| 3upporl 2 1 2 2 ur|l Varager
Repa|r 3erv|ces Z 1 Z Z ur|l Varager
Corslrucl|or 1 1 1 1 ur|l Varager
0ua||ly Corlro| 1 1 1 1 ur|l Varager
Sovernmenr Cuslors / Corlro| 1 1 1 1 ur|l Varager
Loca| 0overrrerl 2 1 1 2 ur|l Varager
Veo|ca|/0are losp|la| 11 11 11 ur|l Varager
Tear |eader
Eoucar|on E|emenrar, $cnoo| 7 J 7 7 0|reclor

Tora| 5J 25 5' 5J {'00/j


6.2.4 DcsIgnIng HPWPs sca!cs
The inleivievs iesuIled in a conpiehensive dalasel of ILM and HR advisoi ialings
on a lolaI of 94 ilens coveiing aII HIWI donains dislinguished in TalIe 6-1. To
piocess lhe dala inlo neaningfuI and ieIialIe HIWI scaIes, lhe foIIoving pioceduie
vas foIIoved.

Missing da|a Due lo lhe choice lo coIIecl lhe dala via face-lo-face inleivievs lhe
anounl of iandon nissing dala vas sulslanliaIIy ieduced. AIlhough ve piIoled lhe
degiee lo vhich lhe ilens veie ansveialIe and undeislandalIe, sone ilens
piocessed syslenalic nissing dala. These ilens veie found lo le uncIeai, oi veie
open lo nuIlipIe inleipielalions. The advanlage of face-lo-face inleivievs vas lhal
lhe ieseaichei couId inleipiel vhelhei lhe queslion asked vas coiieclIy undeislood.
Ilens/queslions lhal veie found lo pioduce sulslanliaI ansveiing piolIens veie
ienoved fion lhe lolaI dalasel.

111
Rcccding i|cns |c 5-pcin| sca|c Lach of lhe ilens vas iecoded lo a 5-poinl
neasuienenl scaIe. As lhe ilens foi HIWI piesence neasuied vhelhei a voik unil
nade use of diffeienl HIWI lechniques, ve fiisl checked lhe disliilulion of HIWI
piesence foi aII voik unils. ased on lhis disliilulion (e.g., does a voik unil use 1, 2
oi 3 elc. lechniques in oidei lo pionole caieei deveIopnenl) lhe scoies foi each voik
unil veie calegoiized on a 5 poinl scaIe - a foiced noinaI disliilulion.

|n|cri|cn-Rc|iaoi|i|q Wilh aII ilens iecoded lo lhe sane neasuienenl scaIe,
ieIialiIily anaIyses veie piepaied lo exanine vhelhei lhe dislinguished HIWI
aspecls foi each piaclicaI donain vouId le evaIualed lo coexisl in inleinaIIy
consislenl palleins. In olhei voids, ve ained lo exanine vhelhei voik unils
consislenlIy adopl ceilain aspecls of lhe HIWI donain sinuIlaneousIy. Inpoilanl lo
nole is lhal lhis diffeis fion individuaI-IeveI psychoIogicaI consliucl neasuienenl
piincipIes. Heie, ilens aie used lo neasuie an undeiIying lheoielicaI psychoIogicaI
consliucl, vheieas lhe voik unil-IeveI HIWI neasuies aie ained al giasping
conlinalions of co-exisling HIWI aclivilies oi inleivenlions of piaclicaI
significance. This is aIso slaled ly DeIeiy (1998), vho aigues:

'Il is inpoilanl lo nole lhal nany HRM piaclice neasuies aie quile diffeienl lhan scaIe ilens
lypicaIIy used in indusliiaI/oiganizalionaI psychoIogy lo neasuie such alliludes as jol
salisfaclion oi oiganizalionaI connilnenl. Ilens in lhose lypes of scaIes aie viillen lo
neasuie lhe undeiIying consliucl. HRM piaclices, on lhe olhei hand, aie aclivilies an
oiganizalion engages in lo heIp il achieve goaIs. (p. 3OO)..

As discussed, diffeienl HIWI indicalois (piesence, sophislicalion and effecliveness)
veie incIuded, vhich in conlinalion aie expecled lo covei diffeienl aspecls of lhe
HIWI donain. In oidei lo exanine nuIlipIe HIWI aclivilies (pei HIWI donain)
lhal logelhei piovide a iich undeislanding of lhe HIWI in piaclice, il vas decided
lhal ilens on each of lhe lhiee indicalois shouId le incIuded in lhe design of ieIialIe
and nuIli-faceled HIWI scaIes (indicaloi-ciileiion). As such, lhe co-exislence of
aclivilies on diffeienl HIWI indicalois focus on lhe neasuienenl of lhe in|cnsi|q (a
IaleI aIso used ly SeIs el aI., 2OO6a, 2OO6l) of piaclicaIIy neaningfuI HIWIs al lhe
voik unil IeveI. This is shovn in Iiguie 6-1.

112

F|gure -1: hPwP |nd|cators and the overa|| |abe| of hPwP |ntens|ty

|n|crra|cr-Rc|iaoi|i|q Anolhei inpoilanl aspecl vilh iegaid lo lhe ieIialIe and
vaIid neasuienenl is lhe concein foi inleiialei ieIialiIily, vhich has pieviousIy leen
found lo le Iov lelveen ILMs and HR advisois (Ceihail el aI., 2OOO). A vay of
deaIing vilh lhe Iov inleiialei ieIialiIilies is lo aveiage lhe scoies of lhe diffeienl
ialeis undei lhe assunplion lhal lhis nelhod of conlining dala viII piovide lhe lesl
oveiaII eslinale of HR syslen conponenl leing assessed. Ailhui and oyIes (2OO7:
88) slaled: 'This appioach, hovevei, assunes lhal iandon neasuienenl eiioi, and
nol syslenalic posilion-lased diffeiences, is lhe souice of lhe vaiialiIily in key
infoinanl iepoils. Al face vaIue, il is haid lo deleinine hov iandon oi syslenalic
lhe diffeiences lelveen ialeis in lheii ialing of HIWI ilens aie. Theiefoie, ve look
an aIleinalive appioach. To avoid lhe incIusion of ilens vhich ILMs and HR
advisois syslenalicaIIy and consislenlIy iale diffeienlIy (vhich couId cause
neasuienenl eiioi due lo ialeis), il vas decided lo incIude lolh lhe ILM and HR
advisoi ilen scoies (ialei-ciileiion). To lhe exlenl lhal incIuding lhe ILMs and HR
advisois paiaIIeI ialings of ilens did nol negaliveIy inpacl lhe inlei-ilen
ieIialiIilies, lhe concIusion vouId le lhal lolh HIWI ialeis in lhe sane voik unil
did nol syslenalicaIIy diffei in lheii evaIualion of HIWIs in pIace. In lhis case, lvo
scoies fion diffeienl ialeis on lhe sane ilens veie incIuded in lhe HIWI scaIe.
UnfoilunaleIy, ve couId nol incIude paiaIIeI ialings foi lhe ilens of HIWI prcscncc,
as lhey veie onIy incIuded in lhe inleivievs vilh HR advisois. AIso, ve did nol
lPwP
Presence
lPwP
Ellecr|veness
hPwP
lntensity
lPwP
$opn|sr|car|on
113
fuilhei exanine lhose ilens on vhich ILMs and HR advisois scoied syslenalicaIIy
diffeienl.

HPlP |n|cnsi|q Sca|c Ccns|ruc|icn Taking inlo accounl lhe indicaloi- and ialei-
ciileiia desciiled alove, ve ian ieIialiIily anaIyses on lhe iniliaI calegoiisalion of
ilens foi each of lhe 7 dislinguished HIWIs. Ioi foui HIWIs (carccr dctc|cpncn|,
pcrfcrnancc appraisa|, uagcs c ocncfi|s and ucr|-|ifc oa|ancc) a ieIialIe scaIe couId le
consliucled aflei ienoving onIy a fev ilens. Ioi func|icna| |raining, lhe nunlei of
liaining days vas incIuded as an indicaloi of piesence inslead of sophislicalion. This
vas lased on lhe inleiviev findings lhal foi sone funclionaI gioups, lhe vaiialion in
liaining lechniques lo use vas Iiniled, aIlhough lhey had inleinaI poIicies on lhe
anounl of enpIoyee liaining days pei yeai. As iespondenls ansveied on lhe lasis of
lhe nunlei of liaining days foinaIIy agieed upon, ve incIuded il as indicaloi of lhe
piesence of a Iess/highIy exlensive funclionaI liaining piogian. Ioi lhe iniliaIIy
sepaiale HIWIs HR s|affing/p|anning and rccrui|ncn|/sc|cc|icn, il vas nol possilIe lo
consliucl lvo sepaiale ieIialIe HIWI inlensily scaIes vhen laking inlo accounl lhe
foinuIaled indicaloi- and ialei-ciileiia. Hovevei, aflei exanining lhe ieIalionships
lelveen lhe diffeienl HIWI ilens, anolhei pallein of ieIalionships appeaied.
LaleIIed as in|crna| s|affing cfficicncq, a scaIe vas consliucled vhich conlains ilens
lhal lapped lhe degiee lo vhich a voik unil cIoseIy nonilois fuluie slaffing needs,
ieIies on voiking vilh peinanenl inslead of lenpoiaiy slaff, ieciuils nev enpIoyees
fion vilhin lhe oiganizalion and lheiefoie eslalIishes a lighlei and noie efficienl
slaffing slialegy (see Appendix A foi aII lhe ilens incIuded).

HPlP Sca|c Rc|iaoi|i|q |ndiccs A lolaI of 55 ilens (lolh ILM and HRA ialings)
couId le used lo consliue 6 HIWI inlensily scaIes. As shovn in TalIe 4-7, lhe scaIe
ieIialiIily-anaIyses shov ieasonalIe lo good ieIialiIilies ianging fion .59 lo .8O.
AIlhough nuch of lhe ieseaich on HIWIs does nol indicale ieIialiIilies, oi onIy
iepoils ieIialiIilies vilh iegaid lo lhe co-exislence of nuIlipIe HIWIs (syslen
neasuie-ieIialiIilies), oui singIe HIWI inlensily ieIialiIilies equaI lhe ieIialiIilies foi
sepaiale HIWIs found in a sludy ly Sun, Aiyee and Lav (2OO7), vhich feII lelveen
.5O and .86. IoIIoving lheii juslificalion, Iov ieIialiIilies veie acceplalIe on lhe
giound lhal ieIialiIilies of lelveen .5O and .6O aie consideied adequale in lhe eaiIy
slages of scaIe deveIopnenl (NunnaIIy, 1978).

114
Tab|e -4: 0escr|pt|ve 8tat|st|cs for hPwP |ntens|ty 8ca|es, |nterna| Re||ab|||t|es
hPwP 8ca|es 0escr|pt|ves


# |tems Range Hean 80 d N
|nterna| 8taff|ng Eff|c|ency |ntens|ty 10 1-5 3.10 .53 .59 53
Funct|ona| Tra|n|ng |ntens|ty Z 1-5 2.8Z .2 .5 53
Performance Appra|sa| |ntens|ty 10 1-5 2.Z1 .Z0 .Z 53
Crowth & 0eve|opment |ntens|ty 13 1-5 3.02 .8 .ZZ 53
work-L|fe a|ance |ntens|ty 5 1-5 3.52 .Z9 .Z0 53
wages & enef|ts |ntens|ty 10 1-5 2.Z8 .2 .Z3 53


6.2.5 Cnnc!usInns 5tudy 1
Sludy 1 ained al idenlifying and neasuiing voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal fil
lhe inleivenlion-lased High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens Iileialuie. Theiefoie, ve
desciiled lhe assunplions undeiIying a HIWS and vhich neasuienenl issues aie
ieIevanl lo an adequale neasuienenl of high peifoinance voik piaclices. Iion
lheie, ve piesenled oui neasuienenl appioach lhal luiIds on insighls deveIoped
ovei lhe yeais vilh iegaid lo vhich HIWI specifics lo neasuie and hov lhe
enaclnenl of HIWIs in oiganizalionaI piaclice affecl lhe neasuienenl design
choices. Taking lhese neasuienenl issues inlo consideialion, HIWI neasuienenl
vilhin 53 voik unils iesuIled in 6 ieIialIe HIWIs neasuies, vhich viII le fuilhei
used lo see vhelhei and hov voik-unil IeveI HIWI inleivenlions affecl enpIoyee
vilaIily and voik unil peifoinance. Iiguie 6-2, shov lhe updaled ieseaich
fianevoik. In Sludy 2, lhe HIWIs aie fuilhei vaIidaled.
115
h|gh Performance
work 8ystem


* |nterna| 8taff|ng
Eff|c|ency
* Funct|ona| Tra|n|ng
* 6areer 0eve|opment
* Performance
Appra|sa|
* Attract|ve wages
* work L|fe a|ance

F|gure -2: Th|s study's contr|but|on to the overa|| research framework



6.3 5TUDY 2: THE VALIDATION OF HIGH PERFORMANCE WORK PRACTICE5
In Sludy 2, lhe queslion is vhelhei HIWIs do vhal lhey oughl lo do. Heie, ve focus
on lhe enpIoyee expeiience of each of lhe dislinguished HIWIs. The acluaI
enpIoyee expeiience of lhe HIWI in pIace is consideied a ciuciaI inleinedialing
phase in lhe piocess of expIaining lhe inpacl of HIWI inleivenlions on alliludinaI
and lehaviouiaI enpIoyee ieaclions (Cuesl, 1999, Wiighl & Nishii, 2OO4, Chang,
2OO5, IuiceII & Kinnie, 2OO7). In oidei lo exanine lhe conliilulion of HIWIs lo
enpIoyee vilaIily and peifoinance oulcones, a Iasl huidIe lo lake is lo exanine hov
lhe adoplion of HIWIs inpacls lhe enpIoyees expeiienced voik enviionnenl.

LnpIoyee expeiiences of voik, lhe voik enviionnenl and lhe sulsequenl
alliludinaI/lehaviouiaI ieaclions, have leen suljecl lo lhe najoiily of individuaI-
IeveI sludies in oiganizalionaI lehavioui (}ohns, 2OO6) and occupalionaI heaIlh (Van
Ypeien & Snijdeis, 2OOO). ased on lhe individuaI-IeveI ialionaIe lhal individuaIs
nake diffeienl assessnenls of lhe sane voik enviionnenl, lhis vaiiance in voik
?

0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance


Ava||ab|||ty
0f Energy


Job &
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty


w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy


?
?
116
expeiiences has geneialed a gieal deaI of vaIualIe insighl in lhe eilhei leneficiaI oi
deliinenlaI individuaI enpIoyee oulcones of voik. AIlhough individuaI voik
expeiiences can diffei, an inpoilanl queslion is vhelhei lhey diffei noie lelveen
nenleis of diffeienl oiganizalionaI unils lhan lelveen nenleis of lhe sane
oiganizalionaI unil. If so, a ceilain degiee of coIIeclivily in enpIoyee voik
expeiiences couId poinl lovaids lhe exislence of oljeclive voik conlexluaI faclois
of vhich lhe expeiiences aie shaied anong enpIoyee nenleis nesled in lhe sane
oiganizalionaI unil. MelhodoIogicaIIy, lhis is of gieal inpoilance, vhiIe neasuiing
voik enviionnenl aspecls al lhe individuaI-IeveI vhen il acluaIIy is found lo le a
shaied consliucl al a highei IeveI of anaIysis can (1) seiiousIy iesliicl lhe iange of
individuaI-IeveI vaiiance (}ohns, 2OO6), and (2) causes inleipielalion piolIens
lecause lhe IeveI of neasuienenl does nol equaI lhe IeveI al vhich lhe acluaI
vaiiance in lhe vaiialIe exisls.

Ioi HR ieseaich and piaclice lhis issue is pailicuIaiIy ieIevanl, lecause il
deaIs vilh lhe queslion on vhich IeveI inleivenlions aie nosl IikeIy lo have an effecl.
Anolhei ieIaled issue is vhelhei HR inleivenlions (Iike HIWIs) cause individuaIs lo
peifoin lellei oi cause leans/voik unils/oiganizalions lo peifoin lellei. Iion a
nanageiiaI poinl of viev, lhe iniliaI assunplion is lhal HR inleivenlions lo a gieal
exlenl viII inpacl eveiy enpIoyees degiee of discielionaiy effoil expendiluie in a
siniIai fashion. ConsequenlIy, lhis vouId aIso assune lhal eveiy enpIoyee
expeiiences oljeclive HR inleivenlions in a siniIai vay. To vhal exlenl HIWIs
ieIale lo lhese coIIeclive voik expeiiences is lhe nain focus of lhis chapleis second
sludy.

6.3.1 Enactcd and ExpcrIcnccd HPWPs
RecenlIy, lhe lheoielicaI piocess lelveen HRM piaclices (specificaIIy HIWIs) and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance has ieceived fuilhei allenlion iefeiied lo as lhe HRM-
peifoinance piocess (Wiighl & Nishii, 2OO4, IuiceII & Hulchinson, 2OO7). As
depicled in Iiguie 6-3, a causaI chain of evenls disciininales lelveen inlended HR
piaclices, enacled HR piaclices, expeiienced HR piaclices, enpIoyee ieaclions and
oiganizalionaI (unil) peifoinance oulcones. As such, il seives as a concepluaI
ioadnap lo undeisland hov lhe oiganizalions viillen-dovn (inlended) HRM
poIicies and piaclices affecl peifoinance oulcones lhiough hunan iesouices.

117

F|gure -3: The hRH - Performance process mode| (e.g., wr|ght & N|sh||, 2004; Purce|| & K|nn|e, 2007}

Iuilheinoie, lhe piocess-nodeI addiesses lhe ieseaich design issues lhal ieseaicheis
face vhen exanining lhe HRM-peifoinance Iinkage. The HRM piocess nodeI
nakes expIicil lhal lhe oiganizalionaI-IeveI, singIe (senioi nanagenenl) ialei
ieseaich designs onIy neasuiing inlended HRM piaclices and oiganizalionaI
peifoinance can nol piovide adequale insighl in ncu HRM inpacls peifoinance
(IuiceII, 1999). Theiefoie, lheoiy and ieseaich on each of lhe Iinks lelveen lhe causaI
slages in lhe nodeI couId Iead lo a lellei undeislanding of lhis piocess and expIain
confIicling ieseaich iesuIls. Iievious ieseaich on lhe inlended-enacled piaclices
Iinkage found lhal inlended oiganizalionaI poIicy-lased HR piaclices aie oflen
luffeied ly fiisl-Iine nanagenenl vhen execuled (Tiuss, 2OO1, IuiceII &
Hulchinson, 2OO7). In olhei voids, fiisl Iine nanageis vaiy in lhe vay lhey
inpIenenl HRM piaclices al a unil-IeveI Iovei dovn lhe hieiaichy. ConsequenlIy,
lhis causes vaiiance in lhe vay enpIoyees expeiience and ieacl lo enacled HRM
piaclices vilhin oiganizalions and lelveen unils, vhich in luin ieIales lo lelveen-
unil vaiiance in peifoinance oulcones (Wiighl & Haggeily, 2OO5, Lepak & SneII,
1999, Kinnie, Hulchinson, IuiceII, Raylon & Svail, 2OO5). Refeiiing lo lhis piocess
nodeI of HRM and peifoinance, ve viII focus specificaIIy on lhe Iink lelveen
enacled HIWIs and lhe enpIoyee expeiience of HIWIs piaclices al lhe voik unil
IeveI. This is aigued lo le a ciuciaI inleinedialing phase in expIaining hov HRM
aclivilies affecl peifoinance lhiough enpIoyee alliludes and lehaviouis.

6.3.2 HPWPs exerlences: thc samc as HPWPs ercetlons?
Theie is sone confusion in lhe Iileialuie desciiling lhis nodeI vilh iespecl lo lhe
IaleIIing of lhe phase lelveen enacled HRM piaclices and enpIoyee ieaclions. olh
Wiighl el aI. (2OO4) en IuiceII el aI. (2OO7) oiiginaIIy iefei lo lhis phase as
peiceived HRM piaclices inslead of expeiienced HRM piaclices. AIlhough, lhey
aIso desciile enpIoyee expeiiences, lhe diffeience lelveen peiceplions and



lrlerded
lPwPs

Aclua|/
Eracled
lPwPs


Erp|oyee
Exper|erces
0l lPwPs





ur|l-|eve|
0ulcores


Emp|oyee
V|ta||ty?

118
expeiiences of voik piaclices is sullIe, lul inpoilanl. LnpIoyee peiceplions of voik
piaclices vouId denole vhelhei enpIoyees see lhe sane HRM aclivilies as fiisl Iine
nanageis/HR advisois. Ioi inslance, in ieseaich, Wiighl, Caidnei and Moynihan
(2OO3) and Zachaialos, aiIing and Iveison (2OO5) incIuded peiceived HIWIs as a
iepIacenenl of enacled HIWIs in lesling lhe enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI
peifoinance effecls of HIWIs. Wiighl el aI. (2OO3) aigue lhal enpIoyee ialings
vouId cone lhe cIosesl lo lhe HIWIs lhal acluaIIy aie piesenl. Theiefoie, using
enpIoyees as a souice of HIWI dala vouId le a noie ieIialIe appioach lhan asking
fiisl Iine nanageis oi HR advisois vhal HIWI inleivenlions lake pIace. Hovevei,
lhis can le conlesled on lvo giounds. Iiisl, lheie is no ieason lo assune enpIoyees
vouId le alIe lo peiceive HIWIs noie adequaleIy lhan nanageis. Ioi inslance, lo
vhal exlenl can lhey peiceive ieciuilnenl and seIeclion piaclices oi individuaI vage
negolialion piaclices, vhich lake pIace infiequenlIy, lehind nanagenenl doois oi
oulside of lhe oiganizalionaI unil (in lhe case of ieciuilnenl)` In olhei voids, aie
enpIoyees aIvays lhe lesl infoined ialeis` Second, enpIoyees aie oflen nol avaie
of lhe leininoIogy used vilh iegaid lo HRM and HIWIs. So il vouId onIy le
possilIe lo ollain HIWIs dala ly using veiy sinpIislic, cIeai-cul ilens oflen on a
suivey-lased lasis. ul lhis does nol necessaiiIy enhance lhe iichness of lhe
infoinalion on vhal lakes pIace. Inslead of ieIying on lhe enpIoyee pcrccp|icns of
HIWIs, ve focus on enpIoyee cxpcricnccs of HIWIs.

|xpcricnccd HIWIs iefei lo enpIoyee iepoils of aspecls of lheii (suljeclive)
jol, voik and oiganizalionaI conlexl vhich can le aigued lo le affecled vhen
adopling HIWIs and vhich aie aigualIy ieIaled lo lhe HIWIs-peifoinance delale.
This excIudes, foi inslance, enpIoyee expeiiences of lhe physicaI/lechnoIogicaI
piopeilies of lhe voikpIace (e.g., Iov office lenpeialuies oi unsafe nachineiy/voik
equipnenl). AIlhough inpoilanl lo lhe enpIoyees daiIy voik silualion, lhese
eIenenls aie nol IikeIy lo le affecled ly HIWIs and aie nol consideied ieIevanl lo
lhe HIWI-peifoinance Iinkage. Heie, lhe enpIoyee expeiience of HIWIs piaclices
does nol iefei lo vhal peopIe see in leins of HIWIs, lul vhal lhey expeiience in
lheii voik as a iesuIl of lhe enacled HIWIs. In I/O psychoIogy, enpIoyee
expeiiences of jol aspecls and oiganizalionaI faclois aie connonIy used as
piediclois of voik-ieIaled alliludes and lehaviouis foi lhe ieason lhal is lhe
suljeclive appiaisaI oi expeiience ialhei lhan lhe oljeclive voik enviionnenl lhal
individuaI enpIoyees ieacl lo oi aie affecled ly (e.g. Lazaius, 1993). In effecl, lheie
119
aie a nuIlilude of enpIoyee voik expeiiences lhal can foIIov fion HIWIs
piaclices. In ieIalion lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones, lvo lypes of enpIoyee
expeiiences aie dislinguished: (1) lhe funclionaI puipose/effecliveness of HIWIs
and (2) lhe connunicalion of expeclalions, noins and vaIues lhiough HIWIs.
IuiceII and Hulchinson (2OO7) aIieady expIicilIy acknovIedge lhe possiliIily of
diffeienliaI enpIoyee expeiiences of HIWIs, ly slaling:

'Lach HR piaclice and lhe vay il is appIied viII have a funclionaI puipose and enpIoyees can
judge each in leins of uliIily oi salisfaclion lo lhen |.j. ul laken logelhei, peopIe
nanagenenl has a non-insliunenlaI ioIe of connunicaling lo enpIoyees lhe naluie of lhe
fiin, lheii vaIue lo il and lhe lype of lehaviouis expecled. (p. 7)

Hovevei, foi ieasons of paisinony, in lhe nexl seclion ve viII eIaloiale on lhe
expeiienced funclionaI effecliveness of HIWIs.

6.3.3 Thc functInna! cffcctIvcncss nf HPWPs
The focus on singIe, sepeiale HIWIs liings foilh lhe issue of funclionaI effecliveness
vhen lhese HIWIs aie adopled and enacled ly Iine nanageis. In olhei voids: dc
HPlPs dc una| |ncq cugn| |c dc? Accoiding lo lhe HRM-Ieifoinance piocess nodeI,
enpIoyees ieacl lo lheii voik and voik enviionnenl on lhe lasis of lheii expeiience
of ceilain voik aspecls infIuenced ly lhe adoplion of HIWIs. As each HIWI
iepiesenls ils ovn donain of nanagenenl inleivenlion, lhey vouId le noie
sliongIy ieIaled lo a lypicaI laigel oulcone (e.g., liaining ieIales lo expeiienced
Ieaining oppoilunilies). AIlhough lhis can le consideied sonevhal lauloIogicaI, fev
sludies incIude lhe acluaI enpIoyee expeiiences iesuIling fion singIe enacled
HIWIs. In addilion, Maichinglon and CiuguIis (2OOO) aigue lhal sone of lhe
individuaI HIWIs nighl even Iose lheii iniliaI appeaI vhen unpacked. OveiaII,
lhe HIWIs donains of inleiesl connecl lo lhe qua|i|q cf ucr| - Iileialuie, vhich lakes
inlo accounl seveiaI facels of lhe enpIoyee voik enviionnenl vhich logelhei
conslilule lhe IeveI of a quaIilalive voikpIace. This is iefIecled in lhe }ol
Chaiacleiislics nodeI (Hacknan el aI., 198O), in vhich a nunlei of independenl
quaIilalive voik design chaiacleiislics aie expecled lo consliue eniiched jols (Iaikei
& WaII, 1997). Ovei lhe yeais, lhese aspecls of jol eniichnenl have leen lioadened
vilh aspecls of an enpIoyees Iaigei voik and oiganizalionaI conlexl. In geneiaI,
lhese eIenenls add up lo piovide enpIoyees vilh a posilive voik enviionnenl
(Oslioff & oven, 2OOO) oi undeipin noinalive nolions of good voik oi good
120
voikpIaces (Ifeffei, 1994, Caidnei, Danon & CsikszenlnihaIyi, 2OO2), as opposed lo
nonolonous, de-skiIIed, Iov-paid Mc}ols (e.g., Lindsay & McQuaid, 2OO4), vhich
piovide no ioon foi Ieaining and peisonaI giovlh and aulonony. Lach of lhe
HIWIs can le aigued lo ieIale lo independenl eIenenls of lhe expeiienced quaIily
of voik, vhich seive as indicalois of funclionaI HIWI effecliveness. AIlhough a
iange of sludies have concenlialed on lhe effecl of specific HIWIs, Iike leanvoik
(Sleijn, 2OO) oi peifoinance nanagenenl (CaIIie, While, Cheng & TonIinson, 1998)
on voik expeiiences, onIy fev have incIuded nuIlipIe enacled HIWIs and lhe
sulsequenl enpIoyee voik expeiiences.

Ioi inslance, Vandenleig, Richaidson and Laslnan (1999), in a sanpIe of 49
oiganizalions, lesled lhe ieIalionship lelveen nanagenenl ialings of HIWIs
(voik-Iife fIexiliIily, liaining, diieclion selling, incenlives and voik design) and
lelveen-oiganizalionaI diffeiences in expeiienced (aggiegale) IeveIs of enpIoyee
enpoveinenl, infoinalion, ievaids and knovIedge. OveiaII, lhey found
slalislicaIIy posilive significanl ieIalionships, aIlhough aIso negalive ones veie found
vilh iegaid lo incenlive pay. Anolhei finding in lheii sludy vas lhal lhe seIecled
HIWIs onIy accounled foi a snaII piopoilion of lhe vaiiance expIained in lhe voik
expeiiences (a lolaI of 9). AIleinaliveIy, a sludy ly Chang (2OO5) in 37 oiganizalions
aIso incIuded nanagenenl ialings of HIWIs and enpIoyee ialings of oveiaII HIWI
effecliveness. In lhis sludy, Changs iesuIls shov a posilive significanl effecl lelveen
enacled oiganizalionaI-IeveI HIWIs and individuaI-IeveI expeiienced HIWIs
effecliveness, aIlhough lhe ieIalionship vas again found lo le faiiIy veak. As lheie
shouId le sone soil of a ieIalionship lelveen sepaiale HIWIs and enpIoyee ialings
of ils effecliveness, lhe fev sludies neasuiing il, do nol painl a convincing picluie.
Reasons foi lhese veak ieIalionships nighl le found on lhe foIIoving
accounls. Iiisl, lhe neasuienenl of enacled HIWIs in lhe lvo sludies vas
conducled lhiough a singIe-ialei (in lolh cases HR nanageis). Second, lhey veie
conducled al lhe oiganizalionaI-IeveI, disiegaiding lhe fiisl Iine nanagenenl
vaiiance vhich consequenlIy couId cause enpIoyee expeiiences of HIWIs lo diffei
vilhin oiganizalions. Thiid, lhe sludies incIuded a nixluie of eilhei indiiecl
expeiienced HIWI effecliveness neasuies (asking aloul lhe quaIily of lhe voik
enviionnenl) oi diiecl expeiienced HIWI effecliveness neasuies (asking vhelhei
enpIoyees iegaid enacled HIWIs as effeclive). AII in aII, lhe oflen assuned idea
lhal HIWIs piolalIy viII do vhal lhey oughl lo do in lhe expeiience of enpIoyees
121
F|gure -4: Enacted hPwPs and Exper|enced work 6haracter|st|cs (Funct|ona| Effect|veness}
can ceilainIy le conlesled. This nakes lhal inpIicalions of possilIe HIWIs
inleivenlions vilh iegaid lo enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI oulcones shouId le
appioached vilh caulion. Wilh lhis in nind, lhis sludy viII Iook noie caiefuIIy inlo
lhe cnac|cd-cxpcricnccd HPlP ieIalionship. In oidei lo painl a noie delaiIed picluie
of lhe coIIeclive enpIoyee expeiience of singIe HIWI effecliveness, leIov,
ieIalionships aie specified pei HIWI donain al a voik unil IeveI of anaIysis.

6.3.4 ExpcrIcnccd FunctInna! HPWP EffcctIvcncss: Hypnthcscs
Iiguie 6-4 shovs lhe hypolhesized ieIalionships lelveen sepaiale enacled HIWIs
and lhe expeiienced HIWIs in leins of funclionaI effecliveness. The hypolheses aie
discussed foIIoving lhe Iiguie fion lop lo lollon.

lrlerra| 3lall|rg Ell|c|ercy

Furcl|ora| Tra|r|rg

Career 0eve|oprerl

Perlorrarce Appra|sa|
Allracl|ve Wages/oerel|ls
0pl|ra| arourl/erp|oyees
Joo var|ely
Joo Aulorory
Learr|rg 0pporlur|l|es
Joo - Educal|or Valcr

Career opporlur|l|es
0eve|oprerla| opporlur|l|es
Joo C|ar|ly
Joo Feedoac|
0ood ellorl-reWard oarga|r
Un|t-|eve|
Exper|enced hPwPs
(Funct|ona| Effect|veness}

Un|t-|eve|
Enacted hPwPs
|ntens|ty
wor|-L|le 3upporl

h1a
h1b
h1c
h1d
h1e
h1f
wor|-L|le 8a|arce
122
Iiisl, func|icna| |raining iefeis lo lhe degiee lo vhich lhe upgiading of enpIoyee
skiIIs/knovIedge lo neel cuiienl jol slandaids is enphasized (LIoyd & Iayne,
2OO6). Heie, unils slinuIale infoinaI liaining, piovide a significanl anounl of foinaI
liaining days, piovide enpIoyees vilh discielion lo choose liaining lhal fiIIs
peisonaI skiII/knovIedge gaps, and ciilicaIIy evaIuale lhe peifoinance effecls of
liaining piogians in oidei lo avoid vasle of inveslnenl (SeIs el aI., 2OO6a, 2OO6l).
The inlensily of funclionaI liaining vouId Iead lo lhe enpIoyee expeiience of lhe
possiliIily lo Ieain nev lhings and an adequale educalionaI IeveI lhal nalches lhe
jol iequiienenls al hand.

HypnthcsIs 1a: The inlensily of funclionaI liaining ieIales posiliveIy lo lhe
enpIoyee expeiience of (1) Ieaining possiliIilies and (2) a jol-educalionaI
nalch.

Second, carccr dctc|cpncn| focuses on lhe HRM aclivilies lhal ain al pioviding
oppoilunilies as veII as slinuIaling piofessionaI giovlh - lolh hoiizonlaIIy (vilhin
lhe sane funclion) and veilicaIIy (lo anolhei funclion). Il enphasizes lhe
nanagenenl allenlion foi enpIoyee deveIopnenl and caieei lhiough naking
agieenenls on deveIopnenlaI goaIs and lhe sulsequenl aliIily of lhe voik unil lo
oplinaIIy depIoy voikfoice aliIilies lhiough oplinizing a ceilain degiee of suppIies-
vaIues fil. This ieIales lo lhe fil lelveen (changing) peisonaI vaIues, goaIs and
nolives and lhe oiganizalionaI suppIy of nalching neaningfuI voik (Xie & }ohns,
1995). Hence, caieei deveIopnenl inlensily ieIales lo lhe enpIoyee expeiience of
enough deveIopnenlaI and caieei possiliIilies.

HypnthcsIs 1b: The inlensily of caieei deveIopnenl ieIales posiliveIy lo lhe
enpIoyee expeiience of. (1) caieei oppoilunilies and (2) jol deveIopnenlaI
oppoilunilies.

Thiid, pcrfcrnancc appraisa| (PA) iefeis lo lhe enphasis pIaced upon (1) lhe
evaIualion of lhe allainnenl of iesuIl-lased goaIs and (2) lhe Iinkage lelveen
appiaisaIs and ievaids in oidei lo ieinfoice desiied peifoinance IeveIs (SliIes ,
Ciallon, Tiuss, Hope-HaiIey & McCovein, 1997, Den Hailog, oseIie & Iaauve,
2OO5). These conponenls of IA ain al shaping a voik silualion in vhich enpIoyees
have cIaiily on vhal il lakes lo successfuIIy peifoin lhe jol, as veII as gel sliucluied
123
and diiecl feedlack lhiough appiaisaI and incenlives lo lhe exlenl lhey peifoin veII
oi Iess veII (aion & Kieps, 1999). Vieving lhese IA conponenls in ieIalion lo
expeiienced voik chaiacleiislics, lhe hypolhesis ieads:

HypnthcsIs 1c: The inlensily of peifoinance appiaisaI ieIales lhe sliongesl lo
lhe enpIoyee expeiience of (1) jol cIaiily and (2) jol feedlack.

Iouilh, a||rac|itc uagcs/fringc ocncfi|s iefei lo lhe degiee lo vhich offeied vages aie
iniliaIIy alove naikel oi, in lhe case of fiinge lenefils, posiliveIy diffeienliale fion
lhose agieed upon in coIIeclive laigaining agieenenls. On lolh accounls, enpIoyees
aie offeied noie lhan foinaIIy vouId le appiopiiale and/oi necessaiy.
AddilionaIIy, as alove naikel vages/lenefils can alliacl pioduclive enpIoyees,
ielaining lhen iequiies ioon foi nanageis lo negoliale vhen good enpIoyees
lhiealen lo Ieave lhe oiganizalion. To lhe degiee lhal oiganizalionaI pay poIicies
iefIecl an aclive appioach lo lhe alliaclion and ielenlion of enpIoyees in lhe Ialoui
naikel, enpIoyees viII expeiience a good effoil-ievaid laigain.

HypnthcsIs 1d: The inlensily of alliaclive vages ieIales lhe sliongesl lo lhe
enpIoyee expeiience of a good effoil-ievaid laigain.

Iiflh, in|crna| s|affing cfficicncq iefeis lo lhe degiee Iine nanageis have an invaid
slaffing focus and efficienlIy nake use of lhe inleinaI Ialoui naikel lo nalch lhe
suppIy of Ialoui lo fIuclualing denands foi Ialoui. As such, lhey do nininize lhe
hiiing of lenpoiaiy voikeis (nuneiicaI fIexiliIily), lul noliIize lhe funclionaI
fIexiliIily vilhin lhe piesenl voikfoice lo cieale oplinaI and efficienl slaffing IeveIs
(KaIIeleig, 2OO1). We hypolhesize lhal lhis vouId Iead lo lhe enpIoyee expeiience of
enough peopIe lo do lhe jol, enough aulonony do ieacl fIexilIe lo fIuclualing
denands, lul aIso lo noie jol vaiiely due lo lhe enphasis on func|icna| fIexiliIily.

HypnthcsIs 1c: The inlensily of inleinaI slaffing efficiency ieIales posiliveIy lo
lhe enpIoyee expeiience of (1) oplinaI slaffing IeveIs and (2) jol vaiiely and
(3) jol aulonony.

Lasl, ucr|-|ifc oa|ancc iefei lo lhe piovision of voik aiiangenenls lo achieve a lellei
laIance lelveen enpIoyees piofessionaI and piivale Iives, iiiespeclive of lheii
124
naiilaI oi paienlaI slalus (While el aI., 2OO3). As a HIWI il enphasizes lhe
oiganizalions piovision of possiliIilies foi lhe conlinalion of lhe enpIoyees
peisonaI voik and piivale/faniIy Iife in oidei lo offsel oi laIance lhe adveise
effecls/inconpaliliIily of lhe jol oulside lhe voik donain (Osleinan, 1995). all
and VaIcoui (2OO3) desciile lhiee conponenls of lhe oiganizalions suppoil lo voik-
faniIy laIance, lul vhich aIso Iink lo voik-Iife laIance suppoil: (1) enpIoyee access
lo dependenl caie poIicies (e.g., chiId caie suppoil), (2) enpIoyee access lo lenefils
ieIaling lo lhe fIexilIe use of voik line and (3) supeivisoi suppoil foi lhe acluaI use
of piaclices. As such, ve expecl lhal a cIeai enphasis on lhese eIenenls viII Iink lo
lhe enpIoyee expeiience of voik-Iife laIance suppoil.

HypnthcsIs 1f: The inlensily of voik-Iife laIance aiiangenenls ieIales
posiliveIy lo lhe enpIoyee expeiience of voik-Iife laIance suppoil.

6.3.5 Mcthnds
}usl Iike lhe dala on cnac|cd HIWIs, lhe dala on enpIoyee expeiiences of HIWIs
veie coIIecled lelveen May 2OO6 and Ieliuaiy 2OO7 fion a heleiogeneous sel of a
lolaI of 12 snaII, niddIe and Iaige-sized Dulch oiganizalions in a diveisily of seclois.
eIov, lhe delaiIs of lhe enpIoyee dala aie piesenled.

Da|a Cc||cc|icn Prcccdurc and Rcspcnsc

|np|cqcc Surtcqs Ioi each of lhe incIuded voik unils, ve ollained enpIoyee
dala on expeiienced HIWIs, of vhich lhe queslions veie incIuded in a Iaigei
enpIoyee suivey conducled lhioughoul lhe vhoIe oiganizalion. As shovn in TalIe
6-5, foi lhe seIecled voik unils in vhich ve ollained enacled HIWIs dala, a lolaI of
1795 non-nanageiiaI enpIoyees ieceived haid-copy oi (eIeclionic) vel-lased
queslionnaiies (see nelhods seclion in chaplei 4). In aII cases, excepl lhe eIeclionic
ones, slanped enveIopes veie allached lo lhe queslionnaiies, vhich veie addiessed
diieclIy lo lhe fiisl aulhois univeisily addiess. In lolaI, 772 conpIeled
queslionnaiies couId le used, vhich iefIecls an aveiage iesponse iale of 43 pei
voik unil.


125
Tab|e -5: 8amp|e structure, # raters, # matched ||ne-hR rat|ng, survey response
8ector 0rgan|zat|on # work un|ts # 0|str|buted
8urveys
8urveys (7
response}
8erv|ces 3ecur|ly 3erv|ces 3 22 53 (21)
lT Corsu|larcy 1 31 20 (5)
Po||cy Researcr 2 3 13 (8)
F|rarc|a| / 8ar| 111 101 (91)
|ndustry Tecrr|ca| 3upporl 2 Z2 18 (25)
Repa|r 3erv|ces Z 2Z8 102 (3Z)
Corslrucl|or 1 123 55 (15)
0ua||ly Corlro| 1 10 30 (Z5)
Covernment Cuslors / Corlro| 1 112 3 (5)
Loca| 0overrrerl 2 2Z 12 (11)
Hed|ca||6are losp|la| 11 50Z 20Z (11)
Educat|on E|emenrar, $cnoo| 7 205 68 {JJ/j
Tora|//verage 5J '795 772 {4J/j


Sanp|c Cnarac|cris|ics

|np|cqcc Sanp|c The sanpIe conslilules a nixluie of highei skiIIed and Iovei
skiIIed funclionaI calegoiies, such as nuises, IT consuIlanls, secuiily agenls, leacheis,
poIicy advisois, noilgage advisois, lechnicians and opeialois. The aveiage age in lhe
lolaI sanpIe vas 41.O yeais. Of lhe enpIoyee sanpIe 5O.3 is naIe. In lhe sanpIe,
36.9 of lhe enpIoyees have a highei vocalionaI liaining oi a univeisily degiee. The
aveiage nunlei of conliacluaI houis/veek is 32.3 (slandaid devialion 1O.1
houis/veek), and lhe aveiage nunlei of yeais in lhe oiganizalion is 1O.8 (slandaid
devialion 1O.2 yeais).

Mcasurcs fcr cxpcricnccd HPlPs
Ioi neasuiing expeiienced HIWIs vaiialIes in leins of funclionaI effecliveness, lo a
Iaige exlenl, ve used scaIes fion lhe VA queslionnaiie (Van VeIdhoven &
Meijnan, 1994). TalIe 5-2 shovs nunlei of ilens and inleinaI ieIialiIilies indices
(Chionlachs u) and inliacIass coiieIalions. AII used ilens foi lhe scaIes leIov can
le found in Appendix .
126
|np|cqcc lcr| |xpcricnccs Ioi lhe scaIe oplinaI slaffing ve asked enpIoyee
iespondenls lo iale lheii expeiience of lhe fiequency in vhich desiialIe and
quaIilalive slaffing IeveIs aie in pIace on a 4 poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs).
The jol aulonony scaIe laps lhe conlioI and discielion enpIoyees expeiience in
execuling lheii voik lasks. Respondenls couId ansvei on a 4 poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr
|c 4 = a|uaqs). High scoies iefIecl an inleinaI slaffing focus vilh IillIe lenpoiaiy and
agency voikeis, enough peinanenl voikeis and a silualion in vhich vacancies aie
quickIy fuIfiIIed. The jol vaiiely scaIe laps lhe iespondenls expeiience of skiII
vaiiely, oppoilunilies foi ciealivily and skiII use lhal aie piesenl in lhe jol.
Respondenls couId ansvei on a 4 poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs). Ioi Ieaining
possiliIilies iespondenls veie asked lo vhich exlenl lhey expeiience enphasis on
Ieaining nev skiIIs and lhe enhancenenl of a sense of acconpIishnenl in lheii jol.
High scoies iefIecl lhe possiliIily foi piofessionaI giovlh vilhin lhe jol.
Respondenls couId ansvei on a 5 poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q
agrcc).
The deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies scaIe laps lhe degiee lo vhich enpIoyees
expeiience oppoilunilies foi fuilhei piofessionaI deveIopnenl leyond oppoilunilies
piovided ly lhe jol ilseIf. Respondenls couId ansvei on a 5 poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q
disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q agrcc). The jol cIaiily scaIe laps lhe fiequency lo vhich
enpIoyees expeiience cIeai jol expeclalions and iesponsiliIilies. Respondenls couId
ansvei on a 4 poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs). The jol feedlack scaIe asks
iespondenls lo vhich exlenl enpIoyees expeiience lhe piovision of enough
infoinalion on voik goaIs and lhe iesuIl of lheii voik. A high scoie iefIecls a jol
silualion vilh enough infoinalion and feedlack on jol iesuIls. Respondenls couId
ansvei on a 4 poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs). Ioi lhe expeiienced caieei
oppoilunilies, iespondenls ialed vhelhei lhey expeiience a jol vhich piovides
financiaI giovlh oppoilunilies, good caieei piospecls and Ialoui naikel posilion.
Respondenls couId ansvei on a 5-poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q
agrcc). Ioi jol-educalionaI nalch ve used a 1-ilen neasuie, asking iespondenls lo
vhich degiee lhey expeiience lhal lhey aie undeiquaIified, oveiquaIified oi aie
exaclIy quaIified foi lhe cuiienl jol. High scoies iefIecl an educalionaI nalch vilh
lhe cuiienl jol (=5), enpIoyee undeiquaIificalion vas consideied lo iefIecl a
silualion in vhich peopIe nove up lul sliII have lo Ieain nev skiIIs on lhe jol (=3).
Hovevei, enpIoyees expeiiencing oveiquaIificalion nove loo sIovIy, vhiIe lheii
educalion-IeveI is highei lhan lhe cuiienl jol iequiies (=1).
127
Ioi lhe voik-Iife suppoil scaIe iespondenls couId indicale hov oflen lhey
expeiience line fIexiliIily in lheii voik and voik-Iife pIanning. On seveiaI accounls
(fIexiliIily in laking lieaks, slail/end of lhe voik day, laking Ieaves, scheduIing
voik houis) iespondenls couId ansvei on a 4-poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs).
Cood effoil-ievaid laigain iefIecls enpIoyee ialings of lhe conlenlnenl vilh lheii
cuiienl vage-IeveI. High scoies depicl lhe enpIoyee conlenlnenl vilh vages vilh
iespecl lo lheii peisonaI effoil-ievaid laigain. Respondenls couId ansvei on a 5-
poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q agrcc).

Ccn|rc| Variao|cs
SeveiaI voik unil chaiacleiislics seived as conlioI vaiialIes. Iiisl, lo conlioI foi unil
size, ve look de alsoIule nunlei of disliiluled suiveys pei voik unil vhiIe lhe
suivey ieseaich vas laigeled al suiveying aII enpIoyees in lhe seIecled voik unils.
Second, ve incIuded voik unil nascuIinily as a neasuie of lhe piopoilion of
naIes vilhin lhe voik unil (1 = na|c). An indicaloi foi voik unil nascuIinily can
conlioI foi lhe effecl of doninanl naIe vs. fenaIe piofessions in each of lhe voik
unils incIuded. Highei scoies indicale a highei piopoilion of naIes. Lasl, lhe
aveiage educalionaI IeveI vas incIuded lo conlioI foi lhe confounding effecl of
high vs. Iovei skiIIed voik sellings (1 = |cucr cduca|icn, 6 = nigncr cduca|icn).
IoIIoving Lepak and SneII (1999) HRM piaclices couId diffei acioss voik unils
vilhin oiganizalions lecause of lhe diffeienliaI econonic vaIue and uniqueness of
high/Iov skiIIed enpIoyees foi lhe oiganizalion.

Unlt-|ete| Aggregatlon
As ve expecl lhal enacled HIWIs al lhe voik unil IeveI iesuIl in expeiienced
HIWIs al lhe sane IeveI, ve aggiegaled each of lhe individuaI enpIoyee-IeveI
neasuies desciiled inlo a neasuie lhal iepiesenls a voik unil consliucl. A iange of
aulhois have aigued lhal individuaI expeiiences of enacled HIWIs aie pailIy
deleinined ly shaied expeiiences in lhe voik unil (Hannei, Saksvik, Nylio,
Toivaln & ayavil, 2OO4). In olhei voids, lhe diffeienl lypes of HIWIs expeiiences
can le expecled lo le shaied ly voik unil nenleis vhiIe cnac|cd HIWIs aie unil-
IeveI piopeilies, vhich ain lo diffeienliale lelveen voik unils ialhei lhan lelveen
individuaIs. Van Ypeien & Snijdeis (2OOO), Hannei el aI. (2OO4) and Van VeIdhoven
(2OO5) aII piovided evidence of a significanl anounl of vaiiance in individuaI
expeiiences of lheii voik lhal couId le alliiluled lo gioup IeveI faclois. In oidei lo
128
nake infeiences of vhal happens al lhe voik unil IeveI vhen ceilain HIWIs aie in
pIace, an aggiegale neasuie is a noie ieIialIe indicaloi of expeiienced enacled
HIWIs lhan individuaI IeveI dala lecause aggiegale neasuies do nol conlain
idiosyncialic vaiiance of individuaI expeiiences (Iiese & }ex, 2OOO in Hannei el aI.,
2OO4). To deleinine lo vhich degiee voik expeiiences aie shaied al lhe voik unil
IeveI, one-vay ANOVAs veie peifoined.

Tab|e -: 8ca|e names, Number of |tems, |nterna| 6ons|stency and |66 va|ues
8ca|e name Response # |tems d F-test |66(1} |66(2}

6ontro| Var|ab|es
ur|l Vascu||r|ly 0/1 1 - 8.38 .32 .88
ur|l Average Educal|or 1- 1 - 11.193 .10 .91

work Exper|ences
0pl|ra| 3lall|rg
2
1-1 1 .Z8 21.199 .5Z .95
Joo Aulorory
1
1-1 1 .8 3.903 .1 .Z1
Joo var|ely
1
1-1 1 .81 Z.Z3 .30 .8Z
Learr|rg Poss|o|||l|es
1
1-5 3 .91 .Z12 .2Z .85
Joo C|ar|ly
1
1-1 1 .82 3.58 .11 .Z2
Joo Feedoac|
2
1-1 5 .85 1.2Z .1Z .ZZ
0eve|oprerla| 0pporlur|l|es
1
1-5 3 .8Z .90Z .28 .8
Career 0pporlur|l|es
2
1-5 3 .81 3.035 .12 .Z
Joo-Educal|or Valcr
3
1-5 1 - 2.01Z .0 .51
wor|-L|le 3upporl
2
1-1 .Z1 15.ZZ .19 .91
Ellorl-ReWard 8arga|r
1
1-5 2 .81 .818 .2Z .85
Note:
1
Erp|oyee r = ZZ2/ ur|l r = 53;
2
Erp|oyee r = Z1/ ur|l r = 1Z;
3
Erp|oyee r = Z11/ ur|l r = 52.
Note: p < .001; p < .01; p < .05;


The |-ialios dispIayed in TalIe 6-6 indicale lhal foi aII lhe sepaiale scaIes vaIues
giealei lhan 2.OO veie found. IoIIoving Hays (1981, in Andeison & Wesl, 1996),
vaIues giealei lhan 1.OO suggesl lheie is sufficienl evidence foi lelveen-voik unil
diffeiences. Ioi an aggiegale neasuie lo le of use, lhe nosl inpoilanl issue is lhe
129
ieIialiIily of lhe aggiegaled scaIe scoies. Tvo slalislicaI paianeleis aie oflen iefeiied
lo in lhis conlexl: lhe ICC(1) and ICC(2) (Iiese, 2OOO). TalIe 6-6 shovs lhe ICC
vaIues foi each scaIe. The ICC(1) can le defined as lhe anounl of vaiiance in
individuaI scoies alliilulalIe lo lhe voik unil. ICC(1) vaIues (piesenled in TalIe 6-6)
iange fion .O6 lo .57, inpIying lhal 6 lo 57 peicenl of vaiiance in individuaI voik
expeiiences is alliilulalIe lo lhe gioup of voik unil nenleis. AII scaIes exceed lhe
nininun anounl of 5 (Iiese, 2OOO). The ICC(2) iefIecls lhe ieIialiIily of lhe nean
voik unil scaIe scoies. Il is caIcuIaled on lhe lasis of lhe nean squaie lelveen voik
unils and lhe nean squaie vilhin voik unils. VaIues alove .7O aie consideied good
and vaIues alove .5O aie deened loIeialIe (KIein & KozIovski, 2OOO). ased on lhe
finding lhal aII lhe ICC(1) and ICC(2) vaIues iepoiled in TalIe 6-6 exceeded
nininun vaIues, il aIIoved us lo fuilhei lesl lhe ieIalionships lelveen enacled and
expeiienced HIWIs al lhe voik unil IeveI of anaIysis.

6.3.6 Rcsu!ts

Corre|atlons and Descrltltes
TalIe 6-7 piesenls lhe desciiplives of lhe enacled HPlP in|cnsi|q neasuies and lhe
expeiienced HIWIs calegoiized in (expeiienced) funclionaI effecliveness.
RenaikalIe is lhe onIy negalive coiieIalion (non-significanl) lelveen inleinaI
slaffing efficiency and peifoinance appiaisaI.

Regresslon Ana|ses

|nac|cd |xpcricnccd HPlPs TalIe 6-8 shovs lhe slandaidized iegiession
coefficienls lelveen singIe HIWIs and expeiienced voik chaiacleiislics (hypolheses
1a-1f). Looking al lhe conlioI vaiialIes enleied in slep 1, lhey IaigeIy have significanl
ieIalionships. OveiaII, lhey expIained a sulslanliaI pail of lhe vaiiance in coIIecliveIy
expeiienced voik chaiacleiislics. Ioi lhe HIWIs lhal veie enleied coIIecliveIy in
slep 2 (conlioIIing foi each olheis infIuence), foui oul of six HIWIs shoved posilive
significanl ieIalionships vilh sone oi aII of lhe hypolhesized voik enpIoyee
expeiiences. Heie, lhe inlensily of funclionaI liaining, alliaclive vages/lenefils,
inleinaI slaffing efficiency and voik-Iife laIance indeed ieIale lo lhe enpIoyee
expeiience of voik chaiacleiislics lhal indicale lhe funclionaI effecliveness of lhese
singIe HIWIs. This suppoils lhe piaclicaI vaIidily of lhese HIWIs.

130
Tab|e -7: 0escr|pt|ves and 6orre|at|ons of Enacted hPwPs and Aggregated emp|oyee work exper|ences (un|t |eve|}
Var|ab|e H 80 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 17 18
1 Furcl|ora| Tra|r|rg 2.8 .2
2 Career 0eve|oprerl 3.02 .8 .1
3 Perlorrarce Appra|sa| 2.Z1 .Z0 .21# .35
4 Allracl|ve wages 2.Z8 .2 .39 .31 .11
5 lrlerra| 3lall|rg Ell|c|ercy 3.10 .53 .32 .31 -.25 .01
wor|-L|le 8a|arce 3.52 .Z9 .11 .15 .32 .29 .53
7 Learr|rg opporlur|l|es 3.5 .53 .51 .1 -.01 .15 .53 .13
8 Joo-educal|ora| ralcr 1.10 .1Z .15 .51 .0Z -.05 .2Z# .31 .Z1
9 0eve|oprerla| opp. 3.09 .51 .1Z .52 .1Z .21 .39 .31 .Z5 .5
10 Career opporlur|l|es 2.53 .11 .13 .18 .09 .39 -.0 -.08 .10 .12 .31
11 Joo C|ar|ly 3.15 .2 .33 .23 -.18 .11 .18 .1Z .11 .53 .12 -.01
12 Joo Feedoac| 2.5 .31 .10 .11 .00 .13 .5Z .51 .Z2 .59 . .1Z .5
13 Ellorl-ReWard 8arga|r 2.85 .53 .22 .30 .1Z .8 .05 .30 .12 .09 .31 .13 .15 .11
14 0pl|ra| 3lall|rg 2.8 .53 .1 .0 .03 .35 . .5 .80 .58 .1 .22 .5 .Z0 .25#
15 Joo Aulorory 2.Z9 .35 .31 .21 .20 .0 .25# .31 -.19 .11 .18 .12 .0Z .3 .23 .19
1 Joo var|ely 2.Z8 .39 .50 . -.0Z .0 .58 .32 .80 .19 .50 .15 .2# .55 .03 .8 .32
17 wor|-L|le 3upporl 2.89 .11 -.12 -.09 .10 .21 .10 .13 .23 -.20 -.11 .10 .00 .13 .13 -.01 .1Z -.21
18 lPwP 8urd|e 9.29 1.1 .81 .8 .18 .33 . .5Z .Z2 .51 .58 .12 .12 .5 .25# .ZZ .35 .Z2 -.0
19 wor| ur|l perlorrarce 3.Z .53 .10 .21# -.05 .01 .11 .05 .31 .28 .21# .12 .10 .2Z# .01 .11 .10 .33 -.11 .33


Note: ur|l r = 1Z - 53 ; p < .01; p < .05; # p < .10
131
Olheivise, lhe expeiience of caieei oppoilunilies vas found lo le noie sliongIy
ieIaled lo alliaclive vages and lenefils. Despile lhis unexpecled finding, lhe
inlensily of caieei deveIopnenl ieIaled (neaiIy significanl) lo lhe expeiience of
oppoilunilies foi Ieaining and deveIopnenl. Iuilheinoie, peifoinance appiaisaI
did nol yieId any of lhe expecled ieIalionships vilh jol cIaiily and jol feedlack.
AIso, lhe iesuIls shov lhal foi lhe expeiience of jol feedlack and jol aulonony,
none of lhe singIe HIWIs yieId any significanl ieIalionship.

Tab|e -8: Regress|on ana|yses for enacted hPwPs and Aggregated emp|oyee work exper|ences
LP
1
JEM
3
00
1
C0
2
JCL
1
JF
2
ER8
1
03
2
JA
1
JV
1
wL3
2

3tep 1: Control

wor| ur|l 3|ze
.10 .18 -.02 .09 .21# -.10 .10 .05 -.0Z -.05 -.30#
wor| ur|l Vascu||r|ly
-.10 -.3Z .10 .05 -.0 -.1Z .0 -.15 .08 -.13 .03
wor| ur|l Educal|or
.18 .11 .1Z .01 -.01 .25# .03 .13 .11 .1 -.35


R $rep '
.47 .JJ .2J .0' .J9 .J7 .0' .45 .0J .50 .'J
3tep 2: hPwPs

Furcl|ora| Tra|r|rg
.31* .30# .32 -.03 .11 .11 -.21 .3Z .2 .23 -.11
Career 0eve|oprerl
.23# .30# .15 .27 -.01 .02 .12 .01 -.0 .31 -.0Z
Perlorrarce Appra|sa|
-.12 -.03 -.03 .09 -.1 -.02 .25 .01 .30 -.11 .21
All. wages/8erel|ls
.03 -.28 -.1 .11 -.01 .01 .52** .20 -.11 -.01 .12
lrlerra| 3lall|rg Ell|c|ercy

.18 -.02 .55 -.01 .33 .28 .31# .31** .21 .2* .0
wor|-L|le 8a|arce
-.12 .00 -.33# -.28 .20 .0Z .05 -.0 .1 -.11 .**


R 0nange $rep 2
.26 .2' .J8 .24 .25 .'4 .47 .J6 .2J .28 .47
R Tola|
.7J .54 .6' .25 .64 .5' .48 .8' .26 .78 .60
Note: LP=Learr|rg Poss|o|||l|es; 00= 0eve|oprerla| 0pporlur|l|es; JEV = Joo Educal|or Valcr; C0 = Career
0pporlur|l|es; JCL= Joo C|ar|ly; JF= Joo Feedoac|; ER8 = Ellorl ReWard 8arga|r; 03= 0pl|ra| 3lall|rg; JA = Joo
Aulorory; Jv=Joo var|ely; wL3 = wor|-||le 3upporl ; Note:
1
Erp|oyee r = ZZ2/ ur|l r = 53;
2
Erp|oyee r = Z1/
ur|l r = 1Z;
3
Erp|oyee r = Z11/ ur|l r = 52 ; Note: p < .01; p < .05; # p < .10.

AddilionaIIy, TalIe 6-8 shovs lhal lesides lhe hypolhesized ieIalionships, lhe
enacled HIWIs aIso have ieIalionships vilh olhei lhan lhe expecled voik
expeiiences. In sone cases, vaiialIes veie found lo le sliongei ieIaled lo lhe
132
enpIoyee expeiience of olhei voik chaiacleiislic lhan lhe iniliaI hypolhesized
vaiialIe. Ioi exanpIe, a high inlensily of caieei deveIopnenl noie sliongIy ieIales
lo jol vaiiely lhan lhe inlensily of inleinaI slaffing efficiency ieIales lo jol vaiiely.
InleieslingIy enough, lhe inlensily of peifoinance appiaisaI vas found lo le
significanlIy unieIaled lo aII of lhe incIuded enpIoyee voik expeiiences. OveiaII,
excepl foi peifoinance appiaisaI, lhe dislinguished HIWIs have a significanl
inpacl on hov nenleis of a voik unil expeiience lheii voik enviionnenl.

6.3.7 DIstInguIshIng a HPWP bund!c
So vheie do lhe iesuIls on lhe enpIoyee expeiiences of enacled HIWIs Ieave us`
Iiisl, as expecled, lhe iesuIls shov lhal nol aII six HIWIs have lhe sane effecl on
enpIoyee expeiiences. Hovevei, in suppoil of piaclicaI vaIidily, lhey IaigeIy shov
ieIalionships vilh lhe expecled voik expeiiences. InleieslingIy, sone HIWIs
negaliveIy ieIale lo ceilain enpIoyee voik expeiiences, vheie olhei HIWIs shov
posilive ieIalionships vilh lhe sane voik expeiiences. This inpIies lhal lhe
conlined infIuence of enacled HIWIs on enpIoyee voik expeiiences (and lhe
sulsequenl enpIoyee ieaclions), is possilIy noie conpIex lhan Iileialuie on HIWS
oflen assunes. When lheoiy assunes lhal a sel of nuIlipIe HIWIs viII ieinfoice
each olhei lovaids enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI peifoinance, oui iesuIls shov lhal
lheie is aIso lhe possiliIily lhal lhe posilive effecl of ceilain HIWIs can gel
dininished ly lhe adoplion of olheis. This caIIs foi noie specificily on vhich
HIWIs vouId acluaIIy ieinfoice each olhei, in Iine vilh assunplions undeiIying a
HIWS fianevoik. Second, il lecones cIeai lhal especiaIIy peifoinance appiaisaI
pIays no significanl ioIe in ieIalion lo lhe expecled voik expeiiences. AddilionaIIy,
lhe najoiily of effecls of peifoinance appiaisaI on each of lhe dependenl vaiialIes
even poinl lovaids negalive ieIalionships. This vouId suggesl lhal peifoinance
appiaisaIs do nol do vhal HIWS lheoiy expecls lhen lo do. This caIIs inlo queslion
vhelhei peifoinance appiaisaI fils a HIWS fianevoik. Thiid, on lhe posilive side,
lhiee HIWIs (liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency)
coiiespond vilh each olhei in lheii IaigeIy posilive effecls on voik expeiiences lhal
coiiespond vilh lhe assunplions undeiIying a HIWS fianevoik. In lhe nexl
paiagiaphs, il is expIoied vhelhei a coie lundIe of HIWIs lhal laken logelhei
have a sliong posilive ieIalionship vilh a nunlei of neaningfuI enpIoyee voik
expeiiences can le dislinguished. AddilionaIIy, lhe inpacl of a HIWI lundIe on
voik unil peifoinance is exanined lo fuIIy vaIidale ils conliilulion.
133
Addltlona| ana|ses: Em|oee exerlences of a HPWP bund|e
To lesl vhelhei lhe adoplion of a lundIe of funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl
and inleinaI slaffing efficiency, logelhei, vouId conslilule a diffeienl sel of HIWIs
lhan voik piaclices of alliaclive vages, voik Iife laIance and peifoinance
appiaisaI, ve ian addilionaI iegiession anaIyses. Heie, ve incIuded a HIWI lundIe
neasuie vhich vas foined on lhe lasis of lhe addilive scoies on liaining, caieei
deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency. An addilive appioach lo lhe
neasuienenl of a lundIe of HIWIs has leen used in seveiaI olhei sludies (e.g.,
Dalla, Culhiie & Wiighl, 2OO5, SeIs el aI., 2OO6a, 2OO6l, Sun el aI., 2OO7). Iuilhei, lhe
lhiee olhei HIWIs (alliaclive vages, voik Iife laIance and peifoinance appiaisaI)
veie enleied sepaialeIy, lecause of lheii eaiIiei diffeienliaI ieIalionships vilh
enpIoyee voik expeiience vaiialIes. To exanine vhich of lhe HIWIs vouId
expIain lhe nosl lelveen-unil vaiiance in enpIoyee voik expeiiences, lhe lhiee
sepaiale voik piaclices and lhe HIWI lundIe veie enleied slep 2 and slep 3
iespecliveIy. SiniIai lo lhe pievious anaIyses, lhe conlioI vaiialIes veie enleied in
slep 1.

TalIe 6-9 shovs lhe slandaidized iegiession coefficienls vilh iegaid HIWIs and
each of lhe enpIoyee voik expeiiences. Lxcepl foi caieei oppoilunilies, effoil
ievaid laigain and voik Iife suppoil, TalIe 6-9 shovs lhal foi each of lhe enpIoyee
voik expeiiences lhe HIWIs lundIe yieIded posilive significanl ieIalionships. These
aie found lo le sliongei lhan foi each of lhe sepaiale HIWIs in lhe lundIe (see
TalIe 6-8). This indicales lhal HIWIs in lhe lundIe do nol suppiess each olheis
effecliveness, vhiIe in conlinalion lhey conslilule sliongei ieIalionships.
AIleinaliveIy, lhe expeiience of enough caieei oppoilunilies and a good effoil-
ievaid laigain is cIeaiIy noie sliongIy ieIaled lo alliaclive vages, jusl Iike voik Iife
laIance inlensily is sliII lhe nosl cIeaiIy ieIaled lo expeiienced voik Iife suppoil.
Iuilheinoie, again peifoinance appiaisaI neieIy soils negalive ieIalionships, vhich
aie (neaiIy) significanl vilh iegaid lo Ieaining/deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies and jol
vaiiely. esides lhe unique ieIalionships lelveen lhe HIWIs and voik expeiiences,
expeiienced voik Iife suppoil and jol aulonony aie lolh ieIaled lo lhe HIWI
lundIe and voik Iife laIance inlensily. Hovevei, a ncga|itc effecl vas found
lelveen lhe HIWI lundIe and expeiienced voik Iife suppoil, vhiIe voik Iife
laIance inlensily ieIales pcsi|itc|q lo lhe enpIoyee expeiiences of voik Iife suppoil.

134
Tab|e -9: Regress|on ana|yses for Aggregated emp|oyee work exper|ences of a core hPwP bund|e
LP
1
JEM
3
00
1
C0
2
JCL
1
ER8
1
03
2
JA
1
JV
1
wL3
2

3tep 1:
Control Variables

R $rep ' .47 .JJ .2J .0' .J9 .0' .45 .50 .05 .'J

3tep 2:
hPwPs lntensity

Allracl|ve wages .15 -.1 -.02 .15 .01 .50 .31 .08 -.0 .01
wor|-L|le 8a|arce .18 .1Z .21 -.21 .1Z .21 .30 .20 .3 .53
Perlorrarce Appra|sa| -.23# -.01 -.30# .12 -.31 .11 -.11 -.2Z .1 .23#

R 0nange $rep 2 .08 .0J .08 .20 .'9 .40 .20 .07 .'J .J2

3tep 3: hPwP 8undle
lPwP 3uno|e .0** .5** .73** .21 .29* .01 .53** .5** .32# -.44**

R 0nange $rep J .'8 .'6 .26 .02 .04 .00 .'4 .2' .06 .'0
R Tora| .7J .52 .57 .2J .62 .45 .79 .78 .24 .55

Note:
1
Erp|oyee r = ZZ2/ ur|l r = 53;
2
Erp|oyee r = Z1/ ur|l r = 1Z;
3
Erp|oyee r = Z11/ ur|l r = 52.
Note: LP=Learr|rg Poss|o|||l|es; 00= 0eve|oprerla| 0pporlur|l|es; JEV = Joo Educal|or Valcr; C0 =
Career 0pporlur|l|es; JCL= Joo C|ar|ly; ER8 = Ellorl ReWard 8arga|r; 03= 0pl|ra| 3lall|rg; J JA = Joo
Aulorory; v=Joo var|ely; wL3 = wor|-||le 3upporl; Note: lPwPs ourd|e = Add|l|ve score ol lre lPwPs
Tra|r|rg, Career 0eve|oprerl, lrlerra| 3lall|rg Ell|c|ercy; Note: p < .01; p < .05; # p < .10.


Addltlona| ana|ses: Unlt erformance effects of a HPWP bund|e
IinaIIy, TalIe 6-1O shovs lhe ieIalionships lelveen lhe enacled HIWIs and Iine
nanagei ialings of lhe geneiaI voik unil effecliveness as an indicaloi of voik unil
peifoinance (see chaplei 4 foi lhe neasuienenl delaiIs). As expecled, nodeI 3 in lhe
lalIe leIov shovs a sliong posilive significanl ieIalionship lelveen lhe addilive
HIWI lundIe scoie and voik unil peifoinance (p = .47, p < .O5). Olheivise, lhe
lhiee singIe voik piaclices do nol have a significanl effecl on voik unil peifoinance.
Theii iegiession coefficienls even caiiy a negalive sign, vhich indicales lhal lhey aie
nol IikeIy lo conliilule lo voik unil effecliveness. In lhe case of voik Iife laIance (p =
-.28, p = n.s.), lhe ieIaliveIy Iaige veighl of lhis negalive coefficienl seens lo indicale
135
il lends lo dininish voik unil peifoinance (aIlhough lhe effecl is non-significanl).
These findings fuilhei vaIidale lhe dislinclion lelveen a HIWI lundIe and lhe
singIe voik piaclices.

Tab|e -10: Regress|on ana|yses for s|ng|e hPwPs, the core hPwP bund|e and work un|t performance
work 0nit Performance
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
8tep 1: 6ontro| Var|ab|es
R 3lep 1 .0Z .0Z .0Z

8tep 2: 8|ng|e hPwPs |ntens|ty
Allracl|ve wages .03 - -.09
wor|-L|le 8a|arce -.09 - -.28
Perlorrarce Appra|sa| -.09 - -.03

R 0nange $rep 2 .0' - .0'

8tep 3: hPwP und|e |ntens|ty
Core lPwP 8urd|e - .30# .1Z

R 0nange $rep J - .07 .'2

R Tora| .08 .'4 .20

Note: ur|l r = 53; Note: lPwPs ourd|e reasure = Add|l|ve score ol Furcl|ora| Tra|r|rg,
Career 0eve|oprerl, lrlerra| 3lall|rg Ell|c|ercy
Note: p < .01; p < .05; # p < .10.



6.4 CHAPTER CONCLU5ION5 AND NEXT CHAPTER
The goaI of lhis chaplei vas lo ieIialIy neasuie and vaIidale High Ieifoinance
Woik Iiaclices (HIWIs) vaiialIes ly exanining lheii funclionaI effecliveness lased
on enpIoyee expeiiences of lheii voik and voik enviionnenl.
136
S|udq 1 piesenled lhe neasuienenl delaiIs of six voik piaclices lhal fil a
HIWS fianevoik. ased on lhe neasuienenl issues desciiled in Chaplei 5, foi each
HIWIs, Iine nanageis and HR piofessionaIs ialed lhe degiee of lhe use, lhe
sophislicalion and lhe effecliveness of HIWIs al lhe voik unil IeveI of anaIysis.
Aflei iunning ieIialiIily lesls vhich incIudes nalched Iine nanagenenl and HR
piofessionaI ilen scoies, six ieIialIe and neaningfuI HIWI scaIes couId le
consliucled.
In S|udq 2, lhese enacled HIWI neasuies veie fuilhei vaIidaled ly Iinking
lhen lo lhe voik expeiiences of enpIoyees lhal aie exposed lo lhe HIWIs. Heie, lhe
iesuIls shov lhal lo a Iaige exlenl lhe HIWIs ieIaled lo lhe hypolhesized enpIoyee
voik expeiiences. This indicales lhal lhe sepaiale HIWIs indeed each conliilule
lheii ovn shaie in lhe inpiovenenl of lhe expeiienced voik silualion. The findings
confiin lhal HIWIs lo a gieal exlenl dc una| |ncq cugn| |c dc in lhe expeiience of
enpIoyees. Iuilheinoie, a cIosei Iook al lhe iesuIls ieveaIed lhal nosl of lhe HIWIs
had noie significanl ieIalionships vilh ceilain enpIoyee voik expeiiences lhan
oiiginaIIy hypolhesized. In lhe case of carccr dctc|cpncn|, func|icna| |raining and
in|crna| s|affing cfficicncq lhe ieIalionships veie found foi IaigeIy lhe sane voik
expeiiences and in a siniIai posilive diieclion. Olhei lhan lhe singIe HIWIs of ucr|
|ifc oa|ancc, a||rac|itc uagcs and pcrfcrnancc appraisa|, lhey veie conlined inlo one
addilive HIWI lundIe scoie. AddilionaI iegiession anaIyses confiined lhal lhis
HIWI lundIe scoie ieIaled lhe sliongesl lo enpIoyee expeiiences of voik
chaiacleiislics lhal fil lhe HIWS fianevoik. HIWIs ained al voik Iife laIance and
alliaclive vages had diffeienl lul expecled effecls on expeiienced voik Iife suppoil
and a goof effoil-ievaid laigain iespecliveIy. The found ieIalionships and lheii
diieclion aie sunnaiized in Iiguie 6-6.

ecause of lhe IaigeIy non-significanl and/oi negalive effecls of peifoinance
appiaisaI on enpIoyee voik expeiiences, lhis HIWI is nol dispIayed in Iiguie 6-6.
To fuIIy vaIidale lhe HIWI neasuies in lhis sludy, lhe ieIalionship lelveen lhe
singIe voik piaclices and lhe HIWI lundIe and voik unil peifoinance vas
exanined. Heie, il vas found lhal lhe HIWI lundIe is lhe onIy HIWI vaiialIe lhal
shoved a significanl effecl on voik unil peifoinance. AII in aII, lhe findings have lhe
foIIoving inpIicalions foi lhis sludys HIWS fianevoik:
137
hPwP und|e

F|gure -: 0verv|ew of Re|at|onsh|ps between Enacted and Exper|enced hPwPs

Iiisl, il can le queslioned vhelhei eveiy voik piaclice is a nign pcrfcrnancc

voik piaclice. The oveivievs ly Conls el aI. (2OO6) and oseIie el aI. (2OO5)
suggesl lhal a lioad iange of HRM/voik piaclices have leen incIuded in a
HIWS ieseaich. This sludy, hovevei, suggesls lhal lhe exlenl lo vhich voik
unils inlensiveIy enacl funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI
slaffing efficiency signifies lhe coie inleivenlions in Iine vilh lhe High
Ieifoinance Woik Syslen lheoiy. Il vas shovn lhal lhese voik piaclices
eIicil lhe enpIoyee expeiience of a voik silualion vhich piovide (1) Ieaining
oppoilunilies and a jol-educalionaI nalch lhal couId inpiove enpIoyee
aoi|i|q, (2) deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies and jol vaiiely lhal caiiy nc|ita|icna|
polenliaI and (3) an oplinaI anounl of enpIoyees/slaffing and jol aulonony
lhal al Ieasl couId piovide enpIoyees vilh lhe ioon and iesouices lo do a
good jol. The HIWI lundIes addilionaI effecl on voik unil peifoinance
fuilhei vaIidales lhese lhoughls.

Second, lhe inlensily vilh vhich a voik unils nanagenenl seeks lo laIance
enpIoyee voik Iife and piovide alliaclive, alove-naikel vages does ieIale lo
lrlerra| 3lall|rg Ell|c|ercy

Furcl|ora| Tra|r|rg
Career 0eve|oprerl

Allracl|ve Wages
wor|-L|le 8a|arce
Career 0pporlur|l|es
0ood ellorl-reWard oarga|r

ur|l-|eve|
Eracled lPwPs lrlers|ly

Learr|rg 0pporlur|l|es
Joo - Educal|or Valcr
0eve|oprerla| 0pporlur|l|es
0pl|ra| arourl ol erp|oyees
Joo var|ely


wor|-L|le 3upporl


Joo Aulorory

ur|l-|eve|
Erp|oyee wor| Exper|erces

138
enpIoyee expeiiences of voik Iife suppoil and pay salisfaclion iespecliveIy.
Hovevei, lhese piaclices do nol ieIale lo highei voik unil peifoinance. This
vouId suggesl lhal lhese voik and oiganizalionaI faclois do nol diieclIy
affecl lhe opeialionaI voik piocess and ils effecliveness. In olhei voids, lhe
naluie of lhese HR piaclices is diffeienl and can le iegaided as noinaI
inslead of high peifoinance voik piaclices. An inleiesling finding vhich
aIso adheies lo Heizleigs (1966) cIassic dislinclion lelveen hygiene faclois
and nolivalois. lcr| |ifc oa|ancc and a||rac|itc uagcs - as hygiene faclois -
couId possilIy do noie hain if lhey veie nc| piovided foi as opposed lo lhe
HIWI lundIe lhal - as a nolivaloi - can sulslanliaIIy add a posilive infIuence
on enpIoyee and voik unil oulcones.

Thiid, il vas aIso found lhal lhe HIWI lundIe had a negalive ieIalionship
vilh lhe expeiience of voik Iife suppoil, vhich poinls oul lhal lhe HIWI
lundIe couId aIso cone al lhe expense of enpIoyee inleiesls oi veII-leing.
Civen lhis possiliIily, a high degiee of voik Iife laIance and alliaclive vages
nighl funclion as inpoilanl fIanking voik piaclices lhal can aIIeviale
adveise enpIoyee oulcones of a coie HIWI lundIe. On lhe olhei hand, lhe
negalive ieIalionship lelveen lhe HIWI lundIe and expeiienced voik-Iife
suppoil shouId le inleipieled vilh caie. In TalIe 6-8, specificaIIy funclionaI
liaining (leing one of lhe coie HIWIs) has a sliong negalive ieIalionship
vilh voik-Iife suppoil, vhiIe lhe coiieIalionnaliix does nol ieveaI such
sliong negalive ieIalionship. Heie, conlioIIing foi a high educalionaI IeveI of
enpIoyees (vhich aIso has a negalive ieIalionship vilh voik-Iife suppoil)
couId pIay a ioIe as foi highIy educaled enpIoyee lhe pailicipalion in
funclionaI liaining nighl noie fiequenlIy lake pIace oulside voiking houis.
UnfoilunaleIy, lhis possiliIily couId nol fuilhei le exanined.

Iouilh, vhal is sliiking is lhe ioIe of pcrfcrnancc appraisa| (PA). As ve vouId
expecl sone ieIalionship vilh oulcones such as noie jol cIaiily and jol
feedlack, no ieIalionships veie found. In lhe addilionaI iegiession anaIysis,
lheie veie even negalive effecls of IA on Ieaining/deveIopnenlaI
oppoilunilies and jol vaiiely. These findings adheie lo eaiIiei ciilicisn on IA.
Ioi inslance, SliIes el aI. (1997) aigue lhal IA couId iesuIl in a loo naiiov and
shoil-lein focus on incenlivized goaI allainnenl, vhich nighl conpionise
139

* Attract|ve wages


* Funct|ona| Tra|n|ng
* 6areer 0eve|opment
* |nterna| 8taff|ng
Eff|c|ency


* work L|fe a|ance

lhe fuilhei expeiience of jol vaiiely and lhe lioadei peisonaI deveIopnenlaI
goaIs an enpIoyee seeks lo puisue. Il is aIso nol cIeai vhelhei IA is neieIy a
nanagenenl conlioI piaclice lhal does nol have any inlenlion lo le in lhe
enpIoyee inleiesl (in oseIie el aI., 2OO5). The finding, hovevei, is consislenl
vilh an eneiging lody of evidence lhal queslions lhe ioIe of haid
peifoinance appiaisaIs in lhe HIWS fianevoik (e.g. Vandenleig el aI., 1999,
eIlian-Mailin el aI., 2OO8). ecause lhis disseilalions goaI is lo dislinguish a
connon giound foi lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance,
peifoinance appiaisaI viII le excIuded fion fuilhei anaIyses.

6.4.1 Ncxt Chaptcr
y dislinguishing lelveen diffeienl lypes of HIWI inleivenlions, lhe nexl chaplei
viII Iook al lhe inpacl of lhe coie HIWI lundIe and fIanking voik piaclices on
enpIoyee vilaIily. IinaIIy, il viII le lesled lo vhal exlenl enpIoyee vilaIily
inleinediales lhe HIWS-peifoinance Iinkage. The giey loxes in Iiguie 6-7 shov lhe
lhiee diffeienl HIWI vaiialIes and lhe diiecl ieIalionship of lhe HIWI lundIe vilh
voik unil peifoinance as found in lhis sludy.

F|gure -7: Th|s chapter's contr|but|on to the overa|| research framework

work Un|t
Performance

?

Ava||ab|||ty
0f Energy


Job &
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty


w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy


?
?
140
141
Chaptez 7
The intermediating roIe of empIoyee
vitaIity in the HPWP-Performance Iinkage










7.1 INTRODUCTION
Tuining lo lhe Iasl slage of lhis disseilalions oveiaII ieseaich fianevoik, lhis
chaplei exanines lhe ioIe of enpIoyee vilaIily in lhe Iink lelveen lhe dislinguished
coie HIWI lundIe, fIanking voik piaclices and voik unil peifoinance. As
desciiled in chaplei 3, enpIoyee vilaIily is assuned lo chaiacleiize a vigoious and
pioaclive enpIoyee vho lakes inilialive and can heaIlhiIy cope vilh lhe voik
conpIexilies and unceilainlies vilhin incieasingIy dynanic voik conlexls (Muiphy
& }ackson, 1999, Ciiffin, NeaI & Iaikei, 2OO7). An exaninalion of lhe exlenl lo vhich
nanagealIe voik and oiganizalionaI faclois posiliveIy inpacls enpIoyee vilaIily,
conliilules lo an eneiging sliean of ieseaich lhal seeks lo open lhe lIack lox
lelveen HRM and peifoinance. In addilion, lhe incIusion of lhe concepl of
enpIoyee vilaIily nol onIy seeks lo uniaveI lhe inleinedialing piocess lelveen HRM
and peifoinance, lul aIso lhe piocess lhal sinuIlaneousIy suslains enpIoyee veII-
leing. LnpIoyee vilaIily disceins a conlinalion of aclive enpIoyee alliilules,
vhich go leyond lhe neie passive alliilules of jol salisfaclion, connilnenl and
142
sliain vhich have leen popuIai oljecls of sludy ovei lhe Iasl decades (Iaikei, 2OOO,
Iiese & Iay, 2OO1). Hovevei, as conlenpoiaiy oiganizalions aie uiged lo quickIy
iespond lo changes in lheii naikel and inslilulionaI enviionnenl, lhis asks noie of
enpIoyees lhan lheii affecl lovaids lhe oiganizalion oi lhe alsence of jol sliess.
Theiefoie, as an aclive peifoinance concepl (Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, Iaikei el aI., 2OO7),
enpIoyee vilaIily capluies lhose voikfoice alliilules lhal aie aigued lo nalch lhe
oiganizalions hunan rcscurccs needed lo peifoin successfuIIy in lhe conlenpoiaiy
voik aiena (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6, oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). As an aclive veII-leing
concepl, enpIoyee vilaIily can le iegaided as a enpIoyee louchslone foi lhe
nanagenenl of an suslainalIe voikfoice (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6) vhich is consideied
lo conliilule lo oiganizalionaI effecliveness lhiough highei Ialoui pioduclivily
vilhoul conpionising (fuluie) enpIoyee veII-leing. Hovevei, enpiiicaI ieseaich
on lhe nanageiiaI deleininanls and oulcones of enpIoyee vilaIily is sliII scaice. To
piovide insighl in hov oiganizalions can lenefil fion nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q, lhis
chaplei enpiiicaIIy addiesses lvo inpoilanl issues. Iiisl, lo vhal exlenl do high
peifoinance voik piaclices (HIWIs) infIuence enpIoyee vilaIily` In olhei voids,
hov nanagealIe is enpIoyee vilaIily` Second, lo vhal exlenl does enpIoyee vilaIily
inleinediale lhe pioposed Iink lelveen HIWIs and peifoinance oulcones`

7.1.1 Gna! and structurc nf thIs chaptcr
The goaI of lhis chaplei is lo exanine lhe ioIe lhal enpIoyee vilaIily pIays in lhe
Iinkage lelveen HIWIs and peifoinance oulcones al lhe voik unil IeveI. In lhe
pievious chaplei, lhe enaclnenl of a coie HIWI lundIe (consisling of funclionaI
liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency) vas aIieady found lo
posiliveIy ieIale lo voik unil peifoinance. Olheivise, voik piaclices lhal slinuIale
voik Iife laIance and foiesee in alliaclive (alove-naikel) vages did nol ieIale lo
voik unil peifoinance lul couId enhance enpIoyee veII-leing oulcones. Theiefoie,
lhese piaclices aie aII incIuded in lhis chaplei. Iuilheinoie, in chaplei 4, il vas
aIieady found lhal lhe degiee of enpIoyee vilaIily in high peifoining voik unils
exceeds lhe degiee of enpIoyee vilaIily in Iess peifoining voik unils. In oidei lo
uniaveI hov HIWIs, enpIoyee vilaIily and voik unil peifoinance ieIale lo each
olhei, lhis chaplei is divided in lvo sludies. The fiisl pail of lhis chaplei (S|udq 1)
noie cIoseIy exanines lhe inpacl of HIWIs (as defined in chaplei 5 and 6) on
dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily. Heie, nuIliIeveI anaIyses aie conducled, lecause
lhe enaclnenl of HIWIs is consideied a voik-unil IeveI phenonenon and enpIoyee
143
vilaIily is an enpIoyee alliilule al lhe individuaI IeveI. In lhe second pail of lhis
chaplei (S|udq 2), il is exanined lo vhal exlenl enpIoyee vilaIily in a voik unil
inleinediales and, lheiefoie, couId expIain hov HIWIs inpacl voik unil
peifoinance oulcones. This sludy foIIovs lhe HIWS fianevoik (AppeIlaun el aI.,
2OOO) depicling lhe inleinedialing ioIe of discielionaiy lehavioui lelveen HIWIs
and oiganizalionaI peifoinance. ecause lhis chaplei diavs on lhe piincipIes of lhe
jol denands-iesouices nodeI (Deneiouli, akkei, Nachieinei & SchaufeIi, 2OO1), lhe
anaIyses undeipinning lolh sludies viII incIude lhe ioIe of quanlilalive and
enolionaI voik denands. We cIose lhis chaplei vilh an oveiviev of vhal is Iefl of
lhis disseilalions iniliaI ieseaich fianevoik.


7.2 5TUDY 1: HPW5 DETERMINANT5 OF EMPLOYEE VITALITY

7.2.1. PrcvInus rcscarch at thc IndIvIdua! !cvc!
Reseaich on voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal affecl lhe lvo vilaIily conponenls
of enpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui has liadilionaIIy focused on
deleininanls al lhe individuaI enpIoyee IeveI. Ioi exanpIe, Kaiaseks (1979) jol
denand-conlioI nodeI ained al expIaining lhe effecl of individuaI jol chaiacleiislics
on enpIoyee sliain as veII as aclive enpIoyee Ieaining lehaviouis. High jol
denands vouId chaIIenge and aclivale enpIoyees, lul onIy lo lhe exlenl lhal lhe
voik silualion piovides enpIoyees vilh enough jol conlioI lo deaI vilh high jol
denands. SulsequenlIy, lhe inleipIay lelveen jol denands and jol conlioI has
lioughl foilh a Iaige sliean of enpiiicaI ieseaich on lvo diffeienl hypolheses: a
ouffcring-|ncsis and an ac|itc |carning-|ncsis. Iiisl, in lhe luffeiing-lhesis, il is
pioposed lhal jol conlioI nodeiales lhe effecl of jol denands on jol sliain, such lhal
high denands do nol cause adveise heaIlh effecls vhen enpIoyees possess sufficienl
conlioI ovei lheii jol. Van dei Doef and Maes (1999) found lhal lhe najoiily of
enpiiicaI sludies concenlialed on lhe luffeiing-lhesis, aIlhough vilh nixed findings.
Second, lhe aclive Ieaining-lhesis slales lhal lhe inleiaclion lelveen high denands
and high IeveIs of jol conlioI vouId eneigize enpIoyees inlo aclive Ieaining
lehaviouis, feeIings of nasleiy and conpelence. AIlhough appeaIing and ieIevanl in
lhe conlexl of enpIoyee vilaIily, enpiiicaI lesls of lhis ac|itc |carning-|ncsis have nol
geneialed convincing iesuIls (Taiis, Konpiei, De Lange, SchaufeIi & Schieuis, 2OO3).
AIlhough lhe ieseaich inleiesl in Kaiaseks inleiaclion hypolheses conlinues, olhei
144
lheoielicaI nodeIs have legun lo expand Kaiaseks jol denands-conlioI nodeI and
ils lheoielicaI assunplions. One lhal has gained a gieal deaI of allenlion is lhe jol
denands-iesouices nodeI (}DR, Deneiouli, akkei, Nachieinei & SchaufeIi, 2OO1).
This noie conpiehensive nodeI conlains lvo fealuies lhal diffei fion Kaiaseks
iniliaI nodeI. Iiisl, il lakes a lioadei peispeclive on lhe jol denands and iesouices
in lhe enpIoyee voik conlexl, ly incIuding nuIlipIe denands (e.g., voikIoad,
enolionaI denands, voik-hone confIicl, ioIe oveiIoad) and nuIlipIe jol iesouices
(e.g., jol aulonony, deveIopnenlaI possiliIilies, ievaids, pailicipalion, oi
supeivisoi suppoil). Second, vilh iegaid lo lhe oulcones of lhese enpIoyee jol
chaiacleiislics il does nol assune an inleiaclion lelveen jol denands and jol
iesouices pcr sc. Ioi inslance, SchaufeIi and akkei (2OO4), akkei, Deneiouli and
Veileke (2OO4) and Van VeIdhoven, Taiis, de }onge and ioeisen (2OO5) desciile and
find lvo diffeienl expIanaloiy ioules lhal, independenl of each olhei, Iink high jol
denands lo adveise heaIlh/luin-oul oulcones and high jol iesouices lo posilive
enpIoyee oulcones Iike feeIing vigouious and dedicaled (cngagcncn|) and exlia-ioIe
lehaviouis (OC, Oigan, 1988). Theiefoie, lased on lhe veII lesled jol denands-
iesouices nodeI, il couId le hypolhesized lhal adopling a sel of HIWIs (vhich
inpacl a iange of lhe jol iesouices in de }DR nodeI - see chaplei 6) vouId posiliveIy
ieIale lo enpIoyee vigoui and enpIoyee pioaclivily. This suppoils lhe pioposilion
lhal HIWIs couId posiliveIy inpacl lolh lhe aclive peifoinance and aclive veII-
leing aspecls of enpIoyee vilaIily.

7.2.2 DIffcrcntIa! Impact nf jnb dcmands and jnb rcsnurccs
AIlhough lhe jol denands-iesouices nodeI vouId suggesl lhal neieIy a high degiee
of jol iesouices vouId enhance aclive enpIoyee oulcones, olhei sludies aIso
confiin lhal aIso jol denands can pcsi|itc|q affecl pioaclivily and peifoinance
oulcones (e.g., OhIy, Sonnenlag & IIunlke, 2OO6). SiniIaiIy, jusl Iike lhe possilIe
diffeienliaI effecls of jol denands, il can le aigued lhal jol iesouices have
diffeienliaI effecls on aclive enpIoyee oulcones. These possilIe diffeienliaI effecls
aie inpoilanl lo lhe exlenl lhal ignoiing lhen couId lIui lhe picluie of hov voik
and oiganizalionaI faclois inpacl enpIoyee vilaIily. Theiefoie, lhey aie eIaloialed
on leIov.

145
Dlfferentla| effects of ]ob resources
In lesls of lhe jol denands-iesouices nodeI, aII jol iesouices aie liealed lhe sane. In
olhei voids, each lype of iesouice (e.g., jol aulonony, deveIopnenlaI possiliIilies
oi ievaids) is incIuded as an indicaloi of a Ialenl (expeiienced) iesouicefuI voik
silualion vhich is found lo ieIale lo ceilain alliludinaI, lehaviouiaI and heaIlh-
ieIaled oulcones. AIlhough lhe choice foi lhe incIuded jol iesouices can dependenl
on lhe specifics of lhe jol oi oiganizalionaI conlexl (Deneiouli el aI., 2OO1), oveiaII, il
is assuned lhal a iesouice is a iesouice - independenl of lhe ciileiion vaiialIe
undei sludy. Hovevei, in defining jol iesouices, ieIalionships vilh oulcone ciileiia
aie incIuded. SpecificaIIy, akkei el aI. (2OO4) iefei lo jol iesouices as 'lhose physicaI,
psychoIogicaI, sociaI and oiganizalionaI aspecls of lhe jol lhal aie (1) funclionaI in
achieving voik goaIs, (2) ieduce jol denands and lhe associaled physioIogicaI and
psychoIogicaI cosls, oi (3) slinuIale peisonaI giovlh and deveIopnenl (p. 86).
InleieslingIy, lhe assunplion of an oveiaII conlinalion of voik and oiganizalionaI
faclois lhal vouId ieIale lo a nuIlilude of favouialIe enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI
oulcones aIso undeiIies nuch of lhe oiganizalionaI-IeveI HIWS Iileialuie. ul heie,
oui iesuIls in chaplei 6 shoved lhal diffeienl HIWIs evoke enpIoyee expeiiences of
diffeienl jol iesouices. AIso, nol aII of lhe exanined voik piaclices veie found lo le
ieIaled lo voik unil peifoinance, vhich enphasize lhe diffeienliaI effecls of HIWIs
as oljeclive jol iesouices.

Dlfferentla| effects of ]ob demands
IiedoninanlIy, ieseaich on lhe jol denands-iesouices nodeI find Iess favouialIe
oulcones as a iesuIl of high jol denands in leins of giealei feeIings of exhauslion
and Iess jol peifoinance (akkei el aI., 2OO4). Hovevei, Kaiasek (1979) aIieady
slaled lhal jol denands chaIIenge and eneigize enpIoyees. SiniIaiIy, }ex (1998)
slaled lhal vilhoul any denands il is nol IikeIy lhal enpIoyees viII expend any
effoil lovaids oiganizalionaI goaIs. Recenl findings aIso indicale lhal high aiousaI
does nol have lo conslilule a negalive inpacl on jol peifoinance oulcones pcr sc.
Hunlei and Thalchei (2OO7) found posilive ieIalionships lelveen feIl sliess and saIes
peifoinance foi highIy expeiienced and connilled enpIoyees. AddilionaIIy, a
iecenl nela-anaIysis ly LeIine, Iadsokoff and LeIine (2OO5) ieveaIed a dislinclion
lelveen nindrancc s|rcsscrs (e.g. oiganizalionaI poIilics, ied lape, ioIe anliguily)
vhich aie negaliveIy ieIaled lo jol peifoinance and cna||cngc-cricn|cd s|rcsscrs (e.g.,
high voikIoad, line piessuie, jol scope) vhich posiliveIy ieIale lo jol peifoinance
146


Wcrk-
uniI |eve|



Wcrk-
uniI |eve|




lncivicuc|
Leve|

vhiIe sliII leing alIe lo evoke adveise heaIlh oulcones Iike faligue. OveiaII, lhese
findings indicale lhe conpIex ieIalionship lelveen jol denands and eilhei
enpIoyee peifoinance oi veII-leing. Theiefoie, vilh iegaid lo enpIoyee vilaIily as
an aclive peifoinance and veII-leing concepl, jol denands nighl pIay a diffeienl
ioIe lovaids each of lhe dinensions of enpIoyee pioaclivily and vigoui. ecause of
lhe appaienlIy anliguous inpacl of jol denands on enpIoyee veII-leing and
peifoinance lhey viII le fuilhei incIuded.

7.2.3 DctcrmInants nf cmp!nycc vIta!Ity: A mu!tI!cvc! apprnach
ased on lhe issues desciiled alove, oljeclive jol iesouices aie nodeIIed al a
voik unil-IeveI in leins of lhe enacled HIWI lundIe and fIanking voik piaclices
as desciiled in Chaplei 6. }ol denands aie exanined al lhe individuaI IeveI. Ioi
lolh aspecls diffeienliaI ieIalionships aie expecled vilh iegaid lo enpIoyee
pioaclivily and enpIoyee vigoui. Iiguie 7-1 shovs a concepluaI nodeI of Sludy 1 of
vhich lhe hypolheses aie desciiled nexl.

F|gure 7-1: A Hu|t||eve| 0eterm|nants of Emp|oyee v|ta||ty (8tudy 1}

Employee Vitality

v|gour
Proacl|v|ly

[0bjective} Job Resources

* Allracl|ve wages
wor| L|le 8a|arce

[0bjective} Job Resources

lPwP 8urd|e

|nd|v|dua|- |eve|

work un|t |eve|

[3ubjective} Job 0emands

wor||oad & Pace
Erol|ora| derards

147
7.2.4 IndIvIdua!-!cvc! dctcrmInants: Jnb Dcmands
In geneiaI, high jol denands aie leIieved lo inpaii pioaclive enpIoyee lehaviouis
as high jol-focused effoil expendiluie vouId exhausl lhe iesouices lo expend exlia
effoil on exlia-ioIe lehaviouis Iike laking inilialive oi leing pioaclive (akkei el aI.,
2OO4). In conliasl, Iay and Sonnenlag (2OO2) lake a conlioI-lheoielicaI peispeclive
(Caivei & Scheiei, 1982), vhich slales lhal enpIoyees pioacliveIy seIf-ieguIale lhe
denands in lhe voik enviionnenl lhal vouId aIso inpaii lheii heaIlh. In doing so,
high denands can inpaii enpIoyee heaIlh and peifoinance, lul lhis signaIs
enpIoyees lo pioacliveIy lake aclion eilhei ly inilialing changes in lhe (exleinaI)
voik piocess oi lhiough upgiading (inleinaI) skiIIs, knovIedge and aliIilies
(IoIknan & Lazaius, 1984). High denands vouId lheiefoie liiggei enpIoyee
pioaclivily in oidei lo iesloie piesenl and fuluie oplinun IeveIs of peifoinance and
heaIlh. In Iine vilh lhis ieasoning, Iay el aI. (2OO2) and OhIy, Sonnenlag and IIunlke
(2OO6) indeed found a posilive ieIalionship lelveen line piessuie denands and
peisonaI inilialive. Oui fiisl hypolhesis ieads:

HypnthcsIs 1a: High jol denands ieIale posiliveIy lo enpIoyee pioaclivily

Wilh iegaid lo aclive heaIlh concepl of enpIoyee vigoui, ve expecl lhal high jol
denands vouId diain lhe enpIoyees eneigelic iesouices. This foIIovs lhe
liadilionaI luin-oul piocess, in vhich high denands iequiie suslained physicaI and
nenlaI effoil and invoIves physicaI and psychoIogicaI cosls (MasIach & Leilei, 1997,
SchaufeIi & akkei, 2OO4). The highei lhe denands, lhe noie lhey viII exhausl lhe
eneigelic iesouices up lo a poinl lhal noie effoil expendiluie vouId Iead lo heaIlh
danaging effecls. Theiefoie, aIongside lhe piocess of eneigy depIelion, lhe
viIIingness lo expend exlia effoil viII diop in oidei lo conseive lhe nininaI
necessaiy eneigelic iesouices (HolfoII, 1989). Hence, lhe second hypolhesis ieads:

HypnthcsIs 1b: High jol denands ieIale negaliveIy lo enpIoyee vigoui


7.2.5 Wnrk unIt-!cvc! dctcrmInants: cnrc and f!ankIng HPWPs
In lhe noie inleivenlion-oiienled HIWS Iileialuie, Chaplei 6 exanined lhe exlenl lo
vhich ceilain HIWIs eIicil ceilain enpIoyee expeiiences of jol iesouices. In ieIalion
lo lhe pioaclivily and vigoui dinension of enpIoyee vilaIily, lheie has leen IillIe
148
ieseaich on lhe diiecl inpacl of voik unil-IeveI enacled HIWIs on lhese enpIoyee
oulcones. Reseaich ly Tsui, Ieaice, Ioilei and TiipoIi (1997) and Sun, Aiyee and
Lav (2OO7) do find a posilive ieIalionship lelveen nanagenenl ialings of HIWIs
and enpIoyees engaging in oiganizalionaI cilizenship lehavioui (OC). One of lhe
nosl pionising sludies is ly eIlian-Mailin el aI. (2OO8), vho lesled lhe effecl of an
oveiaII HIWS neasuie on a neasuie of hunan iesouice fIexiliIily, vhich consisled
of dinensions siniIai lo jol and deveIopnenlaI enpIoyee pioaclivily. Theii iesuIls
shov lhal a lundIe of HIWIs had an effecl on oiganizalionaI saIes peifoinance via
lhe enhancenenl of hunan iesouice fIexiliIily. ul as vas found in Chaplei 6, nol aII
HIWIs affecl lhe sane enpIoyee voik expeiiences. So aie lheie diffeienliaI
ieIalionships vilh lhe enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions, vhich, diffeienl fion lhe
hunan iesouice fIexiliIily neasuie, consisls of enpIoyee pioaclivily and enpIoyee
vigoui`

Core" HPWP bund|e
Wilh iegaid lo lhe enhancenenl of jol and deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily, il is expecled
lhal lhe voik unils HIWI lundIe (incIuding a high enphasis on funclionaI liaining,
caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency) viII have lhe sliongesl effecl.
Oui eaiIiei findings in Chaplei 6 shov lhal a HIWI lundIe affecls s|i||-rc|a|cd
aspecls (expeiienced Ieaining/deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies and jol-educalionaI
nalch), ucr| crganiza|icna|-rc|a|cd aspecls (oplinaI slaffing IeveIs) and jco dcsign-
rc|a|cd aspecls (jol vaiiely and lo sone exlenl jol aulonony). In desciiling lhe
anlecedenls of enpIoyee inilialive laking (vhich appioaches lhe pioaclivily
concepl), Iiese and Iay (2OO1) dislinguish lelveen lhe enpIoyees knovIedge, skiIIs
and aliIilies (KSA) and voik and oiganizalionaI condilions of conlioI and
conpIexily lhal vouId pionole enpIoyee pioaclivily. olh aspecls aie found lo le
ieIaled lo lhe enpIoyees cognilive conlioI oi seIf-efficacy (lhe feeIing lhal one
possesses lhe nasleiy lo handIe lhe jol veII) and lask conlioI (lhe feeIing lhal one
has conlioI ovei hov lhe jol is done). When enpIoyees feeI in conlioI of lheii voik
silualion and lhe oulcones of lheii voik, Iiese and Iay (in Iaikei el aI., 2OO7) aigue
'lhey viII have a sliong sense of iesponsiliIily, viII nol give up easiIy, viII seaich foi
oppoilunilies lo acl, shouId have hopes foi success (and lheiefoie a Iong lein
peispeclive), and viII acliveIy seaich foi infoinalion (p. 638). This is aIso heIpfuI
vilh iegaid lo lhe enpIoyees confionlalion vilh possilIe negalive consequences of
149
laking inilialive oi lehaving pioacliveIy ly chaIIenging lhe slalus quo (Cianl,
2OOO). Theiefoie, lhe hypolhesis ieads:

HypnthcsIs 2a: The HIWI lundIe (consisling of funclionaI liaining,
caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency) ieIales noie sliongIy lo
enpIoyee pioaclivily lhan lo enpIoyee vigoui

||anklng" uork ractlces
AIleinaliveIy, foi lhe inlensily of lhe fIanking piaclices conceining ucr| |ifc oa|ancc
and a||rac|itc uagcs, a sliongei ieIalionship vilh enpIoyee vigoui is expecled. As
lhey veie found lo le noie sliongIy ieIaled lo lhe enpIoyee expeiience of a good
effoil ievaid laigain, financiaI giovlh oppoilunilies and voik Iife laIance suppoil,
lhey possilIy acl as conpensaloiy piaclices. As such, lhey piovide good financiaI
conpensalion and adequale line conpensalion in favoui of lhe enpIoyee. IoIIoving
lhe noin of iecipiocily (CouIdnei, 196O), alliaclive alove-naikel vages can le
aigued lo evoke an enpIoyees viIIingness lo invesl eneigy in lhe jol. Olheivise,
Vandenleig el aI. (1999) aigued lhal voik Iife laIance piaclices give enpIoyees noie
conlioI ovei lheii voik-Iife silualion. This lype of voik line conlioI gives enpIoyees
lhe oppoilunily lo conline lhe iequiienenls of voik and Iife, vhich vouId pievenl
lhe depIelion of enpIoyee eneigy lhal is found lo foIIov fion confIicls lelveen
voik and Iife/faniIy olIigalions (Deneiouli, Taiis & akkei, 2OO7). Theiefoie, il is
expecled lhal alliaclive vages and voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls ieIale noie
sliongIy lo enpIoyee vigoui.

HypnthcsIs 2b: Alliaclive vages and voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls ieIale
noie sliongIy lo enpIoyee vigoui lhan lo enpIoyee pioaclivily

Core" x ||anklng" uork ractlces
Alove, lhe coie HIWI lundIe, alliaclive vages and voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls
aie liealed as sepaiale HIWI deleininanls of enpIoyee vilaIily. Hovevei,
conlinalions nighl conslilule addilionaI effecls. This foIIovs a syslens (DeIeiy,
1998) appioach lo HRM, vhich slales lhal voik piaclices aie inleiieIaled and shouId
inleiacl oi voik logelhei in achieving lheii effecls (Ichniovski el aI., 1997). Ioi
exanpIe, DeIeiy (1998) noles lhal vhen oiganizalions highIy invesls in liaining and
deveIopnenl piogians vilhoul ensuiing lhal pay-IeveIs aie conpelilive, lhey iun
150
lhe iisk lhal lhe liaining/deveIopnenl inveslnenls viII nol pay off lecause
enpIoyees inlenld lo Ieave lhe oiganizalion foi highei pay eIsevheie. Olheivise,
Osleinan (in While, HiII, McCovein, MiIIs & Snealon, 2OO3) iepoils lhal US
oiganizalions lhal adopl HIWIs aIso adopl fIexilIe voiking line oi caieei-lieak
piaclices in oidei lo piovide noie scope lo laIance voik denands vilh lhe
enpIoyees faniIy and/oi non-voik olIigalions. AddilionaIIy, While el aI. (2OO3)
indeed found a luffeiing effecl of voik Iife piaclices (e.g. fIex-line aiiangenenls) on
lhe inpacl of HIWIs on negalive jco-|c-ncnc spi|| ctcr (lhe adveise effecl of voik on
pailneis and faniIy Iife). In a siniIai vein, in chaplei 6, ve aIso found a negalive
ieIalionship lelveen lhe HIWI lundIe and enpIoyee expeiiences of voik Iife
suppoil. When laking inlo consideialion lhe possilIe inleiaclions lelveen lhe coie
HIWI lundIe and eilhei alliaclive vages oi voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls, lvo
inleiaclion effecls can le expecled. The fiisl slales lhal alliaclive vages suppoil an
addilionaI effecl of a HIWI lundIe lovaids enpIoyee pioaclivily, lecause high
vages couId connil enpIoyees lo lheii jol/caieei vilhin lhe sanc oiganizalion.
Second, ve expecl lhal voik-Iife laIance aiiangenenls suppoil an addilionaI effecl
of a HIWI lundIe lovaids enpIoyee vigoui lecause of a IikeIy ieduclion of lhe iisk
lhal a HIWI lundIe negaliveIy inpacls enpIoyee vigoui lhiough incieased confIicls
lelveen voik denands and ones piivale non-voik silualion. This Ieads lo lhe
foIIoving hypolheses:

HypnthcsIs 3a: Alliaclive vages nodeiale lhe ieIalionship lelveen HIWI
lundIe inlensily and enpIoyee pioaclivily, lhis ieIalionship is sliongei vhen
lhe enaclnenl of alliaclive vages is noie inlense.

HypnthcsIs 3b: Woik Life aIance nodeiales lhe ieIalionship lelveen HIWI
lundIe inlensily and enpIoyee vigoui, lhis ieIalionship is sliongei vhen lhe
enaclnenl of Woik Life aIance piaclices is noie inlense.


7.4 METHOD5

Data co||ectlon, sam|e structure and resonse
SiniIai lo lhe dala galheiing pioceduie desciiled in Chaplei 6, lhis dala veie
coIIecled as a pail of a sludy incIuding nanagenenl inleivievs and enpIoyee
151
suiveys conducled lelveen May 2OO6 and Ieliuaiy 2OO7. Wilhin a lolaI of 12
oiganizalions, dala veie coIIecled al lhe opeialionaI, fiisl-Iine nanagenenl IeveI,
vhich iesuIled in a voiking sanpIe of 53 voik unils pioviding nanagenenl iepoils
on enacled high peifoinance voik piaclices and enpIoyee seIf-iepoils on jol
denands and enpIoyee vilaIily. Iiguie 7-1 shovs lhe sanpIe sliucluie.


Tab|e 7-1: 8amp|e structure, # raters, # matched ||ne-hR rat|ng, survey response
8ector 0rgan|zat|on # work
un|ts
# hR
Raters
# L|ne
Raters
# Hatched
Rat|ngs
# 0|str|buted
8urveys
8urveys (7
response}
$erv|ces 3ecur|ly 3erv|ces 3 1 3 3 22 53 (21)
lT Corsu|larcy 1 1 1 1 31 20 (5)
Po||cy Researcr 2 2 1 2 3 13 (8)
F|rarc|a| / 8ar| 111 101 (91)
lnousrr, Tecrr|ca| 3upporl 2 1 2 2 Z2 18 (25)
Repa|r 3erv|ces Z 1 Z Z 2Z8 100 (3)
Corslrucl|or 1 1 1 1 123 52 (12)
0ua||ly Corlro| 1 1 1 1 10 30 (Z5)
Sovernmenr Cuslors / Corlro| 1 1 1 1 112 1 (51)
Loca| 0overrrerl 2 1 1 2 2Z 11 (11)
Veo|ca|/0are losp|la| 11 11 11 50Z 20Z (11)
Eoucar|on E|ererlary 3croo| 7 J 7 7 205 68 {JJ/j
Tora|//verage 5J 25 5' 5J {'00/j '795 764 {4J/j


In oidei lo neasuie enacled HIWIs, ve laigeled al sliucluied face-lo-face
nanagenenl inleivievs in aII 53 voik unils. Ioi each of lhe voik unils ve ollained
dala diieclIy fion lhe fiisl-Iine nanageis iesponsilIe foi lhe execulion of HRM
aclivilies in lhe voik unils. In lvo cases, Iine nanageis had an inleiin-iesponsiliIily
foi one olhei voik unil, vhich nakes lhal 51 Iine ialeis accounl foi 53 voik ialings.
Iuilheinoie, foi each of lhe voik unils, ve aIso ollained nalched dala fion
inleinaI HRM advisois, nanageis oi speciaIisls vho veie funclionaIIy Iinked lo lhe
Iine nanageis. y incIuding lvo ialeis foi lhe sane voik unil ve pailIy conlioI foi
lhe Iaige anounl of neasuienenl eiioi found in singIe-ialei sludies on HRM
piaclices (Ceihail, Wiighl, McMahan & SneII, 2OOO). Ioi each of lhe incIuded voik
152
unils, ve ollained enpIoyee dala on expeiienced jol denands an enpIoyee vilaIily,
of vhich lhe ilens veie incIuded in a Iaigei enpIoyee suivey conducled lhioughoul
lhe vhoIe oiganizalion. Ioi lhe seIecled voik unils, a lolaI of 1795 non-nanageiiaI
enpIoyees ieceived haid-copy oi (eIeclionic) vel-lased queslionnaiies. In aII cases,
excepl lhe eIeclionic ones, slanped enveIopes veie allached lo lhe queslionnaiies,
vhich veie addiessed diieclIy lo lhe aulhois univeisily addiess. In lolaI, 764
conpIeled queslionnaiies couId le used, an aveiage iesponse of 43.

Sam|e Characterlstlcs

|inc/HR Sanp|c Of lhe 51 Iine-nanageis vho ialed HIWIs in 53 voik unils,
8O veie naIe vilh aveiage jol lenuie of 4 yeais. Of lhe 25 HR advisois 56 veie
naIe, vilh aveiage jol lenuie of 5 yeais. Line nanageis iepoiled an aveiage
fiequency of 3-4 lines pei nonlh vheie lheie vas foinaI conlacl lelveen Iine and
HR (e.g., neelings).
|np|cqcc Sanp|c The sanpIe conslilules a nixluie of highei skiIIed and Iovei
skiIIed funclionaI calegoiies, such as nuises, IT consuIlanls, secuiily agenls, leacheis,
poIicy advisois, noilgage advisois, lechnicians and opeialois. The aveiage age in lhe
lolaI sanpIe vas 41.O yeais. Of lhe enpIoyee sanpIe 5O.3 is naIe. In lhe sanpIe,
36.9 of lhe enpIoyees have a highei vocalionaI liaining oi a univeisily degiee. The
aveiage nunlei of conliacluaI houis/veek is 32.3 (SD = 1O.1 houis/veek), and lhe
aveiage nunlei of yeais in lhe oiganizalion is 1O.8 (SD = 1O.2 yeais).

Enacted HPWPs Measures
In chaplei 4 and 5, lhe exacl neasuienenl issues conceining lhe enacled HIWIs can
le found. Ioi lhis sludy, ve incIuded lhiee sepaiale HIWI vaiialIes. See lhe
appendix of chaplei 4 foi an oveiviev of lhe ilens lhal veie incIuded.
HPlP ound|c IoIIoving lhe iesuIls fion Chaplei 6, a HIWI lundIe scoie vas
conposed on lhe lasis of lhe addilive scoies of lhiee HIWIs. Ioi lhe inlensily in lhe
enaclnenl of func|icna| |raining, carccr dctc|cpncn| and in|crna| s|affing cfficicncq, ve
found siniIai effecls on enpIoyee voik expeiiences. This juslified lhe piediclive
vaIidily of an addilive lundIe scoie lo lhe exlenl lhal a nunlei of HIWIs in a
lundIe aie IikeIy lo have giealei expIanaloiy slienglh lovaids lhe sane enpIoyee
oulcones. In conliasl, lundIing HIWIs lhal voik al cioss puiposes (aIlhough in
oiganizalionaI piaclice lhey couId le found lo le consislenlIy adopled logelhei)
153
vouId nol le appiopiiale. As such, adding up lhe lhiee sepaiale and ieIialIe HIWI
inlensily scoies (vhich each couId iange fion 1-5) conposed a HPlP ound|c
inlensily scoie (see aIso, Sun el aI., 2OO7, SeIs el aI., 2OO6a, 2OO6l). ConsequenlIy, lhe
HIWI lundIe scoie ianges fion 3-15.
A||rac|itc lagcs/8cncfi|s The alliaclive vages neasuie incIuded 1O ilens.
Respondenls ialed a diveisily of aspecls incIuding lhe vage IeveI as opposed lo
conpaialIe oiganizalions and lhe exlenl nanageis have Ieevay in negolialing vage
IeveIs vhen good enpIoyees lhiealen lo Ieave lhe voik unil. Scoies on lhis neasuie
ianged fion 1 lo 5, indicaling lhe IeveI oi inlensily of alliaclive vages. Ioi lhis
sepaiale HIWI scaIe lhe ieIialiIily vas .73.
lcr| |ifc 8a|ancc The voik Iife laIance neasuie incIuded 5 ilens lhal lap lhe
exlenl lo vhich a voik unil nakes use of ceilain voik Iife aiiangenenls (e.g., fIex-
line, aIleinalive veekIy voik houis (e.g., 4 x 9 houis, oppoilunily lo lenpoiaiiIy
voik pail-line) and lhal lhe voik unil can adjusl lo changes in lhe individuaI
enpIoyees peisonaI Iife. Scoies on lhis neasuie ianged fion 1 lo 5, indicaling lhe
inlensily of enacled voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls. Ioi lhis singIe HIWI lhe
ieIialiIily vas .7O.

Exerlenced ]ob Demands Measures

Ioi lhe neasuienenl of expeiienced jol denands ve incIuded lvo neasuies.
Quan|i|a|itc ucr||cad Iiisl, a pace & anounl of voik neasuie iefeis lo
quanlilalive voikIoad in a Iiniled sense: hov nuch voik is lheie lo le done in hov
nuch line` The ilens veie laken fion lhe vaIidaled VA queslionnaiie (Van
VeIdhoven & Meijnan, 1994) and iefIecl lhe }CQ quanlilalive voikIoad queslions
(Kaiasek el aI., 1985). A sanpIe ilen is 'Dc qcu ucr| undcr |inc prcssurc?. LnpIoyees
couId ansvei on a 4 poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs). The ieIialiIily of lhis 6-
ilen scaIe vas .85.
|nc|icna| dcnands Second, ve incIuded an enolionaI jol denands scaIe,
vhich iefIecls lhe degiee lo vhich enpIoyees aie confionled vilh voik silualions
lhal denand enolionaI ieaclions in inleiaclions vilh coIIeagues, cusloneis oi
palienls. A sanpIe ilen is 'In qcur ucr|, arc qcu ccnfrcn|cd ui|n |nings |na| affcc| qcu
pcrscna||q`. Respondenls couId ansvei on a 4-poinl scaIe (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs).
AIso lhis neasuie vas laken fion lhe VA queslionnaiie. The ieIialiIily of lhis 4-
ilen scaIe vas .68.
154
Em|oee Vlta|lt Measures
The enpIoyee vilaIily conponenls of pioaclivily and vigoui veie neasuied vilh
nev scaIes in lhe Dulch Ianguage. Ioi lhe lackgiound and vaIidily of lhe enpIoyee
vilaIily neasuies desciiled leIov, ve iefei lo chaplei 4.
]co Prcac|iti|q Ioi jco prcac|iti|q, ve incIuded 5 ilens lhal veie pailIy deiived
fion lhe IeisonaI Inilialive ScaIe (Iiese Iay, HiIluigei, Leng, & Tag, 1997) and lhe
Taking Chaige ScaIe (Moiiison & IheIps, 1999). Iiisl, lhiee ilens iefIecl lhe exlenl lo
vhich enpIoyees iniliale nev vays of voiking and soIve piolIens vhen voik
piocesses conlain inefficiencies, (|n nq ucr|, | na|c suggcs|icns |c inprctc |nc uaq uc
ucr|, lncn ucr| nc|ncds cr prcccdurcs arc nc| cffcc|itc, | |rq |c dc scnc|ning aocu| i|
and 'lncn scnc|ning is nc| rign| in |nc uaq ucr| is dcnc arcund ncrc, | |rq |c inprctc i|).
Second, one ilen laps lhe degiee of enpIoyees laking inilialive lo chaIIenge lhe
slalus quo ('| |a|c ini|ia|itc ctcn uncn c|ncrs dcn|). Thiid, lecause inpIenenling nev
inilialives oflen needs supeivisoi suppoil, ve incIuded one ilen lo ask vhelhei
enpIoyees lake aclion ly acliveIy discussing inpiovenenls vilh lheii diiecl
supeivisoi (| discuss ucr| nc|ncds ui|n nq supcrtiscr, uncn | |nin| |ncq ccu|d oc
inprctcd). Ilens veie ansveied on a 5-poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc |c 5 = |argc|q
agrcc). The ieIialiIily of lhis scaIe vas .89.
Dctc|cpncn|a| Prcac|iti|q To neasuie dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q ve incIuded 5
ilens lhal veie pailIy deiived fion lhe Leaining Molivalion ScaIe (Taiis, Konpiei,
De Lange, SchaufeIi & Schieuis, 2OO3) and lhe }ol Aspiialion ScaIe (Waii, 199O).
IoIIoving lhe ieasoning of Kaiasek and TheoieII (199O) and Taiis el aI. (2OO3), lhe
ilens iefIecl lhe degiee of laking aclion lo change ones lehaviouiaI palleins. We
incIuded lhiee ilens lhal lapped lhe degiee lo vhich enpIoyees sel chaIIenging
goaIs and acliveIy Iook foi silualions in vhich lhey can expand lheii skiIIs and
knovIedge (|n nq ucr| | sc| nqsc|f cna||cnging gca|s, '|n nq ucr|, | scarcn fcr pccp|c
frcn uncn | can |carn scnc|ning and |n nq ucr|, | |ccp |rqing |c |carn ncu |nings).
Iuilheinoie, ve incIuded lvo ilens lhal lapped lhe degiee lo vhich enpIoyees aie
conceined vilh and seIf-assess fuluie skiIIs and knovIedge needs, as veII as lake
aclion lo adapl lo lhese eslinaled fuluie needs (| |nin| aocu| ncu | can |ccp dcing a
gccd jco in |nc fu|urc and li|n rcgard |c nq s|i||s and |ncu|cdgc, | scc |c i| |na| | can ccpc
ui|n cnangcs in nq ucr|). Ilens veie ansveied on a 5-poinl scaIe (1 = |argc|q disagrcc
|c 5 = |argc|q agrcc). The ieIialiIily of lhis scaIe vas .82.

155
Atai|aoi|i|q cf |ncrgq Ioi neasuiing lhe atai|aoi|i|q cf cncrgq ve used 5 ilens
lhal veie nodeIIed aflei vigoui-ilens in lhe Uliechl Woik Lngagenenl ScaIe
(SchaufeIi el aI., 2OO2) and lhe Suljeclive VilaIily ScaIe (Ryan & Iiedeiick, 1997). The
ansveiing scaIe asks iespondenls lo iale lhe fiequency of feeIings of eneigy duiing
lhe vhoIe voik day in 4 poinls (1 = nctcr |c 4 = a|uaqs). Thiough lhis ve conlioI
vhelhei IeveIs of eneigy do nol syslenalicaIIy gel diained duiing lhe voikday. Wilh
lhe ilens ve ained al slalIe IeveIs of eneigy fion lhe leginning lo lhe end of lhe
voik day (c.g., A| |nc ocginning cf a ucr|ing daq | natc p|cn|q cf cncrgq, and 8q |nc cnd
cf |nc ucr|ing daq | can s|i|| adcqua|c|q ccnccn|ra|c cn nq ucr|). The ieIialiIily of lhis
scaIe vas .83.
li||ingncss |c |ntcs| |ncrgq Ioi neasuiing lhe enpIoyees ui||ingncss |c intcs|
cncrgq inlo lhe jol, ve used 4 ieveised coded ilens oiiginaIIy pail of lhe |as|
rcsis|ancc scaIe ieliieved fion lhe VA queslionnaiie (Van VeIdhoven & Meijnan,
1994). On lhese ilens, iespondenls scoiing Iov on lheii iesislance lo do and invesl in
lheii jol (lasks) aie lhen IikeIy lo scoie high on lhe viIIingness lo invesl and expend
effoil inlo lheii jol lasks (c.g., | dc nq ucr| occausc | natc |c, and |na| saqs i| a|| and |
natc |c ccn|inua||q ctcrccnc nq rcsis|ancc in crdcr |c dc nq ucr|, rctcrsc ccdcd, 1 =
s|rcng|q agrcc |c 5 =s|rcng|q disagrcc). The ieIialiIily of lhis scaIe vas .81.

Contro| Varlab|es
In oui anaIysis, ve conlioIIed foi lhiee individuaI-IeveI denogiaphic vaiialIes
(gendei, age, educalion) and 1 vaiialIe al a highei IeveI (voik unil size). Il is
iegaided inpoilanl lo conlioI foi lhese vaiialIes lecause lhey nay infIuence
enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions. Ioi inslance, a highei age couId nean fuilhei
piogiession in an enpIoyees caieei slage vhich ieduces a pioaclive oiienlalion lo
ones fuluie deveIopnenl (Waii & Iay, 2OO1). To conlioI foi individuaI denogiaphic
diffeiences, ve incIuded a conlinuous scaIe foi enpIoyee age and calegoiicaI
indicalois foi gendei (1 = fcna|c) and educalion (1 = |cucr cduca|icn, 6 = nigncr
cduca|icn). To conlioI foi voik unil size, ve look lhe alsoIule nunlei of disliiluled
suiveys pei voik unil vhiIe lhe suivey ieseaich vas laigeled al suiveying aII
enpIoyees in lhe seIecled voik unils.

Ana|tlca| Procedure
The foui dependenl vilaIily vaiialIes lo le lesled in lhis sludy aie aII al lhe
individuaI IeveI (jol pioaclivily, deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily, avaiIaliIily of eneigy,
156
viIIingness lo invesl effoil). TalIe 7-2 shovs lhal foi lhe enpIoyee vilaIily vaiialIes,
a significanl anounl of vaiiance is expIained al lhe voik unil IeveI (ICC1). This
suggesls lhal il is inpoilanl lo expIain vaiiance al lhe individuaI IeveI in lhese
dependenl vaiialIes, lul aIso lo liy lo expIain vaiiance in enpIoyee vilaIily lhal is
shaied ly voik unil nenleis. This, laken logelhei vilh lhe facl lhal independenl
vaiialIes aie neasuied al lhe individuaI IeveI and lhe voik unil IeveI, nakes an
Oidinaiy Leasl Squaies iegiession nol appiopiiale foi lesling lhe deleininanls of
enpIoyee vilaIily. Theiefoie, nuIli IeveI anaIysis is lhe slalislicaI looI of choice foi
lhe cuiienl sludy (iyk & Raudenlusch, 1992, KIein & KozIovski, 2OOO).

Tab|e 7-2: F -tests and |66 va|ues for emp|oyee v|ta||ty sca|es
8ca|e Name F-test |66(1} |66(2}
Joo Proacl|v|ly 1.85 .05 .11
0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly 2.0Z1 .0Z .51
Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy 1.ZZ0 .05 .11
w||||rgress lo |rvesl Erergy 5.013 .21 .80
Erp|oyee n = Z1; wor| ur|l n = 53; p < .01; p < .05


MuIli-IeveI anaIyses veie peifoined (using MLWIN veision 2.O2). Iiisl, aII vaiialIes
fiisl veie slandaidized. Slepvise, lhe conlioI vaiialIes veie enleied in slep 1, lhe
individuaI-IeveI jol denands in slep 2, lhe lhiee voik unil IeveI HIWI vaiialIes in
slep 3 and lvo HIWI inleiaclion leins in slep 4. Ioui equalions veie conpuled:
lvo equalions vilh pioaclivily as lhe dependenl vaiialIe (jol and deveIopnenlaI
pioaclivily) and lvo equalions vilh vigoui as lhe dependenl vaiialIe (avaiIaliIily of
eneigy and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy). Ioi aII independenl HIWI vaiialIes onIy
fixed effecls aie assessed in lhe equalion, as lheie is onIy syslenalic vaiialion
lelveen lhe unils. Ioi lhe individuaI-IeveI independenl vaiialIes, aIso fixed effecls
veie enleied inlo lhe equalion. The nuIli-IeveI anaIysis iesuIls in eslinales and
slandaid eiiois foi each of lhe independenl vaiialIes. They veie evaIualed foi
significance using lhe T-slalislic.

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158
7.4 RE5ULT5 5TUDY 1

7.4.1 DcscrIptIvc statIstIcs and cnrrc!atInns
TalIe 7-3 shovs lhe desciiplives and coiieIalions of lhe nain vaiialIes in lhis sludy.
They iepiesenl lhe coiieIalions al lhe individuaI-IeveI conlaining disaggiegaled
scoies foi lhe HIWI vaiialIes. The naliix shovs lhal lhe coie HIWI lundIe
conslilules coiieIalions vilh aII foui vilaIily scaIes. As expecled, alliaclive vages and
voik-Iife laIance aiiangenenls aie posiliveIy coiieIaled vilh lhe lvo enpIoyee
vioui scaIes, lul shov veakei oi no significanl posilive coiieIalions vilh lhe lvo
enpIoyee pioaclivily scaIes. Iuilheinoie, il appeais lhal enpIoyee age has a cIeai
posilive significanl ieIalionship vilh enpIoyee vigoui. The nuIli-IeveI lesls aie
desciiled in lhe nexl paiagiaph.

7.4.2 Mu!tI-!cvc! rcsu!ts fnr thc dctcrmInant nf cmp!nycc vIta!Ity
TalIe 7-4 shovs lhe iesuIls of slep 3 and slep 4 of lhe nuIli-IeveI anaIysis foi lhe
individuaI and voik unil deleininanls of enpIoyee vilaIily. When lhe added
vaiialIes in slep 4 did nol inpiove lhe nodeI, ve discuss lhe iesuIls shovn in slep 3.

Contro| tarlab|es
OveiaII, lhe conlioI vaiialIes shov no significanl effecls, vilh lhe exceplion of
gendei (fenaIe) and age vhich ieIaled posiliveIy lo jol pioaclivily. Theie veie aIso
sliong posilive ieIalionships lelveen age and lolh dinensions of enpIoyee vigoui.

]ob Demands
As vas expecled, expeiienced jol denands aie found lo le posilive ieIaled lo
enpIoyee pioaclivily, vhiIe lhey ieIale negaliveIy lo enpIoyee vigoui. The iesuIls
shov lhal noie enolionaI denands Iink posiliveIy lo lolh jol and deveIopnenlaI
pioaclivily. Hovevei, il is lhe degiee of voikIoad lhal has a negalive ieIalionship
vilh lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy and viIIingness lo invesl. On lhe one hand, lhis
dislinguishes quaIilalive fion quanlilalive jol denands in ieIalionship lo enpIoyee
vilaIily and inpIies lhal nol aII denands have siniIai effecls. On lhe olhei hand, lhe
cIeai pallein of a posilive ieIalionship foi pioaclivily veisus a negalive ieIalionship
foi enpIoyee vigoui enphasizes lhe dislinclive chaiaclei of lolh vilaIily
conponenls. QuaIilalive jol denands can liiggei aclive lehaviouiaI oulcones, vhiIe
quanlilalive denands can dininish aclive heaIlh oulcones.

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160
HPWP Bund|e
Ioi lhe HIWI lundIe iepiesenling lhe inlensily of lhe voik unils enaclnenl of
funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency, ve found
posilive ieIalionships vilh aII foui enpIoyee vilaIily scaIes. This confiins oui iniliaI
hypolheses lo a gieal exlenl. Hovevei, noie specificaIIy, ve piedicled a sliongei
ieIalionship vilh enpIoyee pioaclivily lhan vilh enpIoyee vigoui. This vas found
foi enpIoyee eneigy of vhich lhe slienglh of lhe ieIalionship vas snaIIei and neaiIy
significanl (p < .1O). Hovevei, foi lhe enpIoyees viIIingness lo invesl eneigy, lhe
iesuIls shov lhe sliongesl posilive ieIalionship vilh lhe HIWI lundIe, vhich is
pailIy conliaiy lo oui hypolheses. AII in aII, lhe finding lhal a HIWI lundIe nakes a
posilive diffeience foi indicalois of enpIoyee pioaclivily and vigoui confiins lhe
inpoilanl ioIe oljeclive jol iesouices pIay in pionoling enpIoyee vilaIily, aIso
vhen conlioIIing foi jol denands.

Attractlte uages / Work Llfe Ba|ance
Ioi lhe sepaiale HIWIs il vas hypolhesized lhal lhey vouId conslilule a sliongei
ieIalionship vilh enpIoyee vigoui. The iesuIls shov lhal lhe exlenl lo vhich a voik
unil piovides alliaclive vages ieIales posiliveIy lo lhe enpIoyees avaiIaliIily of
eneigy, vhich pailIy confiins lhe hypolhesis. Hovevei, lhe ienaining ieIalionships
vilh lolh lhe enpIoyees viIIingness lo invesl eneigy and pioaclivily veie nol
significanl. This indicales lhal lhese HRM piaclices do nol pIay a convincing ioIe
vilh iegaid lo lhe pionolion of aclive enpIoyee oulcones. In addilion, lhe iesuIls
aIso shov a snaII negalive and neaiIy significanl effecl of voik Iife laIance piaclices
and deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily.

lnteractlon effects
IoIIoving lhe alsence of significanl ieIalionships of alliaclive vages and voik Iife
laIance aiiangenenls vilh enpIoyee vilaIily, lhe inleiaclion vilh a HIWI lundIe
aIso did nol ieveaI any posilive significanl ieIalionships. SuipiisingIy, ve did find a
sliong lul negalive inleiaclion effecl lelveen HIWI lundIe and alliaclive vages on
lhe viIIingness lhe invesl eneigy. Taking inlo accounl lhe sliong posilive effecl of a
HIWI lundIe on lhe enpIoyees viIIingness lo invesl eneigy, lhe negalive
inleiaclion indicales lhal pioviding alliaclive vages luffeis oi lenpeis lhe posilive
effecls of an HIWI lundIe. Again, lhis finding indicales lhal nol aII HIWIs aie aIike
and even nighl olsliucl each olheis effecliveness.
161
7.5 CONCLU5ION5 5TUDY 1
In Sludy 1, il vas lesled vhelhei and vhich HIWI vaiialIes pionole individuaI
enpIoyee vilaIily. y using nuIli-IeveI anaIyses ve couId lesl lhe inpacl of voik
unil-IeveI HIWIs (as oljeclive jol iesouices) and individuaI-IeveI jol denands on
lhe foui vilaIily scaIes. The foIIoving concIusions couId le diavn:

Iiisl, lhe iesuIls shoved lhal lhe coie HIWI lundIe dislinguished in
Chaplei 6 ieIaled significanlIy lo aII foui vilaIily dinensions. This indicales
lhal voik unils vhich lo a Iaige exlenl (1) piovide funclionaI liaining, (2)
slinuIale lheii enpIoyee in lheii funclionaI jol oi caieei giovlh and (3)
efficienlIy depIoy coie enpIoyees in ieacling lo fIuclualions in exleinaI
denands do indeed pionole enpIoyee vilaIily - aIlhough lhe ieIalionship
vilh lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy vas veak. This oveiaII finding is in Iine vilh
lhe posilive ieIalionships found lelveen individuaI-IeveI jol iesouices and
vigoui and pioaclivily (SaIanova & SchaufeIi, 2OO8). AddilionaIIy, lhis sludy
suggesls lhal oljeclive unil-IeveI indicalois of enpIoyee jol iesouices aIso
conslilule effecls on enpIoyee oulcones. This is nol suipiising given lhe
ieseaich findings lhal individuaI expeiiences of voik iesouices aie IaigeIy
shaied anong enpIoyees nesled vilhin lhe sane voik unil (Van Ypeien &
Snijdeis, 2OOO, Moiiison, Iayne & WaII, 2OO3).

Second, ve found lhal lhe fIanking voik piaclices (voik Iife laIance and
alliaclive vages) did nol ieIale lo aII of lhe foui enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions.
This indicales lhal lheie aie diffeiences anong oljeclive iesouices (HIWIs)
in ieIalion lo enpIoyee vilaIily. OnIy foi alliaclive vages lheie vas a
significanl posilive effecl on lhe enpIoyees avaiIaliIily of eneigy. This
confiins lhe expeclalion lhal lhis fIanking voik piaclice ieIales noie sliongIy
lo vigoui lhan lo lhe enpIoyee pioaclivily dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily.
To sone exlenl il iejecls lhe nolion found lolh in HRM and heaIlh
psychoIogicaI Iileialuie, lhal lhe noie enpIoyee ieceive fion lhe
oiganizalion in leins of alove-naikel saIaiies oi conlioI ovei lhe conlinalion
of voik-Iife olIigalions, lhe highei lhe enpIoyees posilive veII-leing and
aclive peifoinance oulcones. Hovevei, lhe coiieIalions in TalIe 7-3 indicale
noie posilive ieIalionships lelveen lhe lvo fIanking voik piaclices and lhe
vilaIily scaIes. This couId nean lhal in lhe nuIli-IeveI anaIysis lhe HIWI
162
lundIe possilIy suipiesses lhe posilive infIuence of lhe fIanking voik
piaclices on enpIoyee vilaIily. In olhei voids, lhe HIWI lundIe effecl on lhe
vilaIily scaIes doninales lhe vilaIily-effecl of lhe fIanking voik piaclices in
such vay lhal il liases an adequale inleipielalion. Il couId le lhal lhe fIanking
voik piaclices do have a iniliaI posilive effecl on enpIoyee vilaIily lul onIy lo
lhe exlenl lhal voik unils do nol sliongIy enphasize a HIWI lundIe. The
addilionaI negalive inleiaclion effecl lelveen coie HIWI lundIe and
alliaclive vages vilh iegaid lo lhe enpIoyees viIIingness lo invesl eneigy
aIso addiesses lhis possiliIily. Heie il seens lhal voik unils vho invesl in lhe
conponenls of lhe HIWI lundIe lul aIso in alove-naikel vages dovnpIay
lhe posilive effecls of lhe HIWI lundIe. An expIanalion foi lhis finding is nol
easiIy avaiIalIe. IossilIy, alliaclive vages nake enpIoyees noie passive in
lhe allainnenl of voik goaIs (|n paid tcrq uc|| sc unq oc|ncr |c intcs| ncrc
cncrgq). Theie is sone ieIalionship vilh lhe evidence foi lhe nc|ita|icn
crcuding cffcc| (e.g., Iiey & }egen, 1999) vhich suggesls lhal an exleinaI
inleivenlion via nonelaiy incenlives nay undeinine enpIoyee inliinsic
nolivalion lo invesl eneigy. Hovevei, in lhis case lhis vouId le dependenl
on lhe doninanl infIuence of HIWI lundIe inlensily, lecause lhe coiieIalion
lelveen alliaclive vages and lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy is posilive (r =
.28, p < .O1). LnpIoyees seen lo ieacl diffeienlIy lo alliaclive vages vhen aIso
a HIWI lundIe is enphasized. AII in aII, lhe HIWI lundIe effecl on
enpIoyee vilaIily is iegaided lo le noie iolusl.

Lasl, as expecled, individuaI-IeveI jol denands have a diffeienliaI effecl on
enpIoyee vilaIily. The iesuIls shov a consislenl pallein, in vhich (quaIilalive)
enolionaI denands slinuIale enpIoyee pioaclivily, vhiIe (quanlilalive)
voikIoad dininishes enpIoyee vigoui. This finding confiins lhal jusl Iike jol
iesouices, aIso jol denands aie nol aIike. LnolionaI denands, lhal invoIves
lhe exlenl lo vhich enpIoyees need lo iespond lo olheis (coIIeagues and/oi
cusloneis) and lheii denands, liiggeis enpIoyee pioaclivily. Iay and
Sonnenlag (2OO2) aIieady addiess lhis phenonenon, as lhey slaled lhal
enpIoyee pioaclivily couId le an aclive enpIoyee ieaclion lo ieduce lhe
adveise effecls of high jol denands. Olheivise, voikIoad vas negaliveIy
ieIaled lo vigoui as an aclive heaIlh indicaloi. This indicales lhal quanlilalive
denands do nol eneigize enpIoyees, ialhei lhey diain enpIoyee veII-leing.
163
hPwP und|e

* Funct|ona| Tra|n|ng
* 6areer 0eve|opment
* |nterna| 8taff|ng Eff|c|ency

In sun, Sludy 1 shovs lhe conpIexily in giasping lhe voik and oiganizalionaI
deleininanls of enpIoyee vilaIily. As dispIayed in Iiguie 7-2, lhe inlense enaclnenl
of a coie HIWI lundIe has lhe giealesl polenliaI lo eIicil enpIoyee vilaIily. When
laking inlo accounl aII lhe neasuienenl issues conceining HIWIs and lhe effecl on
enpIoyee vilaIily, lhis vaiialIe luins oul lo conslilule a soIid facloi in expIaining
lolh aclive enpIoyee peifoinance and veII-leing indicalois. ConsequenlIy, Sludy 2
viII lesl lhe finaI pioposilion lhal enpIoyee vilaIily inleinediales lelveen lhe coie
HIWI lundIe and voik unil peifoinance.















F|gure 7-2: Th|s study's contr|but|on to the overa|| research framework



7.6 5TUDY 2: HPWP BUNDLE, EMPLOYEE VITALITY AND UNIT PERFORMANCE
In Sludy 1 il vas concIuded lhal lhe HIWI lundIe incIuding lhe inlensily of
funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency has lhe nosl
consislenl effecl on lhe foui vilaIily dinensions. This indicales lhal oljeclive HIWIs
indeed ieIale lo aclive enpIoyee heaIlh and peifoinance oulcones aIso vhen
conlioIIing foi voikIoad and enolionaI denands. Tuining lack lo lhe cenliaI
queslion in Chaplei 2, Sludy 2 ains al lhe queslion lo vhal exlenl lheie is a ccnncn




work Un|t
Performance



Job &
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty
Ava||ab|||ty|
w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy

lrd|v|dua|- |eve|

wor|-ur|l |eve|

164
grcund foi enhancing oiganizalionaI (unil) peifoinance vhiIe suslaining (fuluie)
enpIoyee veII-leing. IoIIoving lhe HIWS-Ieifoinance Iileialuie, ve expecl lhal
lhe enhancenenl of a pioaclive and vigouious voikfoice couId le a ciuciaI facloi in
pionoling oiganizalionaI peifoinance in lhe conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl. To dale,
seveiaI sludies have legun lo unIock lhe lIack lox lelveen HIWIs and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance al seveiaI unils of anaIysis. IncIuded enpIoyee vaiialIes
in lhose sludies have leen passive indicalois Iike oiganizalionaI connilnenl
(Wiighl, Caidnei, Moynihan & AIIen, 2OO5, enkhoff, 1997) oi jol sliain (Ransay el
aI., 2OOO). RecenlIy, noie aclive indicalois of discielionaiy effoil have leen incIuded,
Iike hunan iesouice fIexiliIily (eIlian-Mailin, 2OO6). In Iine vilh lhese sludies, ve
viII exanine lhe inleinedialing ioIe of enpIoyee vilaIily in lhe Iink lelveen HIWIs
and oiganizalionaI peifoinance. SpecificaIIy, ve focus on lhe HIWI lundIe
enpIoyee vilaIily peifoinance Iinkage al lhe voik unil IeveI of anaIysis (as shovn
in Iiguie 7-3).

In chaplei 3 ve desciiled a vigouious and pioaclive voikfoice as a vilaI voikfoice
vhich expends enduialIe and effeclive discielionaiy effoil. This lype of
discielionaiy effoil giasps lhose eIenenls a voikfoice lhal conliilules lo shoil-lein
oiganizalionaI peifoinance vhiIe pieseiving lheii veII-leing needed foi conlinuous
oiganizalionaI effecliveness. This foins lhe coie assunplion in inlegialive veII-
leing - peifoinance fianevoiks vilh iegaid lo crganiza|icna| nca||n (Muiphy &
Coopei, 2OOO) and sus|ainao|c ucr| sqs|cns (Docheily el aI., 2OO2). In chaplei 4, il vas
shovn lhal lhe aveiage voik unil scoies on lhe vilaIily dinensions of pioaclivily
and lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy veie significanlIy highei in highIy effeclive
voik unils. Iuilheinoie, in Chaplei 6, ve vaIidaled lhe HIWI lundIe ly shoving a

Un|t V|ta||ty
(Aggregated}



work Un|t
Performance

hPwP
und|e


F|gure 7-3: The med|at|ng ro|e of v|ta||ty |n the hPwP-Performance ||nkage (8tudy 2}


work-
Un|t |eve|

165
ieIalionship vilh geneiaI unil effecliveness. AddilionaIIy, in lhis chaplei ve found
significanl ieIalionships lelveen lhe HIWI lundIe and aII foui vilaIily dinensions
al lhe individuaI IeveI. Theiefoie, lhe Iasl issue ienaining is lhal of a possilIe
nedialing effecl of enpIoyee vilaIily lelveen lhe enaclnenl of a HIWI lundIe and
voik unil peifoinance. This vouId signify a ieIalionship in vhich voik unils diffei
in peifoinance as a consequence of lhe aclivaling ioIe of a lundIe of enacled HIWIs
in slinuIaling enpIoyee vilaIily. ecause ve focus on lhe vilaIily of nuIlipIe
enpIoyees in a voik unil, ve speak of aggiegaled vilaIily oi unil vilaIily. Theiefoie,
lhe finaI hypolhesis ieads:

HypnthcsIs 4: Unil vilaIily nediales lhe ieIalionship lelveen lhe HIWI
lundIe and voik unil peifoinance.


7.6 METHOD5 5TUDY 2

Sam|e
SiniIai lo Sludy 1, lhe voiking sanpIe in lhis sludy consisled of 53 voik unils
pioviding nanagenenl iepoils on enacled high peifoinance voik piaclices and
voik unil peifoinance and enpIoyee seIf-iepoils enpIoyee vilaIily.

Measures
HPlP ound|c The HIWI lundIe scoie vas assessed vilh lhe sane neasuie as
lhal desciiled in Sludy 1. The HIWI lundIe neasuie invoIved nalched Iine
nanagei and HR piofessionaI ialings and conlained a lolaI of 3O ilens. Scoies couId
iange fion 3-15.
Uni| ti|a|i|q Since lhe dala on lhe HIWI lundIe and voik unil peifoinance
veie assessed al lhe voik unil IeveI, lhe enpIoyee vilaIily dala veie aggiegaled lo
lhe voik unil IeveI. Aggiegaling individuaI-IeveI vilaIily dala iefIecls a
concepluaIizalion of vilaIily as a voik unil oi voikfoice alliilule. To juslify lhe
aggiegalion of lhe vilaIily scaIes ve caIcuIaled lhe vaIues of lhe inliacIass coiieIalion
coefficienls, ICC(1) and ICC(2). Ioi dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q (ICC(1) = .O7, ICC (2) =
.51) and ui||ingncss |c intcs| cncrgq (ICC(1) = .21, ICC(2) = .8O) lhe vaIues exceeded
nininaI acceplalIe IeveIs (Iiese, 2OOO). Ioi jco prcac|iti|q (ICC(1) = .O5, ICC(2) = .41)
and atai|aoi|i|q cf cncrgq (ICC(1) = .O5, ICC(2) = .44) lhe ICC(2) scoies veie leIov
166
acceplalIe IeveIs vhich indicales lhal lhe lelveen voik unil diffeiences in lhese lvo
vilaIily vaiialIes veie Iess ieIialIe.
lcr| uni| pcrfcrnancc Woik unil peifoinance vas assessed ly a seIf-
consliucled scaIe aIso used in chaplei 3. The scaIe exisls of 5 ilens lhal lap lhe degiee
lo vhich lhe depailnenls (1) laigels aie nel, (2) inleinaI/exleinaI cusloneis aie
salisfied, (3) lhe financiaI silualion is good, (4) lhe depailnenl dislinguishes ilseIf
posiliveIy fion conpelilois and (5) lhe oveiaII funclioning is consideied lo le al an
oplinaI IeveI. Ioi aII of lhe 53 unils, fiisl Iine nanageis ialed lhe geneiaI unil
effecliveness on a 5 poinl scaIe (1 = lo a veiy Iov exlenl, 5 = lo a veiy high exlenl).
Cionlachs aIpha is .66.
Ccn|rc| Variao|cs As found in Sludy 1 individuaI IeveI jol denands have a
ieIalionship vilh lhe enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions. Wilh iegaid lo oiganizalionaI
peifoinance, jol denands have leen aigued lo aIso ieIale posiliveIy lo peifoinance
lo lhe exlenl lhal highei voik inlensificalion lhiough lhe pace of voik oi lhe
denands pul on enpIoyees ly cusloneis oi cIienls loosl pioduclivily IeveIs (e.g.
Cieen, 2OO1). To conlioI foi lhe possiliIily lhal voik unils chaiacleiized ly high jol
denands aIso aie lhose unils lhal piessuie enpIoyees lovaids highei oulpul IeveIs,
lvo jol denands scaIes veie enleied al lhe voik unil IeveI. Refeiiing lo lhe sane jol
denands neasuies as used in Sludy 1, ICC vaIues foi voikIoad (ICC(1) = .17, ICC(2)
= .77) and enolionaI denands (ICC(1) = .31, ICC(2) = .87) shov a nodeiale, lul
ieIialIe anounl of lhe vaiiance in jol denands lhal can le alliiluled lo lhe voik
unil.

Ana|tlca| Procedure
To lesl lhe nedialing infIuence of unil vilaIily vaiialIes in lhe HIWI-Ieifoinance
Iinkage, ve foIIov aion and Kennys (1986) ieconnended pioceduies of lesling
nedialion. Heie il is expecled lhal lhe posilive effecl of lhe HIWI lundIe on unil
peifoinance viII diop oi disappeai vhen enleiing lhe aggiegaled vilaIily vaiialIes.
9



9
Sun el aI. (2OO7) foIIoved a siniIai pioceduie. Hovevei, in lheii sludy Iine nangeis ialed lhe OCs
of lheii suloidinales vhich veie aggiegaled. In oui sludy ve used aggiegaled enpIoyee seIf-iepoils.
167




Tab|e 7-5: Heans, 8tandard 0ev|at|ons and 6orre|at|ons (work un|t |eve|}
H 80 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10

1 ur|l 3|ze 33.9 22.3
2 Average Educal|or 1.00 .83 -.3
3 Proporl|or / Va|es 1.51 .31 .11 -.11
1 wor||oad 2.0Z .28 -.20 .08 .28
5 Erol|ora| derards 1.92 .28 -.10 .51 -.1 -.15
Joo Proacl|v|ly 3.9Z .19 -.01 .18 .08 -.21 .39
Z 0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly 3.88 .18 -.11 .18 -.0Z .02 .51 .50
8 Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy 2.89 .18 -.01 .11 -.22 -.51 .18 .11 .2
9 w||||rgress lo lrvesl Erergy 3.83 .11 -.12 .11 -.50 -.12 .12 .0 .11 .Z
10 lPwP 8urd|e 9.29 1.1 -.31 .11 -.29 -.19 .38 .52 .35 .18 .Z2
11 wor| ur|l Perlorrarce 3.Z .53 -.0 .10 -.25 .11 .18 .19 .32 .12 .33 .32


Note: wor| ur|l n = 53; p < .01; p < .05
168
7.7 RE5ULT5 5TUDY 2
TalIe 7-5 shovs lhe desciiplive slalislics and coiieIalion lalIe foi vaiialIes in Sludy
2. As shovn in lhe lalIe, lhe HIWI lundIe coiieIales significanlIy lo lhe foui
aggiegaled vilaIily dinensions and unil peifoinance. Iuilheinoie, aggiegaled
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily (r = .32, p <.O5) and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy (r = .33, p
<.O5) aIso coiieIale vilh voik unil peifoinance. IoIIoving aion and Kenny (1986)
lhese lvo vilaIily dinensions aie alIe lo nediale a HIWI-Ieifoinance Iinkage,
lecause lhey ieIale lo lolh lhe independenl and dependenl vaiialIe. Iuilheinoie,
lhe lalIe shovs lhal unil size, aveiage unil educalion and lhe piopoilion of naIes in
lhe voik unil do nol significanlIy ieIale lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance. To nininize
lhe nunlei of vaiialIes lhese aie excIuded fion fuilhei anaIysis.

TalIe 7-6 shovs lhe iegiession anaIyses foi lhe infIuence of lhe HIWI lundIe on
unil peifoinance and lhe nedialing ioIe of lhe unil vilaIily. ased on lhe significanl
coiieIalion lelveen lhe HIWI lundIe and unil peifoinance (r = .33, p < .O5 in TalIe
7-5), lhe slandaidized iegiession coefficienl foi lhe HIWI lundIe (vhen conlioIIed
foi jol denands) is aIso significanl (p = .35, p < .O5 in TalIe 7-5). When enleied in
slep 2, as couId le expecled lased on lhe coiieIalions, lhe aggiegaled neasuies foi
jol pioaclivily and avaiIaliIily of eneigy veie nol significanl, aIlhough lhe
significance of lhe HIWI lundIe - unil peifoinance ieIalionship luined naiginaI (p
< .1O) vhen enleiing jol pioaclivily. This, hovevei, does nol indicale nedialion.

Ioi lhe nedialing ioIe of dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q and lhe ui||ingncss |c intcs| cncrgq,
lhe iesuIls aie noie convincing. Heie, TalIe 7-6 shovs lhal vhen enleiing
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily in slep 2, ils iegiession coefficienl is neaiIy significanl (p =
.26, p < .1O), vhiIe lhe effecl of lhe HIWI lundIe on voik unil peifoinance luins
non-significanl (p = 3O, p = n.s.). A siniIai effecl is olseivalIe vhen enleiing
ui||ingncss |c intcs| cncrgq. Heie, lhe iegiession coefficienl is sliong and neaiIy
significanl (p = .41, p < .1O), vhiIe lhe HIWI lundIes coefficienl decieases sliongIy
and luins non-significanl (p = .12, p = n.s.). Iuilheinoie, lhis anaIysis shovs lhal
vhen enleiing lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy, aIso lhe voikIoad vaiialIe luins
significanl (p = .32, p < .O5). OveiaII, in Iine vilh hypolhesis 4, lhe anaIyses suggesl
suppoil foi lhe nedialing infIuence of ui||ingncss |c intcs| cncrgq and dctc|cpncn|a|
prcac|iti|q lelveen lhe enaclnenl of a HIWI lundIe and voik unil peifoinance.
169


Tab|e 7-: Hed|at|on ana|yses for hPwPs and work Un|t Performance through Emp|oyee V|ta||ty
work Un|t Performance
(Ved|alor:
Joo Proacl|v|ly)
work Un|t Performance
(Ved|alor:
0eve|opmenra| Proacr|v|r,)
work Un|t Performance
(Ved|alor:
/va||ao|||r, ol Energ,j
work Un|t Performance
(Ved|alor:
w||||ngness ro lnvesr Energ,)
8tep 1 8tep 2 8tep 1 8tep 2 8tep 1 8tep 2 8tep 1 8tep 2

work 0nit 0emands
wor||oad (agg) .1Z .19 .1Z .18 .1Z .21 .1Z .32*
Erol|ora| derards (agg) .03 .01 .03 -.10 .03 .02 .03 -.08

work 0nit Resources
lPwP 8urd|e .35* .32# .35* .30 .35* .32 .35* .12

work 0nit Vitality
Joo Proacl|v|ly - .0Z - - - - - -
0eve|oprerla| Proacl|v|ly - - - .2# - - - -
Ava||ao|||ly ol Erergy - - - - - -.08 - -
w||||rgress lo lrvesl Erergy - - - - - - - .41#

R 7otal .'4 .'4 .'4 .'8 .'4 .'4 .'4 .'9

Note: Erp|oyee n = Z1; wor| ur|l n = 53; p < .01; p < .05; # p < .10
170
7.8 CONCLU5ION5 5TUDY 2
In lhis Iasl chaplei, lhe polenliaI of nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q vas expIoied ly
addiessing (1) lhe effecl of oljeclive jol iesouices (HIWI lundIe) on lhe foui
vilaIily indicalois and (2) lhe nedialing ioIe of enpIoyee vilaIily in lhe HIWI-
peifoinance Iinkage al a voik unil IeveI. The accunuIalion of knovIedge piovided
ly each chaplei Ied lo iich nuIli-IeveI and nuIli-acloi dala vhich enalIed us lo lesl
vhelhei lhe adoplion of HIWIs ieIales lo highei voik unil peifoinance lhiough
enpIoyee vilaIily. Conlining lhe iesuIls of sludy 1 and 2, il can le concIuded lhal a
HIWI lundIe consisling of a high inlensily of funclionaI liaining, caieei
deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency indeed posiliveIy infIuences aII foui
dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily, lul lhal onIy lhe dinensions of deveIopnenlaI
pioaclivily and lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy nake a diffeience vilh iegaid lo
lellei voik unil effecliveness (aIlhough vilh naiginaI significance). To sone exlenl
lhis finding signifies lhe inpoilance of slinuIaling an aclive Ieaining oiienlalion of
enpIoyees lovaids lheii piesenl lasks as veII as fuluie skiIIs and knovIedge in
oidei lo conliilule lo oveiaII voik unil funclioning. The cenliaI ioIe of aclive
enpIoyee Ieaining and deveIopnenl in lhe conliilulion lo oiganizalionaI
peifoinance has aIso leen iecognized ly, foi inslance, Kaiasek and TheoieII (199O),
Iaikei and WaII (1997) and }acols and Washinglon (2OO3). When enpIoyees aie
slinuIaled lo deveIop and Ieain nev lehaviouiaI palleins lecause of lhe liaining
lhey ieceive, in conlinalion vilh lhe enphasis on deveIopnenl and funclionaI
fIexilIe slaffing slialegy, lhey aie IikeIy lo pioacliveIy nainlain a fil lelveen
changing voik iequiienenls and lheii skiIIs, knovIedge and aliIilies. ul does lhal
nean lhal lhe olhei vilaIily dinensions of vigoui and jol pioaclivily do nol pIay a
ioIe in slinuIaling oiganizalionaI effecliveness` Olhei lhan expecled, lhese scaIes did
nol nodeiale lhe HIWI-Ieifoinance Iinkages. Reasons foi lhis can le soughl in lhe
foIIoving issues:

Iiisl, as ve expecl enpIoyee vilaIily lo conslilule a suslainalIe lype of effoil
expendiluie, ils nosl leneficiaI effecls on voik unil peifoinance nighl
appeai vhen conducling IongiludinaI ieseaich. In lhis cioss-seclionaI sludy
lhe inpoilance of enpIoyee vilaIily foi Iong-lein oiganizalionaI success
nighl nol lecone visilIe.

171
Second, il nighl le lhe case lhal lhe olhei vilaIily dinensions aie ciuciaI
eIenenls of aclive and heaIlhy voikfoice vilhoul consliluling lhose
discielionaiy alliilules lhal diieclIy inpacl on oiganizalionaI peifoinance.
As such, lheie is aIso lhe possiliIily lhal enpIoyee vigoui nodeiales lhe
ieIalionship lelveen pioaclivily and oiganizalionaI peifoinance. This vas
nol lhe focus of lhis sludy. Hovevei, il is IikeIy lhal enpIoyees vilh giealei
avaiIaliIily of eneigy nighl le noie viIIing and peisislenl in diiecling lheii
effoil lovaids seIf-deveIopnenl (you need eneigy lo use eneigy).

A lhiid ieason can le found in lhe lechnique of aggiegaling lhe nesled
enpIoyee seIf-iepoils lo a unil-IeveI. AIlhough aggiegalion is convenienl foi
lesling a nedialion effecl of vilaIily lelveen unil-IeveI vaiialIes, lhe ICC
vaIues veie nol convincingIy high. This indicales lhal vilaIily can nol le
iegaided as a unil chaiacleiislic, vhich incieases lhe iisk of a|cnis|ic fa||acq
(Snijdeis & oskei, 1999). Heie, il is viongIy assuned lhal aggiegaling
individuaI IeveI phenonena vouId iefIecl siniIai phenonena al (in lhis case)
lhe voik unil IeveI. In olhei voids, an individuaI enpIoyee can shov high
IeveIs of vilaIily lul can a voik unil shov vilaIily loo` Iuilheinoie, lecause
oui aggiegaled vilaIily neasuies had faiiIy Iov ieIialiIilies (ICC2) lheie is a
chance lhal lheie is an undeieslinalion of lhe slandaidized lela veighls. Nev
nuIliIeveI nodeIIing lechniques vhich enalIe ieseaicheis lo piedicl voik
unil IeveI oulcones fion vaiialIes neasuied al lhe individuaI IeveI (see
Cioon & Van VeIdhoven, 2OO7) couId soIve lhese piolIens in lhe fuluie.

IinaIIy, due lo oui ieIaliveIy snaII sanpIe of 53 voik unils, exanined
ieIalionships nay nol le found lo le as sliong as lhey aie. This nay expIain
vhy lhe inleinedialing effecls veie nol found.


7.9 WHAT I5 CONFIRMED OF THE INITIAL RE5EARCH FRAMEWORK?
As shovn in Iiguie 7-4, lhis Iasl sludy finishes lhe iniliaI ieseaich fianevoik vhich
vas foinuIaled in Chaplei 2. The sliongesl and nosl convincing eIenenl lhal keeps
lhe fianevoik enpiiicaIIy inlacl is lhe inpoilance of enpIoyees vho feeI chaIIenged
and aclivaled lo deveIop lhenseIves and Iook ahead. Whal lhese findings nean in
172
hPwP und|e

* Funct|ona| Tra|n|ng
* 6areer 0eve|opment
* |nterna| 8taff|ng
Eff|c|ency

lhe conlexl of lhe seaich foi a connon giound foi lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing
and peifoinance viII le addiessed in lhe finaI chaplei.

F|gure 7-4: Th|s 8tudy's 6ontr|but|on to the overa|| Research Framework

work Un|t
Performance



Job|
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty

Ava||ab|||ty|
w||||ngness to
|nvest|Energy


0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty


w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy


lrd|v|dua|- |eve|

wor|-ur|l |eve|

173
Chaptez 8
FinaI concIuaiona and diacuaaion:
Management by VitaIity?













8.1 GOAL OF THI5 DI55ERTATION
Since lhe hunan ieIalions novenenl in lhe 193Os and 196Os pul lhe inpoilance of
enpIoyee veII-leing on lhe lusiness agenda, lheie has leen a gieal deaI of delale on
vhelhei giealei enpIoyee veII-leing vouId aIso seive lhe peifoinance goaIs of lhe
oiganizalion. Ioi sone yeais nov, veII eslalIished oiganizalionaI funclions Iike
peisonneI officeis, HR nanageis and occupalionaI heaIlh piofessionaIs, aII deaI
diieclIy vilh lhe good and lad inpacl of voik and oiganizalionaI faclois on lhe
enpIoyee. Undei lhe connon sense assunplion lhal a salisfied, unsliained and
connilled enpIoyee is a pioduclive enpIoyee, piaclilioneis and ieseaicheis aIike
have Iegilinized lheii effoils lo deveIop and inslaII neasuies lhal couId pievenl
oiganizalions fion naking high oiganizalionaI cosls associaled vilh enpIoyees vho
Ieave lhe oiganizalion oi gel iII. Nolvilhslanding lhe inpoilance of lhese enpIoyee
oulcones in ilseIf, conlenpoiaiy oiganizalions denand noie fion lheii enpIoyees
lhan jusl lhe alsence of unveII-leing. As lhe conlenpoiaiy naikel enviionnenl gels
incieasingIy conpIex and unceilain, enpIoyeis iecognize lhe added vaIue of
174




0rgan|zat|ona|
Performance

h|gh Performance
work 8ystem

enpIoyees vho go leyond vhal is iequiied fion lhen, vho lake inilialive, vho
lhink ahead and vho knov vhal is needed lo deaI vilh lhe fieice conpelilion vhich
is no exceplion even in snaIIei oiganizalions and in lhe seni-pulIic secloi (oxaII &
IuiceII, 2OO3). This so-caIIed discrc|icnarq enpIoyee effoil is iecognized as a ciilicaI
oiganizalionaI iesouice lo lhe exlenl lhal inleiaclions vilh cusloneis, coIIeagues and
IT lechnoIogy diclale lhe quaIily and efficiency of voik piocesses. As a consequence,
lheie has leen an incieasing inleiesl in lhe nolion of high peifoinance voik syslens,
vhich deaIs vilh lhe nanagenenl and oiganizalion of lhis discielionaiy enpIoyee
effoil as an oiganizalionaI iesouice lhal is vaIualIe, haid lo inilale and nol easy lo
sulslilule ly aulonalion oi ly oulsouicing. High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens have
pul lhe discielionaiy conliilulion of enpIoyees lo oiganizalionaI peifoinance on lhe
nanagenenl agenda. Hovevei, il aIso puls enpIoyee veII-leing lack inlo lhe
equalion as an inpoilanl fealuie of a suslainalIe voikfoice (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6)
vhich is alIe lo heaIlhiIy neel lhe high peifoinance denands al hand. As shovn in
Iiguie 8-1, il Ieads lo lhe pioposilion of lhe concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily lhal couId
inleinediale lhe HIWS-peifoinance Iinkage.







F|gure 8-1: Emp|oyee V|ta||ty |n the hPw8-Performance L|nk

Theiefoie, in addilion lo lhe oiganizalionaI peifoinance effecls of High Ieifoinance
Woik Syslens, lhis disseilalion exanined lhe sinuIlaneous effecls of High
Ieifoinance Woik Iiaclices on enpIoyee veII-leing. Diffeienl slieans of Iileialuie
and ieseaich hoId conpeling hypolheses (WaII & Wood, 2OO5) on vhelhei High
Ieifoinance Woik Syslens eilhei posiliveIy, negaliveIy oi do nol infIuence
enpIoyee veII-leing. Theiefoie, lhe nain goaI vas lo expIoie lo vhal exlenl a High
Ieifoinance Woik Syslen fosleis a connon giound foi lhe nanagenenl and
oiganizalion of hunan iesouices lovaids (high) peifoinance, vhiIe sinuIlaneousIy
suslaining enpIoyee veII-leing - i.e. nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q. To ieach a finaI


work Un|t
Performance

Emp|oyee
V|ta||ty

175
concIusion on lhis issue, lhis chaplei viII piesenl lhe nain chaplei findings and a
discussion on inpoilanl lhenes lhis disseilalion has dislinguished. Iuilhei, lhis
disseilalions oveiaII lheoielicaI and enpiiicaI slienglhs and Iinilalions aie
eIaloialed on. IinaIIy, possilIe ieseaich diieclions and inpIicalions foi piaclice aie
discussed.


8.2 MAIN RE5EARCH FINDING5
In lhis disseilalion ve addiessed foui oveiaiching ieseaich queslions. eIov lhe
nain findings ieIaled lo lhe lheoielicaI (chaplei 2), concepluaI (chaplei 3, 4, 5 and 6)
and lhe enpiiicaI ieseaich queslions (chaplei 7) viII le desciiled.

Research Questlon 1: lna| dccs prcticus |nccrq and rcscarcn ccnc|udc cn ncu ucr|
crganiza|icna| and nanagcncn| fac|crs can fcrn a ccnncn grcund in |ncir cffcc|
cn cnp|cqcc uc||-ocing and crganiza|icna| pcrfcrnancc, una| arc |nc nain gaps and
sini|ari|ics in |ncsc |nccrc|ica| apprcacncs, and ncu can |nis oc uscd in fur|ncr
rcscarcn?

Chaplei 2 piovided an exlensive Iileialuie ieviev and calegoiizalion of lhe
lheoielicaI nodeIs lhal desciile hov voik and oiganizalionaI faclois inpacl
enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance. Tovaids lhis disseilalions goaI lo uniaveI
lhe fealuies of a connon giound foi lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing an peifoinance
lhis vas an essenliaI pail. In Iine vilh Ieccei (2OO4), lhe exlensive oveiviev shoved
lhal, ovei lhe yeais, a lioad iange of lheoielicaI nodeIs undeipin eilhei an cp|inis|ic,
pcssinis|ic oi sccp|ica| appioach lo hov veII-leing and peifoinance piocesses
conveige. This is piolIenalic, as il shovs lhal acioss discipIines lheie is no
consensus on vhelhei and hov enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance can
sinuIlaneousIy le inpioved. Ralhei lhan jusl choosing one of lhe lheoielicaI
appioaches, lhe appIicalion of lhe inlegialive lheoielicaI nindsel can le consideied
noie vaIualIe lo nake lheoielicaI and enpiiicaI advancenenls. In Iine vilh iecenl
inlegialive appioaches Iike oiganizalionaI heaIlh (e.g., Hail el aI. 2OOO) and
suslainalIe voik syslens (e.g. Docheily el aI., 2OO2) il vas expIicilIy acknovIedged
lhal enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance aie dynanicaIIy enlvined oulcones of
voik vhich, ovei line, have no expIicil causaI oidei. The concIusion is lhal an
inlegialive appioach Ieaves ioon foi oplinislic, pessinislic and sceplicaI vievs on
176
lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance lo lhe exlenl lhal (1) foi eilhei veII-
leing and peifoinance lhe voik and oiganizalionaI deleininanls can diffei
(sceplicaI), (2) in lhe shoil iun peifoinance can aIso cone al lhe expense of enpIoyee
veII-leing and vice veisa (pessinislic) and (3) in lhe Iongei iun enduialIe
oiganizalionaI peifoinance cannol go vilhoul high enpIoyee veII-leing and vice
veisa (oplinislic). Iuilheinoie, il is concIuded lhal possilIe ieasons foi vhy
pievious ieseaich on lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance nighl conlain
such confIicling oulcones, aie due lo (1) nisspecificalions in lhe veII-leing and
peifoinance concepls used, (2) in lhe exlenl lo vhich lhese concepls fil a
conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl and (3) in lhe vay a syslen of voik and oiganizalionaI
faclois nighl inpacl lolh veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones. ConsequenlIy, lo
oveicone lhese piolIens, an inlegialive ieseaich fianevoik vas luiIl lhal
expiessed lhe need foi adequale concepluaIizalions of enpIoyee veII-leing,
peifoinance and nanagealIe voik and oiganizalionaI faclois. This Ied lo lhe
foIIoving ieseaich queslions, ieading:

Research Questlon 2: Hcu dccs a ncu ccnccp| cf cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q ccn|riou|c |c |nc
rcscarcn cn cnp|cqcc uc||-ocing and pcrfcrnancc and una| arc |nc spccifics cf a
ta|ida|cd cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q ccns|ruc|?

Wilh iegaid lo lhe second ieseaich queslion, chaplei 3 and 4 addiessed lhe
concepluaIizalion, neasuienenl and vaIidalion of enpIoyee vilaIily as an aclive
enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance concepl (Iiese & Iay, 2OO1). uiIding on lhe
nolion of lhe suslainalIe voikfoice (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6) lhal can highIy peifoin
and heaIlhiIy cope vilh lhe denands of lhe conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl, ve
piovided a ialionaIe foi lhe enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance concepls lhal
signify an enpIoyee lhal has gol vhal il lakes lo conliilule lo enduialIe
oiganizalionaI success. Il vas pioposed lhal an aclive and suslainalIe voikfoice is
IikeIy lo le chaiacleiized ly ti|a| enpIoyees lhal shov high IeveIs of vigoui and
pioaclivily. This vas lased on lhe pioposilion lhal (1) enpIoyee vigoui and
pioaclivily enhance each olhei ovei line and (2) lhal vilaI enpIoyees aie Iess
consliained ly line, eneigy and lhe iisk of ouldaled conpelence lhan vhen
oiganizalions vouId focus on passive enpIoyees as salisfied, unsliained and
connilled oiganizalionaI cilizens. As such, enpIoyee vilaIily is concIuded lo le an
indicaloi of enpIoyees vho can expend naxinun IeveIs of discielionaiy effoil (high
177
peifoinance), vhiIe suslaining high IeveIs of enpIoyee veII-leing lo nainlain a
naxinun IeveI of discielionaiy effoil expendiluie (enduialIe peifoinance). In lhe
nexl slep, lased on enpIoyee suivey dala fion 736 lIue, vhile and pink coIIai
enpIoyees oul of 51 voik unils nesled in diffeienl 13 oiganizalions, foui scaIes lhal
lap diffeienl aspecls of enpIoyee vilaIily veie exanined and vaIidaled. AnaIyses
piovided sone evidence foi lhe nolion lhal leing a pioaclive and vigoious enpIoyee
is nol lhe sane as leing a salisfied, connilled enpIoyee fiee fion jol sliain. This
finding coiiesponds vilh ieseaich on olhei noie aclive enpIoyee alliilules Iike
fIexilIe voik oiienlalions (Iaikei, 2OOO) and voik engagenenl (HaIIleig &
SchaufeIi, 2OO6, ConzIez-Ron, SchaufeIi, akkei and LIoiel, 2OO6). Iuilheinoie,
lhe nean vilaIily scaIe scoies of enpIoyees voiking in lhe highei peifoining one-
lhiid of lhe voik unils veie found lo le highei lhan in lhe Iovei peifoining lvo-
lhiid of lhe exanined voik unils. Lxcepl foi lhe atai|aoi|i|q cf cncrgq-scaIe, enpIoyee
jco prcac|iti|q, dctc|cpncn|a| prcac|iti|q and lhe ui||ingncss |c intcs| cncrgq veie
significanlIy highei foi enpIoyees voiking in lhe lop 35 peifoining voik unils.
ased on lhese findings, il is concIuded lhal lhe concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily can
seive as an usefuI enpIoyee ciileiion foi lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and
peifoinance. The nanagenenl donain vas suljecl lo lhe lhiid ieseaich queslion:

Research Questlon 3: lna| is a Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cn |rancucr| and
unicn Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Prac|iccs arc cnpirica||q assccia|cd ui|n |nc
undcr|qing assunp|icns cf |nc HPlS francucr|?

A popuIai fianevoik vilh iegaid lo nanagealIe voik piaclices lhal ieIale lo
oiganizalionaI peifoinance is lhe conlenpoiaiy nolion of High Ieifoinance Woik
Syslens (AppeIlaun el aI., 2OOO). ul lecause lhe ieseaich Iileialuie dispIays gieal
diveisily in lhe choice and neasuienenl of voik piaclices lhal define a High
Ieifoinance Woik Syslen, il vas of inpoilance lo cIaiify lhe neasuienenl specifics
of lhe voik piaclices lhenseIves and lhe ieseaich design issues lhal go aIong vilh
High Ieifoinance Woik Iiaclices (HIWI) neasuienenl. In lhe nexl slep, lhe
appIicalion of lhese issues lo lhe HIWIs foi oui sludy, Ied lo lhe deveIopnenl of
HIWI neasuies lapping lhe inlensily vilh vhich fionl-Iine nanagenenl al a voik
unil IeveI execule HRM aclivilies in nuIlipIe HR donains. ased on an exlensive
neasuienenl pioceduie incIuding 53 nalched Iine nanagenenl and HR
piofessionaI ialings ollained lhiough sliucluied face-lo-face inleivievs, ve veie
178
alIe lo consliue 6 ieIialIe HIWI inlensily scaIes. Unique vas lhe aliIily lo fuilhei
vaIidale of lhe HIWI neasuies ly Iinking lhen lo enpIoyee-ialed voik expeiiences
acioss voik unils. This anaIysis shoved lhal lhiee HIWIs (func|icna| |raining, carccr
dctc|cpncn| and in|crna| s|affing cfficicncq) have siniIai posilive effecls on lhe giealesl
iange of expecled enpIoyee voik expeiiences. ConveiseIy, voik piaclices signifying
ucr|-|ifc oa|ancc arrangcncn|s and a||rac|itc aoctc-nar|c| uagcs diffei in lhe enpIoyee
voik expeiiences lhey ieIale lo. As such, lhe iesuIls ieveaI a coie HIWI lundIe in
vhich lhiee voik piaclices aie IikeIy lo slienglhen each olhei inlo enpIoyee voik
expeiiences associaled lo lhe HIWS fianevoik, vhiIe voik Iife laIance
aiiangenenls and alliaclive vages nighl acl as fIanking voik piaclices.
InleieslingIy, oui neasuie of peifoinance appiaisaI consliluled negalive
ieIalionships vilh enpIoyee expeiiences of lheii deveIopnenlaI possiliIilies, jol
vaiiely and jol cIaiily. This finding queslions lhe oflen assuned coie conliilulion of
peifoinance appiaisaI lo lhe high peifoinance fianevoik (Wood, 1999l). An
addilionaI anaIysis fuilhei vaIidaled lhe coie HIWI lundIe neasuie lecause il
vas lhe onIy neasuie lhal ieIaled posiliveIy lo Iine nanagenenl ialings of geneiaI
voik unil peifoinance. Hovevei, as a syslens peispeclive suggesls (see DeIeiy,
1998), voik piaclices can inleiacl in such vay lhal, in conlinalion, fIanking voik
piaclices couId foslei an addilionaI leneficiaI effecl of lhe coie HIWI lundIe.
Whelhei lhe coie HIWI lundIe inpacls voik unil peifoinance, vhiIe leing alIe
lo suslain enpIoyee veII-leing, Ied lo lhe Iasl ieseaich queslion:

Research Questlon 4: Tc una| cx|cn| dccs |nc adcp|icn cf Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr|
Prac|iccs s|inu|a|c cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q, and |c una| cx|cn| dccs cnp|cqcc ti|a|i|q
in|crncdia|c HPlPs and ucr| uni| pcrfcrnancc?

To ansvei lhis queslion, in chaplei 7, ve conducled nuIli-IeveI anaIyses and
incIuded aII lhe nalched nuIli-acloi dala avaiIalIe. To ieach a concIusion on
vhelhei and hov individuaI-IeveI concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily (enpIoyee dala)
inleinediales voik unil-IeveI HIWIs and peifoinance (nanagenenl dala) lvo
sludies veie conducled. The fiisl nuIli-IeveI sludy ieveaIed lhal lhe coie HIWI
lundIe ieIaled posiliveIy lo aII foui vilaIily scaIes - aIso vhen ve conlioIIed foi high
quanlilalive and enolionaI jol denands. Il indicales lhal a voik unil lhal
sinuIlaneousIy (1) invesls inlensiveIy in funclionaI liaining, (2) slinuIales enpIoyee
deveIopnenl and (3) nakes use of lhe funclionaI fIexiliIily of coie enpIoyees
179
enhances lhe jol and deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily anong enpIoyees as veII as lheii
eneigy IeveIs and lhe viIIingness lo invesl lhal eneigy. The lvo fIanking voik
piaclices did, hovevei, nol add anylhing lo lhese ieIalionships (excepl foi lhe
posilive effecl of alove-naikel vages on lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy). OveiaII, lhis
suggesls lhal lhe coie and fIanking voik piaclices aie of a diffeienl naluie. Whelhei
lhe enhancenenl of enpIoyee vilaIily foins a ieason foi lhe HIWI lundIe lo ieIale
posiliveIy lo voik unil peifoinance vas lesled soIeIy al lhe voik-unil IeveI in lhe
second pail of lhe chaplei. Heie, oui sludy shoved lhal lhe aggiegaled neasuies of
enpIoyee deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily and viIIingness lo invesl eneigy couId pailiaIIy
expIain lhe posilive effecl of lhe HIWI lundIe on voik unil peifoinance. In olhei
voids, lhese lvo enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions luined oul lo le vilaI voikfoice
alliilules lhiough vhich a coie HIWI lundIe ieIales lo voik unil effecliveness. This
finaI anaIysis shaipened lhe enpiiicaI conlouis of hov nanagenenl ly vilaIily
liiggeis high peifoinance, vhiIe suslaining enpIoyee veII-leing.


8.3 DI5CU55ION: MANAGEMENT BY VITALITY?
So vhal couId nanagenenl ly vilaIily enlaiI` Which issues veie found lo le
chaiacleiislic lo lhis nolion` And hov does lhis ieIale lo pievious and conlenpoiaiy
Iileialuie and ieseaich on lhe ieIalionships lelveen nanagenenl, veII-leing and
peifoinance` eIov, five key issues aie discussed lhal dislinguish lhe choices and
findings in lhis disseilalion fion eaiIiei ieseaich.

Mono-theoretlca| tersus lntegratlte theoretlca| mlndsets
If ve Iook lack on lhe Iileialuie discussing lhe voik and oiganizalionaI
deleininanls of enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance lhal has leen
viillen since lhe fiisl decades of lhe lvenlielh cenluiy, vhal shouId ve concIude`
IiolalIy, lhal lheie is sone lheoielicaI piogiess nade lhiough veiy snaII sleps al a
line and noslIy in one and lhe sane diieclion. Of couise, ovei lhe yeais, nolalIe
piogiess has leen nade vilh iegaid lo lhe lioad iange of voik and oiganizalionaI
vaiialIes sludied in ieIalion lo individuaI, gioup oi oiganizalionaI oulcones al
vhich ieseaich laigels al (foi an exlensive oveiviev see Iaikei, WaII and Coideiy,
2OO1). Hovevei, il is lo a gieal exlenl lhe coie cp|inis|ic peispeclive undeiIying lhe
lheoielicaI nodeIs and ieseaich hypolheses lhal has ienained doninanl. This
peispeclive iefeis lo lhe vin-vin assunplion vhich slales lhal lhose voik and
180
oiganizalionaI faclois lhal Iead lo incieased enpIoyee veII-leing aIso inciease
(oiganizalionaI) peifoinance. Il Iinks lo lhe happy-pioduclive voikei lhesis (e.g.,
Wiighl & Slav, 1999), vhich undeipins popuIai nodeIs Iike lhe jol chaiacleiislic
nodeI (Hacknan & OIdhan, 198O) and lhe high connilnenl/invoIvenenl nodeIs
found in HRM Iileialuie (e.g., WaIlon, 1985, LavIei, 1986). olh of lhese nodeIs have
lheii eaiIy iools in lhe hunanizalion of Ialoui novenenl, vhich oiiginaIIy vas a
ieaclion lo lhe deneaning, sinpIislic and nind-nunling jols and nanagenenl
piaclices vhich aiose in Iaige-scaIe indusliiaI voik sellings. LxanpIes of il leing a
ieaclion can sliII le found in lhe dislinclions nade lelveen TayIoiislic veisus
eniiched jols (Iay & Kanps, 2OO6) and high conlioI HRM veisus high connilnenl
HRM (e.g., Ailhui, 1994). In lhis iespecl, oplinislic appioaches incoipoialed nev
and lellei vays of designing and nanaging enpIoyee jols vhich vouId nol cone al
lhe expense of lusiness goaI allainnenl. y Iinking lhe inveslnenl in lhe
nolivalionaI polenliaI of voik lo lhe pionise of incieased oiganizalionaI
peifoinance, il pul lhe vaIue of enpIoyee veII-leing on lhe lusiness agenda -
aIlhough vilh noie enphasis on enpIoyee veII-leing lhan on peifoinance. In
essence, lhe oplinislic appioach has nol Iosl ils acadenic popuIaiily ovei lhe yeais,
despile lhe pcssinis|ic ieseaich findings lhal a nolivalionaI jol design couId aIso
evoke liadeoffs lelveen enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance (e.g. Canpion el aI.,
2OO5) oi lhe sccp|ica| ieseaich findings lhal suggesl lhal veII-leing and peifoinance
do nol shaie lhe sane deleininanls pei se (KeIIy, 1992, Ieccei, 2OO4).
Iuilheinoie, aflei yeais of enpiiicaI ieseaich, lhe oplinislic sludies have nol
ieached concIusive evidence on vhelhei lolh enpIoyee veII-leing and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance can le sinuIlaneousIy pionoled ly lhe sane sel of voik
and oiganizalionaI faclois. In poinling lhis oul, Moigeson and Canpion (2OO2) even
speak of lhe sonevhal paiochiaI naluie of nolivalionaI jol design ieseaich. In a
siniIai vein, WaII and Wood (2OO5) iefei lo lhe ionance of HRM as concIusions on
lhe inpacl of high connilnenl HRM on oiganizalionaI peifoinance aie sliII
pienaluie. This issues lhe possiliIily lhal a noinalive, nono-lheoielicaI oplinislic
appioach lo lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance has leen veiy
successfuI in gaining noie nanageiiaI allenlion foi lhe psychoIogicaI and sociaI
needs of enpIoyees, lul lo dale, faiIs lo piovide an evidence-lased ialionaIe foi
sinuIlaneous incieases in oiganizalionaI peifoinance. Hovevei, lhis does nol nean
lhal ieseaich foIIoving an oplinislic slance is nave and shouId le disconlinued.
RecenlIy, Hunphiey, Nahigang and Moigeson (2OO7) and Iaikei el aI. (2OO1) caIIed
181
foi lhe expansion and inlegialion of lhe oplinislic nolivalionaI voik design faclois
vilh sociaI and voik conlexluaI faclois. Ioi inslance, lhe nela-anaIysis ly
Hunphiey el aI. (2OO7) ieveaI lhe diffeienliaI inpacl of eilhei nolivalionaI, sociaI
and voik conlexluaI voik chaiacleiislics on voik and enpIoyee oulcones.
AddilionaIIy, Iaikei el aI. (2OO1) aIso enphasize lhe inleiaclion lelveen voik
chaiacleiislics al lhe individuaI, voik unil and oiganizalionaI IeveI in expIaining
veII-leing and peifoinance oulcones. The lheoielicaI slance of lhis disseilalion
suppoils a lioadei lul inlegialive appioach ly (1) specificaIIy iecognizing lhe eilhei
oplinislic, pessinislic oi sceplicaI inpacl of ceilain voik piaclices on veII-leing and
peifoinance oulcones and (2) ly laking inlo accounl lhe eilhei leneficiaI oi
deliinenlaI oulcones of inleiaclions lelveen voik piaclices al lhe unil IeveI of
anaIysis. As aigued, voik design and HRM ieseaicheis aIike shouId considei lhe
possiliIily lhal nol aII seeningIy leneficiaI voik piaclices conliilule lo lolh veII-
leing and oiganizalionaI peifoinance - aIlhough sone couId. In oui sludy, six high
peifoinance voik piaclices (HIWIs) veie incIuded vhich, in enpiiicaI ieseaich,
aie oflen laken logelhei in ieIaling lhen lo aII soils of enpIoyee and oiganizalionaI
oulcones (foi an oveiviev see Conls el aI., 2OO6).
As a syslen neasuie, HIWIs aie expecled lo have a oplinislic syneigislic
effecl on lhese oulcones. ul as oui iesuIls suggesl, diffeienl HIWIs conslilule
diffeienl oulcones. Ioi inslance, lhe adoplion of voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls and
alove-naikel vages do ieIale lo lhe enpIoyee expeiience of lhe possiliIilies lo exeil
infIuence on lheii voik-Iife olIigalions and a faii effoil-ievaid laigain vhich
signifies lhe oiganizalionaI concein foi enpIoyee veII-leing. Hovevei, oui ieseaich
shoved lhal lhese lvo voik piaclices do nol conliilule lo lellei voik unil
peifoinance, vhich undeipins a sccp|ica| appioach. Iuilheinoie, peifoinance
appiaisaI, oflen iegaided as a key high peifoinance voik piaclice (Wood, 1999l),
vas IaigeIy deleiienl lo enpIoyee expeiiences of jol cIaiily, jol vaiiely and
deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies. AddilionaIIy, peifoinance appiaisaI did nol
conliilule lo voik unil peifoinance (a iesuIl aIso found in Conls el aI.s (2OO6)
nela-anaIysis). This pailIy undeipins a pcssinis|ic infIuence of peifoinance
appiaisaI, aIlhough lhe donain of peifoinance appiaisaI vas found lo le
dysfunclionaI lo oc|n veII-leing and peifoinance. If lhese voik piaclices vouId have
leen conlined inlo one HIWI syslen neasuie, oui cp|inis|ic findings foi lhe
HIWI lundIe (consisling of inleinaI slaffing efficiency, funclionaI liaining and
caieei deveIopnenl) vouId piolalIy le disloiled oi lenpeied. As a consequence,
182
disenlangIing voik piaclices lased on lheii acluaI effecl on enpIoyee veII-leing and
peifoinance undeipins an inlegialive vay of lhinking ialhei lhan foIIoving
noinalive lheoielicaI nodeIs. This aIso caIIs foi aIleinalive expIanalions foi unq lhe
diffeienl voik piaclices have diffeienliaI effecls on veII-leing and peifoinance.
Wilh iegaid lo lhese expIanaloiy nechanisns, Iaikei el aI. (2OO1) slale: Thal is an
aiea vheie deveIopnenl is uigenlIy needed |.j (p. 428). In fuilhei discussing lhe
key fealuies of nanagenenl ly vilaIily, a key queslion is lo vhal exlenl enpIoyee
vilaIily couId seive as such a nechanisn`

Proosltlon 1: O|ncr |nan ncnc-|nccrc|ica| ucr| and nanagcncn| ncdc|s, an
in|cgra|itc |nccrc|ica| nindsc| cpcns up |c discn|ang|ing ucr| and crganiza|icna|
fac|crs |na| ci|ncr fi| an cp|inis|ic, pcssinis|ic cr sccp|ica| apprcacn |c |nc
nanagcncn| cf uc||-ocing and pcrfcrnancc.


Satlsfled, commltted, unstralned tersus tlta| em|oees
An inlegialive lheoielicaI nindsel on lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and
peifoinance opens up lhe incIusion of olhei lheoielicaI nechanisn vhich couId
noie adequaleIy expIain hov veII-leing and peifoinance couId sinuIlaneousIy le
enhanced. Ioi inslance, fion lhe iesouice lased viev (RV, ainey, 1991) and High
Ieifoinance Woik Syslens Iileialuie (e.g. AppeIlaun el aI. 2OOO) found in lhe fieId
of slialegic (HR) nanagenenl, lhe enphasis is pIaced on effeclive and discielionaiy
enpIoyee effoil. In lhis Iine of ieseaich, discielionaiy effoil is ieIaled lo a focus on
lhe oiganizalions dislinclive hunan iesouice pooI, chaiacleiized ly slialegicaIIy
conpelilive enpIoyee skiIIs, alliludes and lehaviouis vhich add vaIue, aie haid lo
inilale and non-sulslilulalIe (Wiighl el aI., 2OO1). This diavs lhe allenlion lo lhe
salisfaclion of oiganizalionaI needs inslead of enpIoyee needs vhen il cones lo lhe
design of effeclive voik and oiganizalionaI piaclices. Looking al lhe iecenl RV
Iileialuie, lhe vaIue of dynanic capaliIilies (VoIleida, 1996, Teece el aI., 1997,
Zahia, Sapienza & Davidson, 2OO6) of oiganizalions and enpIoyees is enphasized as
oiganizalions need lo ienain agiIe lo quickIy iespond lo changing naikel and
inslilulionaI deveIopnenls (Dyei & Reeves, 1999, oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). The hunan
iesouice advanlage (oxaII, 1996) is lheiefoie incieasingIy chaiacleiized ly lhe
inleiesl in hunan iesouice fIexiliIily (eIlian el aI., 2OO8) and enpIoyee
ciealivily/pioaclivily (e.g., Iiese & Iay, 2OO1, aei & Iiese, 2OO1), vhich vouId
183
enalIe enpIoyees lo conliilule lo lhe oiganizalions suslained conpelilive
advanlage. This deveIopnenl puls lhe ieseaich inleiesl in liadilionaI enpIoyee veII-
leing and peifoinance alliilules, Iike oiganizalionaI connilnenl, jol salisfaclion
and jol sliain inlo a diffeienl peispeclive (see Iaikei, 2OOO). As lhe nodein
oiganizalionaI and voik conlexl gels Iess slalIe, noie unceilain and noie
denanding, a iange of aulhois have aigued lhal concepls of enpIoyee veII-leing
and peifoinance shouId incoipoiale lhe lheoielicaI fealuies of lhe changing voik
conlexl (IIgen & IuIakos, 1999, Iiese and Iay, 2OO1, Iay & Kanps, 2OO6, Ciiffin, NeaI
& Iaikei, 2OO7).
ased on lhis deveIopnenl, lhis disseilalion piovided a ialionaIe foi lhe vaIue
of enpIoyee vilaIily as an aclive veII-leing and peifoinance concepl vhich depicls
a vigouious, pioaclive enpIoyee. Moie lhan salisfied, connilled and unsliained
enpIoyees, vilaI enpIoyees aie expecled lo le alIe lo acliveIy oveicone lhe line,
eneigy and conpelence consliainls lhal lhe nodein enpIoyee faces in doing a good
(high peifoinance) jol. As a lheoielicaI concepl, enpIoyee vilaIily fils vilhin a iange
of iecenlIy eneiged veII-leing and peifoinance concepls vilhin lhe sliean of
posilive psychoIogy (SeIignan & CsikszenlnihaIyi, 2OOO), Iike voik engagenenl
(SchaufeIi & akkei, 2OO4) oi lhiiving al voik (Spieilzei el aI., 2OO5). Whal lhese
concepls have in connon is lhal lhey iesenlIe a conposile consliucl conlaining
coexisling enpIoyee liails, slales and/oi lehaviouis (Macey & Schneidei, 2OO8). Ioi
exanpIe, voik engagenenl as used ly SchaufeIi el aI. (2OO4) consisls of enpIoyee
vigoui and dedicalion, vhiIe lhiiving consisls of vigoui and enpIoyee Ieaining
lehaviouis. Oui concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily as a dynanic iefIeclion of veII-leing
and effoil expendiluie consisls of vigoui and enpIoyee pioaclivily, and diffeienliales
fion lhe olhei concepls as il vas designed as a enpIoyee peifoinance nechanisn
ialhei lhan a posilive enpIoyee veII-leing oulcone pcr sc. Ioi exanpIe, voik
engagenenl vas expIicilIy designed as a posilive counleipail of lhe negalive
concepl of enpIoyee luinoul (MasIach & Leilei, 1997), vheieas enpIoyee vilaIily
vas deveIoped as an aclive counleipail of passive enpIoyee peifoinance and
veII-leing concepls. As such, ve neasuied foui diffeienl enpIoyee vilaIily
dinensions, of vhich lvo lap lhe degiee of enpIoyee pioaclivily and lvo lhe degiee
of enpIoyee vigoui.

Hovevei, aIlhough ve piovided a lheoielicaI ialionaIe foi hov enpIoyee
pioaclivily and vigoui nighl coexisl and enhance each olhei ovei line, lased on oui
184
cioss-seclionaI dala, ve couId onIy concIude lhal lhe foui vilaIily dinensions coexisl
and shov a coiieIalionaI pallein lhal dislinguishes il fion passive veII-leing and
peifoinance concepls Iike jol salisfaclion, affeclive oiganizalionaI connilnenl and
jol sliain. Slaling lhal enpIoyee vilaIily vouId le a slalIe syndione of consislenlIy
co-occuiing aclive enpIoyee veII-leing and peifoinance is lheiefoie loo pienaluie.
Olheivise, iecenl ieseaich ly SaIanova el aI. (2OO8) in a Dulch and Spanish enpIoyee
sanpIe iepoil nediun lo Iaige coiieIalions lelveen vigoui (r = .38/.58) and
pioaclive lehavioui, and lelveen dedicalion (r = .47/.4O) and pioaclive lehavioui.
AddilionaIIy, Sonnenlags (2OO3) diaiy sludy in a Ceinan sanpIe even iepoiled
siniIai sized coiieIalions lelveen day-IeveI engagenenl (incIuding vigoui and
dedicalion) and peisonaI inilialive (r = .48) and puisuil of Ieaining (r = .61). These
findings confiin lhe oveiIap lelveen lhe vigoui and pioaclivily dinensions
undeiIying lhe enpIoyee vilaIily concepl cenliaI lo lhis disseilalion sludy. In olhei
voids, enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclivily nighl signify an oveiaiching lheoielicaI
concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily in vhich enpIoyee consislenlIy feeI highei/Iovei IeveIs
of vigoui logelhei vilh shoving highei/Iovei IeveIs of pioaclivily.
Hovevei, iecenlIy seveiaI aulhois aIso iefei lo anolhei nechanisn voilh
exanining. ased on lhe inconsislenl findings on lhe causaI ieIalionship lelveen
veII-leing and peifoinance, Sonnenlag (2OO2) discussed lhe possiliIily lhal veII-
leing can le lolh an insligaloi as veII as a iesuIl of peifoinance - a so caIIed spira|
cffcc|. Wilh iegaid lo oui nolion of enpIoyee vilaIily lhis neans lhal olhei lhan
vilaIily leing a slalIe slale oi lehaviouiaI syndione of co-occuiing facels, lhe
pioaclivily and vigoui dinensions of enpIoyee vilaIily couId lake lhe foin of a
seIf-ieguIaloiy spiiaI. This vouId indicale a spiiaI effecl vilh enpIoyee vigoui
enhancing enpIoyee pioaclivily vhich in luin enhances fuluie enpIoyee vigoui.
Like a pcrpc|uun ncoi|c, enpIoyee vigoui/eneigy vouId lecone lolh an anlecedenl
and oulcone of pioaclive lehavioui. The seIf-ieguIaloiy naluie is expiessed lhiough
lhe focus on pioaclivily as an enpIoyee peifoinance aspecl. Thiough lhis lehavioui,
on lhe one hand, enpIoyees lhenseIves seek nev eneigy iesouices in lheii voik oi
lake avay eneigy spiIIeis. On lhe olhei hand, enpIoyee Ieaining lehaviouis can
enhance ones seIf-efficacy and aliIilies lo keep on deaIing vilh nev voik denands
in a vay il does nol onIy pievenls lhe diaining ones vigoui, lul aIso il can fueI nev
feeIings of vigoui. Recenl cioss-Iagged ieseaich ly SaIanova, akkei and LIoiens
(2OO6) exanined such an upvaid spiiaI lelveen lhe concepl of fIov al voik and
seIf-efficacy and indeed found lhal enpIoyee fIov (as an indicaloi of posilive heaIlh)
185
and enpIoyee seIf-efficacy have a iecipiocaI ieIalionship ovei line. Il vouId le
inleiesling lo exanine vhelhei a vigoui-pioaclivily spiiaI vouId exisl. Such spiiaI
vouId noie expIicilIy enphasize lhe inpoilance of lhe pioaclive lehaviouiaI
conponenl lhiough vhich an enpIoyee cxcrciscs conlioI ovei ones lhinking, affecl,
lehavioui and allenlion - a ciilicaI eIenenl of seIf-ieguIalion (Kanfei & Kanfei in
Sonnenlag, 2OO2). As such, lhe conponenls and ialionaIe of enpIoyee vilaIily
inlegiales seveiaI peifoinance peispeclives vhich enphasize (1) lhe changing
naluie of peifoinance in a conlenpoiaiy voik conlexl, (2) lhe consliainls lhal
enpIoyees need lo oveicone lo deIivei high peifoinance, (3) lhe inpoilance of high
veII-leing and pioaclivily lo do so, (4) lhe lidiieclionaI ieIalionship lelveen
aclive veII-leing and aclive enpIoyee peifoinance and (5) lhe possiliIily of a
spiiaI effecl in vhich enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclivily enhance each olhei ovei line
as an indicaloi of sus|ainao|c enpIoyee peifoinance (see Iay & Kanps, 2OO6).

Proosltlon 2: |np|cqcc ti|a|i|q significs a ccn|cx|-dritcn, ac|itc and sus|ainao|c
pcrfcrnancc ccnccp| unicn ccnoincs |nc crganiza|icna| nccd fcr agi|i|q and nign
pcrfcrnancc and |nc cnp|cqcc aoi|i|q |c pcrfcrn uni|c sus|aining |nc uc||-ocing |c
pcrfcrn in |nc fu|urc.


||anklng Work Practlces tersus Hlgh Performance Work Practlces
To inlegiale lheoiies on lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance and lo
expIoie lhe vaIue of enpIoyee vilaIily foi lhe success of an oiganizalionaI unil, lhe
high peifoinance voik syslens fianevoik vas used. As desciiled in chaplei 5, lhe
HWIS Iileialuie dislinguishes ilseIf lhiough lhe enphasis on (1) nign peifoinance
oulcones, (2) inleinediaiy pcrfcrnancc nechanisns and a (3) syslen of voik and
oiganizalionaI in|crtcn|icns. This fianevoik has Ied lo a nuIlilude of sludies finding
significanl ieIalionships lelveen lhe adoplion of a high peifoinance syslen
(incIuding a nuIlilude of voik piaclices) and oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones
(e.g., HuseIid, 1995, Cuesl el aI., 2OO3, Dalla el aI., 2OO5, Conls el aI., 2OO6). Hovevei,
vilhoul adequaleIy lesling lhe inleinedialing enpIoyee nechanisns lelveen lhe
adoplion of HIWIs and oiganizalionaI peifoinance, lhe evidence foi a HIWI-
peifoinance Iink ienains inconcIusive (Iaauve & oseIie, 2OO6, Heskelh &
IIeelvood, 2OO6, CanpleII, 1999). efoie such inleinediaiy nechanisn can le
lesled, fiisl, a diiecl ieIalionship lelveen voik piaclices and oiganizalionaI
186
peifoinance shouId le nanifesl lo dislinguish lhe high peifoinance voik piaclices
fion olhei voik piaclices. In lhis sludy, lhe HIWI lundIe consisling of a high
inlensily of funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency
vas found lo diieclIy ieIale lo voik unil peifoinance, vhiIe pioviding voik Iife
laIance aiiangenenls, alliaclive vages and peifoinance appiaisaI did nol. Does lhal
sliII nake lhe Iallei lhiee voik piaclices high peifoinance voik piaclices` The
exlenl lo vhich lheii adoplion vouId enhance lhe peifoinance effecls of lhe HIWI
lundIe, couId sliII nake lhen vaIualIe fIanking voik piaclices in lhe high
peifoinance fianevoik. Hovevei, anaIyses in chaplei 6 and 7 shoved lhal none of
lhe lhiee voik piaclices conliiluled lo sliongei HIWI lundIe effecls. Inslead, ve
found lhal alliaclive vages even couId dovnpIay lhe posilive enpIoyee vilaIily
oulcones of lhe coie HIWI lundIe. AIso, voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls veie
found lo have a neaiIy significanlIy ncga|itc ieIalionship vilh voik unil
peifoinance. Iuilheinoie, peifoinance appiaisaI even had a negalive inpacl on
enpIoyee voik expeiiences (e.g., deveIopnenlaI oppoilunilies, jol vaiiely) vhich
aie consideied key fealuies of lhe HIWS fianevoik. Theiefoie, il seens lhal lhese
piaclices seive a diffeienl puipose and do nol necessaiiIy fil lhe HIWS fianevoik.
This piovides pioof foi lhe fai noie dianalic diffeiences lelveen voik piaclices
lhan HIWS ieseaich acknovIedges. In lhe case of peifoinance appiaisaI oui iesuIls
opl lhe queslion if lhis is favouialIe voik piaclice al aII.
The Iallei concIusion is an inliiguing one, as peifoinance appiaisaI is
consideied a key dislinclive piaclice of lhe high peifoinance fianevoik in
conpaiison lo high connilnenl HRM nodeIs (Wood, 1999). And yel, enpiiicaI
ieseaich iepealedIy does nol confiin lhe gieal vaIue of lhis voik piaclice foi
oiganizalionaI peifoinance (see Conls el aI., 2OO6, eIlian-Mailin el aI., 2OO8,
Vandenleig el aI., 1999). Reasons foi lhis aie nol innedialeIy cIeai, lul seveiaI
aulhois (e.g., IuiceII, 1999) have aigued lhal peifoinance appiaisaI is especiaIIy
vuIneialIe lo inpIenenlalion faIIacies, vhich aie haid lo neasuie diieclIy.
Second, SliIes el aI. (1997) aIieady aigued lhal peifoinance appiaisaI couId
iesuIl in a loo naiiov and shoil-lein focus on incenlivized goaI allainnenl, vhich
nighl conpionise lhe fuilhei expeiience of jol vaiiely and lhe lioadei peisonaI
deveIopnenlaI goaIs an enpIoyee seeks lo puisue. Thiid, il is aIso nol cIeai vhelhei
peifoinance appiaisaI is neieIy a nanagenenl conlioI piaclice lhal does nol have
any inlenlion lo le in lhe enpIoyees inleiesl vhalsoevei (in oseIie el aI., 2OO5).
187
Hovevei, as voik Iife laIance, alliaclive vages and peifoinance appiaisaIs
aie aIso nol found lo ieIale lo highei voik unil peifoinance diieclIy, lhey sliII can
conliilule lo lellei oiganizalionaI funclioning in lheii pievenlion of pioduclion
Iosses via ieduclions in sickness alsence oi enpIoyee luinovei. Ioi inslance, oseIie
(2OO2) found lhal high conlioI HR syslens (incIuding peifoinance appiaisaI-Iike
aclivilies) iesuIls in a Iovei sickness alsence fiequency and a shoilei duialion of lhe
sickness alsence. AddilionaIIy, pioviding alove-naikel vages is IikeIy lo ieduce
enpIoyee luinovei lecause il cieales a lellei Ialoui naikel posilion. Iuilheinoie,
lhe effecl of voik Iife laIance aiiangenenls can infIuence lolh sickness alsence and
enpIoyee luin ovei (e.g., Cieenhaus & Iaiasuianan, 1999). As a sociaI lenefil,
enpIoyees see lhe WL aiiangenenls as a facloi lhal fuIfiIs lheii sociaI needs in a
vay lhey viII nol choose foi anolhei enpIoyei oi even considei lo slop voiking. As
an occupalionaI heaIlh inleivenlion, il couId ieduce sickness alsenleeisn as a iesuIl
of a ieduclion in voik-Iife confIicls. In specifying lhe loundaiies of a high
peifoinance voik syslens fianevoik, lhese voik piaclices can nol le iegaided
high peifoinance voik piaclices, aIlhough lhey can le effeclive voik piaclices
lovaids olhei oiganizalionaI oljeclives lhal indiieclIy ieIale lo highei oiganizalionaI
peifoinance.

Proosltlon 3: Nc| a|| HRM prac|iccs can oc rcgardcd |c oc Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr|
prac|iccs, a||ncugn |ncq nign| indircc||q inpac| crganiza|icna| pcrfcrnancc tia |nc
rcduc|icn cf cnp|cqcc |urn ctcr and cnp|cqcc sic|ncss aoscncc.


Passlte tersus Actlte lntermedlar Performance Mechanlsms
The second alliilule of lhe High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens fianevoik conceins lhe
assunplion of an inleinediaiy peifoinance nechanisn lelveen HIWIs and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance. In lhis sludy, lhe expIanalion foi vhy lhe HIWI lundIe
vouId affecl oiganizalionaI peifoinance lhiough peopIe vas soughl in ils
enhancenenl of enpIoyee vilaIily. The nuIlidinensionaI concepl of enpIoyee
vilaIily can le aigued lo inlegiale seveiaI possilIe lheoielicaI nechanisns lhal Iink
voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lo oiganizalionaI oulcones. Ioi inslance, lheie is lhe
quic| rcspcnsc nechanisn (WaII & Mailin, 1987) lhal signifies enpIoyees using lheii
lacil and IocaI knovIedge lo soIve opeialionaI piolIens, vhich cIoseIy iesenlIes lhe
jol pioaclivily dinension of enpIoyee vilaIily. Second, lheie is lhe nechanisn of
188
enpIoyee |carning and dctc|cpncn| lhal incoipoiales lhe idea lhal an enpIoyee can
nol onIy nake changes lo lhe voik piocess, lul aIso lhal he oi she is an aclive leing
in changing hin- oi heiseIf in oidei lo do a good jol (see Iiese & Zapf, 1994). This
cIoseIy iesenlIes lhe deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily dinension of enpIoyee vilaIily.
Iuilheinoie, SchaufeIi and akkei (2OO4), nake a dislinclion lelveen cncrgc|ic and
nc|ita|icna| nechanisns. An eneigelic piocess invoIves lhe enpIoyees naxinun of
eneigy/effoil expendiluie. In liief, il slales lhal vhen enpIoyee eneigy IeveIs aie
high inslead of Iov, high peifoinance denands viII nol Iead lo eilhei enpIoyee
vilhdiavaI fion high effoil expendiluie oi enpIoyee heaIlh danage vhen high
peifoinance denands aie conlinued lo le nel in such vay lhal lhe naxinun
eneigy ludgel is unheaIlhiIy oveilaxed (e.g. Hockey, 1997). Theiefoie, lhe
enpIoyees high avaiIaliIily of eneigy (leing one of oui vilaIily dinensions) can
seive as a peifoinance nechanisn. Iuilhei, SchaufeIi el aI. (2OO4) discuss an
exliinsic nolivalionaI nechanisn, vhich depicls an enpIoyee vho is viIIing lo
dedicale ones eneigy and aliIilies lo lhe voik lask, due lo lhe expeiience lhal lhe
enviionnenl is insliunenlaI in achieving voik goaIs. In luin, lhis ieIales cIoseIy lo
lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy dinension of enpIoyee vilaIily.
AIlhough aII foui lheoielicaI nechanisns couId piovide sepaiale expIanalions
foi oiganizalionaI peifoinance effecls of voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhiough
enpIoyee vilaIily, an inlegialive expIanalion can le found in lhe AMO lheoiy of
discielionaiy effoil (aiIey, 1993).This AMO lheoiy slales lhal onIy lo lhe exlenl
enpIoyees have lhe AliIily, and lhe Molivalion and lhe Oppoilunily, lhey can highIy
peifoin. Heie, lhe enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions of avaiIaliIily of eneigy and
deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily vouId signify lhe peisonaI physicaI and cognilive aliIily
lo keep on doing a good jol. The nolivalionaI aspecl is caughl in lhe viIIingness lo
invesl ones peisonaI eneigy and aliIilies in doing a good jol, vhiIe jol pioaclivily
vouId signify lhe enpIoyees ovn aclions lhal lake avay possilIe laiiieis lhal lIock
lheii oppoilunily lo do a good jol. Togelhei, lhey can foin a poveifuI conlinalion
of aclive enpIoyee slales and lehaviouis lovaids lhe enhancenenl of highei
oiganizalionaI peifoinance. These possilIe inleinedialing nechanisns aie,
hovevei, nol exhauslive. RecenlIy, a nunlei of sludies have liied lo open lhe lIack
lox lelveen HRM piaclices and peifoinance and exanined, foi inslance, lhe
inleinedialing ioIe of enpIoyee coopeialion (Lanlooij, 2OO6), sociaI capilaI (Kase,
2OO7), hunan iesouice fIexiliIily (eIlian-Mailin el aI., 2OO8) oi enpIoyee noiaIe
(Vandenleig el aI., 1999).
189
Looking al oui iesuIls foi enpIoyee vilaIily, in chaplei 3, ve indeed found
lhal lhe lvo enpIoyee pioaclivily dinensions and lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy
veie significanlIy highei anong enpIoyees in high peifoining unils lhan in Iovei
peifoining unils. Hovevei, lhe enpIoyees avaiIaliIily of eneigy did nol diffei
significanlIy. Having lheoiized lhal enpIoyee eneigy IeveIs aie an inpoilanl aspecl
of enpIoyee vigoui and lhe enpIoyee vilaIily concepl, il couId le queslioned lo
vhich exlenl enpIoyee eneigy signifies an discielionaiy enpIoyee chaiacleiislic
vhich, in ilseIf, can nake a diffeience in oiganizalionaI peifoinance. AddilionaIIy,
oui iesuIls shoved lhal lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy cones oul lhe voisl vilh iegaid lo
cIeai voik and oiganizalionaI piediclois as veII as lhe exlenl lo vhich enpIoyees
vilhin lhe sane voik unil have shaied IeveIs of peisonaI eneigy. In sun, lhis
indicales lhal oui evidence foi lhe avaiIaliIily of enpIoyee eneigy as a conponenl of
an aclive peifoinance nechanisn is sliII inconcIusive. LnpIoyee eneigy lehaves
diffeienlIy lhan lhe olhei vilaIily dinensions. Il seens lo le an enpIoyee alliilule
lhal is noie difficuIl lo nanage and possilIy noie dependenl on idiosyncialic
faclois Iike ones oveiaII heaIlh, Iife slyIe, piivale/faniIy silualion, posilive allilude
lovaids Iife oi olhei denogiaphic vaiialIes.
On lhe olhei hand, chaplei 7 shoved lhal lhe olhei lhiee vilaIily dinensions
couId le adequaleIy piedicled ly HIWIs and did ieIale lo voik unil peifoinance.
When lesling lhe inleinedialing ioIe, deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily and lhe viIIingness
lo invesl eneigy veie aggiegaled voik unil alliilules lhal pailIy expIained lhe
ieIalionship lelveen lhe HIWI lundIe and voik unil peifoinance. When Iooking
noie cIoseIy al lhe voik piaclices lhal conslilule oui coie HIWI lundIe
(funclionaI liaining, caieei deveIopnenl and inleinaI slaffing efficiency), logelhei
lhey can le aigued lo aclivale enpIoyees. They aie IikeIy lo a piioii vaIue
enpIoyees discielionaiy effoil, ly (1) invesling in up-lo-dale skiIIs and aliIilies, (2)
nolivaling enpIoyee giovlh, (3) ensuiing lhal enpIoyees can keep deveIoping
lhenseIves eilhei hoiizonlaIIy oi veilicaIIy, (4) vilh a slaffing slialegy vhich ieIies
on coie enpIoyees (inslead of lenpoiaiy voikeis), (5) vhich aie fIexilIy depIoyed lo
gel lhe voik done duiing fIuclualions in lhe Ialoui suppIy. This is IikeIy lo foin a
coheienl lundIe of voik piaclices vhich lolh neels lhe deveIopnenlaI and
nolivalionaI goaIs of enpIoyees as veII as lhe fIexiliIily and high peifoinance goaIs
of nanagenenl.
Ansveis lo vhy specificaIIy lhese HIWIs nighl conslilule a coheienl and
effeclive lundIe can le liaced lack lo Legges (1995) nolion of nanaging peopIe
190
accoiding lo deveIopnenlaI-hunanisl piincipIes. IniliaIIy, il iefeis lo an HRM nodeI
lhal vaIues individuaI laIenls, ains al eIiciling connilnenl so lhal enpIoyee
lehavioui is seIf-ieguIaled (ialhei lhan conlioIIed ly sanclions) and incoipoiales
high-liusl enpIoynenl ieIalions. Associaled goaIs of lhe deveIopnenlaI-hunanisl
nodeI aie incieasing fIexiliIily, adaplaliIily and quaIily (Cuesl, 1987). Theiefoie, il
shouId nol le consideied a sofl nodeI lhal focuses on lhe nuiluiing of lhe
individuaI enpIoyee (Tiuss el aI., 1997). Inslead, a slialegic HR focus on enpIoyee
liaining and deveIopnenl can suppoil lhe nuneiicaI and funclionaI fIexilIe needs of
lhe oiganizalion, lhiough aclivaling lhe seIf-deveIopnenlaI lehaviouis and
nolivalion of enpIoyees. AIso, as has leen sufficienlIy discussed, enpIoyee
connilnenl oi salisfaclion does nol necessaiiIy have lo le pail of lhis nodeI lo find
a ieIalionship vilh oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones (Cuesl, 2OO2, assell, 1994).
AddilionaIIy, a iecenl sludy ly Toh, Canpion and Moigeson (2OO8)
enpiiicaIIy dislinguished five diffeienl lundIes of voik piaclices lased on cIuslei
anaIysis. A HRM lundIe vhich lhey IaleIIed iesouice nakei shovs nuch
iesenlIance vilh lhe coie HIWI lundIe dislinguished in lhis disseilalion.
Oiganizalions adopling lhis HRM lundIe engaged in iigoious seIeclion, liaining,
deveIopnenl and a ceilain degiee of enpoveinenl and leanvoik, vhiIe pIacing
Iess enphasis on nonelaiy ievaids and annuaI peifoinance goaIs. Making
iesouices (oi liiggeiing iesouices lo deveIop and iegeneiale) can, lheiefoie, le a
deIileiale and aclive HR slialegy vhich fils lhe RV of lhe fiin. AIso,
oiganizalions lhal adopled HR lundIes vhich Toh el aI. (2OO8) IaleIIed as iesouice
nakei diffeienlialed fion lundIes IaleIIed as connilnenl naxinizeis. This
depicls lhe dislinclion lelveen lhe aclive and passive naluie of voik piaclices
iespecliveIy. InleieslingIy, aIso a in sludy ly Schuiei-Lanleil, Ldvaids and CalIe
(2OO3), il veie vaiialIes siniIai lo lhose in lhe coie HIWI lundIe lhal even veie
found lo conslilule negalive effecls on enpIoyee jol salisfaclion. Schiuiei-Lanleil el
aI. (2OO3) shoved lhal excess IeveIs of skiII deveIopnenl, caieei liaining and jol
vaiiely expIained a deciease in jol salisfaclion as an oveiIoad - jusl Iike a shoilage -
of vaiiely and deveIopnenlaI allenlion is nol IikeIy lo le desiialIe lo enpIoyees.
Olheivise, lhe sludy shoved lhal, in lhe case of conpensaloiy voik aspecls Iike pay,
iecognilion and sociaI ieIalionships, lheie vas no oplinun IeveI. The noie of lhese
inducenenls enpIoyees ollain, lhe highei lhe enpIoyee jol salisfaclion is.
OplinislicaIIy, lhis vaIidales lhe diffeienl naluie of lhose voik piaclices vhich ve
found lo conpose an effeclive HIWI lundIe. Despile lhe facl lhal ve did nol lesl lhe
191
HIWI-jol salisfaclion ieIalionship, il couId poinl oul lhal aclive deveIopnenlaI-
fIexilIe HR nodeIs cannol le luiId on lhe piincipIes of enhancing enpIoyee jol
salisfaclion, vhiIe passive conpensaloiy HR nodeIs can luiId on enpIoyee jol
salisfaclion lul nol on lhe enhancenenl of enpIoyee vilaIily dinensions.
In sun, lhis disseilalion allenpled lo uniaveI an enpIoyee peifoinance
nechanisn lhal couId expIain lhe inpacl of HIWIs on voik unil peifoinance.
Heie, lhe findings indicale lhal (deveIopnenlaI) enpIoyee pioaclivily and lhe
viIIingness lo invesl eneigy inleinedialed lhe ieIalionship lelveen an
deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HIWI lundIe and voik unil peifoinance. Il is aigued lhal
lhe adoplion of lhis HIWI lundIe can le calegoiized as a iesouice nakei, as il
liiggeis and aclivales enpIoyees lo deveIop and expend ones peisonaI iesouices
ialhei lhan naxinizing enpIoyee connilnenl and/oi salisfaclion.

Proosltlon 4: A dctc|cpncn|a|-f|cxio|c HPlP ound|c ccns|i|u|cs a sc| cf ucr|
prac|iccs unicn rc|a|cs |c crganiza|icna| pcrfcrnancc |nrcugn i|s ac|ita|icn and
nc|ita|icn cf cnp|cqccs |c dctc|cp cncsc|f and |c oc ui||ing |c intcs| cncrgq |c dc an
adcqua|c jco.


Organltatlona| and lndltldua| tersus Unlt-|ete| lntertentlons
Lasl, lhe high peifoinance voik syslens fianevoik focuses on acluaI voikpIace
in|crtcn|icns (inslead of expeiienced voikpIace chaiacleiislics) in lhe enhancenenl
of oiganizalionaI peifoinance. In Iine vilh olhei aulhois (Wiighl el aI., 2OO3, Sun el
aI., 2OO7, Van VeIdhoven, 2OO5, IuiceII & Hulchinson, 2OO7) ve chose lo exanine
HRM inleivenlions (enacled HIWIs) al lhe voik unil-IeveI oi fionl Iine
nanagenenl-IeveI of anaIysis. As discussed in chaplei 5, neasuiing lhe enaclnenl of
HIWIs al lhe opeialionaI IeveI lakes inlo accounl lhe vaiialiIily of Iine nanageis
and HR piofessionaIs vilhin lhe sane oiganizalion vilh iegaid lo lhe execulion
aclivilies in ceilain HRM donains (Wiighl & Nishii, 2OO4, Tiuss, 2OO1). Theiefoie,
lhey have aigued lhal lhe opeialionaI IeveI is lhe nosl adequale IeveI lo lesl
enpIoyee ieaclions and lhe sulsequenl peifoinance effecls of adopled HRM
piaclices and decision-naking. Hovevei, lhe vasl najoiily of enpiiicaI ieseaich on
lhe peifoinance effecls of HRM piaclices is conducled al a highei
(fiin/oiganizalionaI) IeveI of anaIysis (see oseIie el aI., 2OO5, foi an oveiviev),
vhiIe lhe voik and oiganizalionaI deleininanls of enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclivily
192
aie noslIy exanined al lhe individuaI enpIoyee-IeveI. elveen lhose HIWI-
peifoinance anaIyses al lhe highei oiganizalionaI-IeveI and lhe Iovei individuaI
IeveI of anaIysis, lhe voik unil IeveI vas found lo le an adequale IeveI lo liidge lolh
slieans of ieseaich.
Wilh iegaid lo lhe HRM inleivenlion IeveI, in chaplei 6, il vas lesled vhelhei
HIWIs ieIaled lo voik expeiiences lhal veie expecled lo le infIuenced ly lhese
piaclices. The sludy incIuded lhe aveiage scaIe scoies neasuiing seveiaI of lhese
voik expeiiences of enpIoyees voiking in lhe sane voik unil. Whal vas sliiking is
lhal aII of lhe diffeienl expeiiences of voik and lhe voik silualions, lo a Iaigei
exlenl, shoved significanl lelveen-unil vaiiance. In olhei voids, lo a Iaige exlenl,
enpIoyees vilhin lhe sane voik unil expeiience lhe voik silualion in a quile siniIai
vay. Wheieas nuch of lhe ieseaich lhal Iinks enpIoyee voik expeiiences lo veII-
leing and/oi peifoinance oulcones does lhis al lhe individuaI IeveI of anaIysis
(vhich suggesls lhal enpIoyees lo a Iaige exlenl diffei in lheii voik expeiiences),
oui iesuIls, hovevei, suggesl lhal lhis is oflen nol lhe case. A iesuIl aIso found ly
lolh Van Ypeien and Snijdeis, (2OOO) and Moiisson el aI. (2OO3), vhich indicales lhe
exislence of a consideialIe anounl of ieIialIe lelveen-voik unil vaiiance in lhe
expeiienced voik chaiacleiislics. AddilionaIIy, lhis disseilalion sludy found lhal
lhese shaied enpIoyee voik expeiiences aie pailIy alliilulalIe lo lhe lelveen-unil
diffeiences in lhe fionl Iine/HR nanagenenl ialings of HIWI inlensily. Heie, lhe
voik unil-IeveI of anaIysis shovs ils vaIue in Iinking nanagenenl lo enpIoyee dala.
Il confiins IuiceII and Hulchinsons (2OO7) findings lhal il aie fionl Iine nanageis
lhal liing HR poIicies lo Iife. Iuilheinoie, Iooking al lhe oulcones of lhe HIWI
lundIe al lhe voik-unil IeveI, lhe lundIe vas found lo ieIale lo enpIoyee vilaIily
and voik unil peifoinance. This fuilhei vaIidales lhal lheie is a significanl anounl
of vaiiance in enacled HIWIs, enpIoyee ieaclions and peifoinance oulcones
alliilulalIe lo lelveen-unil diffeiences.

Proosltlon 5: Tnc HPlP-Pcrfcrnancc rc|a|icnsnip is a frcn|-|inc nanagcncn|/
ucr| uni|-|ctc| HRM prcccss as i| is a| |nis |ctc| |na| in|crtcn|icns can na|c a dircc|
diffcrcncc in cnp|cqcc ucr| cxpcricnccs, rcac|icns and suoscqucn| ucr| uni|
pcrfcrnancc cu|ccncs.

193
Management b Vlta|lt?
Tuining lack lo lhe nain ieseaich queslion, lhis disseilalion liied lo shed Iighl on
lhe fealuies of a connon giound foi lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and
peifoinance. The five key issues and pioposilions piesenled alove signify luiIding
lIocks foi shaipening lhe ioules lhiough vhich voik piaclices inpacl voik unil
effecliveness lhiough lhe enhancenenl of enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclivily - i.e.
nanagenenl ly vilaIily. As expIoied, found and discussed in lhis disseilalion, feiliIe
connon giound can le cIeaied lhiough:

(1) lhe inlegialion of lheoielicaI peispeclives fion diffeienl discipIines,
(2) lhe inlegialion of aclive peifoinance and veII-leing concepls as an
enpIoyee indicaloi of suslainalIe high peifoinance,
(3) lhe disenlangIenenl of voik piaclices lecause lhey aie of a diffeienliaI
naluie and lheiefoie have diffeienl effecls,
(4) lhe enphasis on deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HIWI lundIe vhich inpioves
voik unil effecliveness lhiough ils aclivalion and nolivalion of enpIoyees lo
deveIop oneseIf and lo le viIIing lo invesl eneigy
(5) lhe allenlion foi lhe voik unil IeveI of anaIysis lo idenlify vheie HR
inleivenlions diieclIy inpacl enpIoyee and voik unil oulcones.









F|gure 8-2: The management by v|ta||ty-||nkage |n th|s d|ssertat|on


Iiguie 8-2 dispIays lhe nain Iinkage lased on lhe pioposilions lhal foIIov fion lhe
discussion alove. This Iinkage shovs lhe nain finding lhal lhe voik unils adoplion
of a deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HIWI lundIe pionoles lolh lhe enpIoyees vigoui and
0eve|opmenta|
Proact|v|ty

w||||ngness to
|nvest Energy


work Un|t
Performance

0eve|opmenta|-
F|ex|b|e
hPwP und|e


work-
un|t |eve|

Varageao|e
w/0 laclors
'Acl|ve Perlorrarce
Vecrar|sr
wor| ur|l
0ulcores
194
enpIoyee pioaclivily lovaids deveIoping ones skiIIs and aliIilies. This voik unil
IeveI piocess of hunan iesouice aclivalion oi vilaIizalion vas found lo ieIale lo
highei voik unil peifoinance. As such, lhis nanagenenl ly vilaIily Iinkage shovs
lhe feasiliIily of lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance al lhe voik unil
IeveI.


8.4 THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATION5
This disseilalions anlilion lo inlegiale exisling slieans of ieseaich and in luin
disenlangIe Iinkages in lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance knovs ils
slienglhs lul ceilainIy ils Iinilalions.

Theoretlca| |lmltatlons
TheoielicaIIy, lhis disseilalion shovs lhal lheie aie consideialIe oveiIapping
eIenenls in lhe Iileialuie on veII-leing and peifoinance enhancenenl, vhich
shouId encouiage ieseaicheis lo use insighls fion diffeienl discipIines lo slienglhen
ones ieseaich hypolheses. Hovevei, foi ieasons of paisinony, lhe lheoielicaI
peispeclives ve incIuded in chaplei 2 aie nol exhauslive. Ioi inslance, lhe onission
of Locke and Lalhans nolion of lhe High Ieifoinance CycIe (Lalhan, Locke, &
Iassina, 2OO2) oi De Silleis (1994) nodein socio-lechnicaI design piincipIes couId on
seveiaI accounls have Ied lo an inconpIele lheoielicaI picluie of inpoilanl
lheoielicaI slances in lhis fieId. Moieovei, addiessing a iange of lheoielicaI nodeIs
iuns lhe iisk of nissing oul on sone of lhe delaiIs lhal aie of inpoilance in each of
lhe independenl discipIines.
Anolhei onission in lhis disseilalion is lhe conlexluaIizalion of oui ieseaich
queslions and hypolheses. As a gioving pail of slialegic (HR) nanagenenl
Iileialuie asseils lhe inpoilance of lhe slialegic, inslilulionaI, lechnoIogicaI oi
socielaI conlexl lo undeisland lhe effecls of voik piaclices on enpIoyees and
oiganizalionaI peifoinance (Iaauve & oseIie, 2OO7, oon, 2OO8), lhis disseilalion
did nol lake inlo accounl lhe conlexluaI specifics of each of lhe voik unils incIuded
in lhis ieseaich. As il vas slaled lhal lhe concepl of enpIoyee vilaIily is a conlexl-
Iaden concepl vhich vas assuned lo le vaIualIe in a conlenpoiaiy insecuie,
conpIex and denanding voik conlexl, a saIienl Iinilalion of lhis ieseaich is lhal
lhese conlexluaI chaiacleiislics veie nol diieclIy neasuied. In an enpiiicaI sludy
quile siniIai lo lhe one piesenled in chaplei 7, eIlin-Mailn (2OO6) did incIude
195
oiganizalionaI dynanics as a nodeialoi. She found lhal lo lhe exlenl lhal an
oiganizalion opeiales in a noie dynanic naikel conlexl, lhe effecl of hunan
iesouice fIexiliIily vas found lo have a sliongei effecl on saIes peifoinance. In a
siniIai vein, Ciiffin, NeaI and Iaikei (2OO7) eIaloiale on lhe significanl conliilulion
of enpIoyee pioaclivily, especiaIIy in unceilain and inleidependenl voik conlexls.
Wilh iegaid lo lhe conlexluaI diffeiences of lhe voik unils in oui sludy il vas
assuned lhal lhey aII aie suljecl lo incieasing oulside piessuie and unceilainly,
hovevei, il vouId le lellei lo fuilhei incIude expIicil hypolheses lhal lake inlo
accounl lhe diffeienliaI HIWI-peifoinance effecls acioss diffeienl oiganizalionaI
conlexls.
A Iasl Iinilalion iefeis lo lhe IaleI enpIoyee vilaIily conlaining lolh a vigoui
and pioaclivily dinension. In lhe pasl yeais, a nunlei of nev siniIai vaiialIes have
leen foivaided of vhich lhe concepl of cnp|cqcc cngagcncn| has ieceived lhe nosl
allenlion lolh in US and Luiopean acadenic jouinaIs (e.g., Macey & Schneidei, 2OO8,
Taiis, Cox & Tisseiand, 2OO8). Il vas nol lhe inlenlion of lhis disseilalion lo inlioduce
a nev concepl vhich is aIieady coveied ly olhei concepls. Hovevei, conlining
enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclive lehaviouiaI oiienlalions inlo one ialionaIe has nol
leen done lefoie in lhe conlexl of idenlifying effeclive and enduialIe voik effoil. Il
is in lhis conlexl lhal enpIoyee vilaIily conpIenenls lhe Iileialuie on aclive
peifoinance and aclive/posilive veII-leing concepls. Moie lhan focusing on
enpIoyee vilaIily as a singIe tariao|c, fuluie ieseaich is encouiaged lo lieal lhe
diffeienl conponenls of enpIoyee vilaIily as enlvined lheoielicaI eIenenls vilhin a
singIe ieseaich dcnain. As a ieseaich donain il piovides lhe possiliIily lo sludy
lhose aclive enpIoyee alliludes and lehaviouis lhal nake up a heaIlhy and
pioduclive voikpIace.

Methodo|oglca| |lmltatlons
In sludying lhe nanagenenl ly vilaIily-Iinkage, lhe nosl iecenl ieconnendalions
veie incIuded as il cones lo neasuienenl of (high peifoinance) voik piaclices vilh
nuIlipIe slakehoIdeis (Ceihail el aI., 2OOO) and lesling lhe HIWI-peifoinance
Iinkage al lhe voik unil IeveI of anaIysis (IuiceII & Hulchinson, 2OO7). IncIuding
nuIli-acloi dala fion lhe key piincipaIs invoIved in lhe voik piocess al lhe voik
unil IeveI enalIed us lo lesl lhe nuIli-IeveI inpacl of unil-IeveI HIWIs on
individuaI-IeveI vilaIily, logelhei vilh lhe incIusion of voik unil peifoinance
oulcones. So fai, onIy a fev sludies (e.g., Ialleison el aI., 2OO5, Takeuchi, Lepak,
196
Wang & Takeuchi, 2OO7) use a siniIai design. Iuilheinoie, lhe possiliIily lo
consliue ieIialIe HIWI neasuies ly nalched Iine nanagei and HR piofessionaI
ialings and lo vaIidale lhe neasuies ly Iinking lhen lo enpIoyee voik expeiiences
has nol leen connon piaclice in HRM Iileialuie. This disseilalion is in suppoil of
lhis deveIopnenl and encouiages fuluie ieseaich lo incIude nuIli-acloi dala of key
slakehoIdeis.
UnfoilunaleIy, lhe dala coIIeclion had ils diavlacks lecause il vas nol
possilIe lo coIIecl lolh lhe enpIoyee vilaIily dala and lhe passive enpIoyee
peifoinance/veII-leing dala (connilnenl, salisfaclion, sliain) vilhin aII of lhe 53
voik unils. As a consequence, lhe discussed diffeienliaI effecls of voik piaclices on
eilhei enpIoyee vilaIily and passive indicalois of oiganizalionaI connilnenl, jol
salisfaclion and jol sliain couId nol le lesled. AIso, lhe vaIidalion sludy in chaplei 3
did nol conlain lhe sane anounl of individuaI cases. Ioi fuluie ieseaich, lesling lhe
aclive veisus passive enpIoyee oulcones of ceilain voik piaclices is needed lo
fuilhei vaIidale diffeienl enpIoyee peifoinance nechanisns. The sane accounls foi
lhe incIusion of voik unil-IeveI luinovei and sickness alsence iales.
Anolhei nelhodoIogicaI Iinilalion of lhis disseilalion is lhal foi lhe voik
piaclices lhal did nol ieIale lo enpIoyee vilaIily, ve did nol check foi alnoinaI
iesliiclions of vaiiance due lo oui sanpIe. Reasons foi lhe non-significanl
ieIalionship lelveen alove-naikel vages, voik-Iife laIance and dinensions of
enpIoyee vilaIily couId le due lo oui choice foi lhe voik-unil IeveI of anaIysis.
ecause poIicies on vages and lenefils, in a Dulch conlexl, aie oflen agieed upon in
coIIeclive laigaining agieenenls, lhe Iaigesl vaiiance in lhe inlensily of lhese voik
piaclices is noie IikeIy lo exisl lelveen oiganizalions lhan lelveen voik unils.
Iuluie ieseaich is encouiaged lo exanine lhe possiliIily lhal diffeienl voik piaclices
have Iaigei/snaIIei degiees of vaiiance al diffeienl IeveIs of anaIysis.
Anolhei Iinilalion of lhis disseilalion sludy is lhe incIuded voik unil
peifoinance neasuie. Il conslilules Iine nanagei ialings of aspecls of oveiaII voik
unil effecliveness. Of couise, vhal il is lhal nakes a voik unil effeclive can le
diffeienl foi each of lhe voik unils incIuded. ecause of lhe gieal diveisily of voik
unils, ve chose foi a veiy geneiaI neasuie siniIai lo suljeclive peifoinance
neasuies in a iange of olhei sludies (WaII, Michie, Ialleison, Wood, Sheehan, CIegg
& Wesl, 2OO4). Ioi neasuiing peifoinance (olhei lhan luinovei/alsence iales)
acioss inconpaialIe lypes of voik unils, lhis vas lhe lesl possilIe oplion aIlhough
fuilhei ieseaich couId aIso incIude nuIlipIe voik unil peifoinance ialeis in oidei lo
197
inciease lhe quaIily and ieIialiIily of lhe neasuie. AIso, foi each voik unil, sone
oljeclive ianking via highei IeveI nanagenenl infoinalion couId le conducled in
oidei lo vaIidale lhe Iov/nodeiale/high scoie on lhe suljeclive peifoinance
neasuie.
Iuilheinoie, in lesling lhe nedialing ioIe of aggiegaled enpIoyee vilaIily
scoies al a voik unil IeveI, lheie is lhe iisk lhal il vas viongIy assuned lhal
aggiegaling individuaI IeveI phenonena vouId iefIecl siniIai phenonena al lhe
voik unil IeveI (a|cnis|ic fa||acq). AIlhough aggiegalion vas convenienl foi lesling a
nedialion effecl of vilaIily lelveen voik unil-IeveI voik piaclices and peifoinance
vaiialIes, lhe ICC vaIues foi lhiee of lhe foui vilaIily scaIes veie nol convincingIy
high. Nev nuIliIeveI nodeIIing lechniques vhich enalIe ieseaicheis lo piedicl voik
unil IeveI oulcones fion vaiialIes neasuied al lhe individuaI IeveI (Cioon & Van
VeIdhoven, 2OO7) couId soIve lhese piolIens in lhe fuluie.
Lasl, il shouId le noled lhal lhis sludy is cioss-seclionaI, vhich nakes lhal
causaI infeiences shouId le inleipieled vilh gieal caulion. LongiludinaI ieseaich
shouId le puisued vhen possilIe. LspeciaIIy, vilh iegaid lo lhe lheoielicaI
assunplion lhal enpIoyee pioaclivily and vigoui vouId enhance each olhei ovei
line.


8.5 REFLECTION AND FUTURE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL CHALLENGE5
RefIecling on lhese pioposilions undeiIying lhe nanagenenl ly vilaIily and lhe
Iinilalions of lhis disseilalion sludy seveiaI fuluie ieseaich issues can le
highIighled. Iiguie 8-2 depicls lhiee issues, vhich undeipin ieseaich chaIIenges in
exanining lhe nanagenenl of lolh veII-leing and peifoinance. Iiguie 8-2
addiesses lhe fuluie inpoilance of (1) oa|ancing lhe oulcones of voik, (2) in|cgra|ing
lhe nechanisns expIaining lhese oulcones, (3) discn|ang|ing lhe diffeienl voik and
oiganizalionaI deleininanls and (4) ccn|cx|ua|izing lhe expecled lenefils. The
hoiizonlaI iov of daik giey lox shovs lhe HPlP ti|a|i|q pcrfcrnancc
ieIalionship as sludied in lhis disseilalion. RefIecling on lhis ieIalionship, lhe veilicaI
and olhei hoiizonlaI Iinkages viII le addiessed.




198


0eve|opmenta|-
F|ex|b|e
work pract|ces



l|gr Corr|lrerl
wor| Pracl|ces



lea|lr-locused
wor| Pracl|ces























F|gure 8-2: Craph|ca| representat|on of future theoret|ca| and emp|r|ca| cha||enges



Ba|anclng the outcomes of uork: sustalnab|e HR erformance
The veilicaI iov of loxes al lhe iighl of Iiguie 8-2 depicls lhiee oulcones of voik
lhal aie veII knovn indicalois of oveiaII oiganizalionaI effecliveness. AIlhough lhis
disseilalion ieseaich onIy focused on lhe deleininanls of geneiaI voik unil
peifoinance, lhe degiee of enpIoyee luin ovei and (sickness) alsence aie connon
ieseaiched voik oulcones. AII lhiee oulcones can le chaiacleiized as pioxinaI
ialhei lhan dislaI oulcones of voik. In olhei voids, olhei lhan foi inslance financiaI
peifoinance oulcones, lhey can le noie diieclIy coupIed lo lhe heaIlh, alliludes and
lehaviouis of enpIoyees. This is an inpoilanl ciileiion, lecause in oidei lo
adequaleIy sludy lhe iesuIls of inleivenlions lhey have lo lhe diieclIy alliilulalIe lo
a pailicuIai inleivenlion. AIso, lhe lhiee oulcones of voik aie Iess sensilive lo lhe

(|mproved}
work Un|t
Performance


(Reduced)
wor| ur|l
Turrover

(Reduced)
wor| ur|l
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Resource
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human
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work un|t
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lrd|v|dua|
Leve|?

199
specific lusiness chaiacleiislics, as nol foi aII oiganizalions peifoinance can le
defined ly inpioved saIes, naikel shaie oi nel-piofil (in lhe case of non-piofil
oiganizalions). In conliasl lo HIWS Iileialuie lhal oflen soIeIy incIudes lhe ciileiion
of high opeialionaI oi financiaI peifoinance, ve vouId aigue lhal especiaIIy vilh
iegaid lo suslainalIe voik unil peifoinance lhe laIance lelveen nuIlipIe lollon
Iines (oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3) is a necessily. AIso KapIan and Noilons (1996) voik
on lhe oa|anccd sccrc card enphasizes lhe nuIlipIe peispeclives on lusiness
peifoinance vhich nanagenenl couId sinuIlaneous focus on. oxaII and IuiceII
(2OO3) and KapIan and Noilon (1996) incIude diffeienl nuIlipIe peifoinance
indicalois, lul lolh iefei lo lhe laIance lelveen lhe shoil-lein and Iong-lein
lhenes in lhe puisuil of suslained conpelilive advanlage and Iong-lein
oiganizalionaI vialiIily. In a siniIai vein, ve vouId piopose lhal vilh iespecl lo lhe
suslainaliIily of lhe nanagenenl of veII-leing and peifoinance al a voik unil IeveI,
laIancing lhe enpIoyee veII-leing indicalois of luin ovei and (sickness) alsence
vilh indicalois of voik unil effecliveness is key. Manageing lhis lype of suslainalIe
voik unil peifoinance inpIies lhe focus on a dynanic oulcone ciileiion, in vhich
lhe evaIualion of voik unil peifoinance is dependenl on lhe laIance lelveen aII
lhiee voik oulcones.
Ioi exanpIe, voik unil peifoinance cannol le consideied suslainalIe vhen a
voik unil successfuIIy naxinizes ils annuaI lusiness laigels, vhiIe sinuIlaneousIy a
consideialIe anounl of enpIoyee nenleis lhal yeai Ieave lhe voik unil oi gel sick.
The coIIaleiaI danage done vilh ieaching lhis yeais lusiness laigels (=shoil-
lein) nighl conpionise nexl yeais voik unil effecliveness (=Iong-lein) lo an
exlenl lhal lhe aveiage voik unil peifoinance neasuied ovei a Iongei peiiod of
line is oc|n nol oplinaI and invoIving high sociaI and financiaI cosls due lo
iepIacenenls, liaining and lhe Iike. ConveiseIy, Iov enpIoyee luinovei and/oi
sickness alsenleeisn, vilhoul adequale voik unil effecliveness scoies couId, in lhe
Iong iun, aIso endangei Iong lein effecliveness as voik unils gel possilIy noie and
noie vuIneialIe lo lhe silualion in vhich salisfied, unsliained enpIoyees aie
confionled vilh changes and nev piessuies lo inpiove voik unil effecliveness. The
degiee lo vhich voik unils can laIance nuIlipIe voik oulcones is IikeIy lo
deleinine ils vialiIily (Iaauve, 2OO4, oxaII & IuiceII, 2OO3). Ioi a lellei
undeislanding of suslainalIe HR peifoinance issues al lhe voik unil IeveI, fuluie
ieseaich chaIIenges Iie in lhe cIosei exaninalion of nuIlipIe laIanced oulcones of
voik and voik piaclices. TheoielicaIIy, lhis inpIies lhal enpIoyee heaIlh and veII-
200
leing aie nol consideied ly-pioducls in lhe High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens
fianevoik, lul key voik unil peifoinance indicalois in lhe sliife foi suslained
conpelilive advanlage (Cuesl, 2OO2). LnpiiicaIIy, lhis inpIies lhe fuilhei incIusion
of nuIlipIe sociaI and econonic peifoinance indicalois. Moie specificaIIy,
IongiludinaI sludies on hov luinovei iales, alsence iales and peifoinance ialings
infIuence each olhei ovei line vouId le a slep foivaid in lhe undeislanding of lhe
dynanics of suslainalIe voik unil peifoinance.

lntegratlng ex|anator em|oee mechanlsms
A second fuluie ieseaich issue is lhe vay nuIlipIe expIanaloiy nechanisns can le
inlegialed inlo a noie soIid expIanalion foi hov lhe voik unils hunan iesouice
pooI conliilules lo nuIlipIe lollon Iines. This disseilalion dislinguished lelveen
aclive and passive inleinediaiy peifoinance nechanisns. Hovevei, olhei lhan
consliluling jusl diffeienl expIanalions foi lhe peifoinance oulcones of ceilain voik
and oiganizalionaI faclois, lhey can le aigued lo le conpIenenlaiy nechanisns
lhal ieinfoice each olhei. As depicled in Iiguie 8-2, lhe veilicaI iov of loxes in lhe
niddIe each signify diffeienl ialionaIes foi hov voik piaclices can infIuence voik
unil peifoinance. In coiiespondence vilh lhis disseilalions focus (in lhe daik giey
loxes) and suggeslions (in lhe vhile loxes), lhe figuie shovs nechanisns of (1)
hunan iesouice acquisilion/ielenlion, (2) hunan iesouice vilaIizalion and (3)
hunan iesouice avaiIaliIily. Lach conslilules diffeienl HR lhenes consideied
ieIevanl lo nanageiiaI decision-naking al lhe voik unil IeveI, lul each vilh
diffeienl enpIoyee indicalois. Ioi inslance, in lhis disseilalion ve expIoied lhe
conliilulion of enpIoyee vilaIily lo voik unil effecliveness and found a ieIalionship
lelveen enpIoyees deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily and lhe viIIingness lo invesl eneigy
vilh highei voik unil effecliveness. High enpIoyee scoies on lhese indicalois vouId
signify lhe degiee of lhe voik unils nunan rcscurcc ac|ita|icn oi ti|a|iza|icn.
Iion a HIWS / RV lheoielicaI slance, vilaI enpIoyees nighl signify a
vaIualIe, haid lo inilale hunan iesouice pooI, lul Coff (1997) aIieady slaled lhal
nunan iesouices (in conpaiison lo olhei iesouices) can vaIk oul lhe dooi eveiyday,
oi lhey can gel sliained oi sick. Theiefoie, lhe lhieals lo lhe suslainalIe HR
peifoinance nighl depend on lhe degiee of nunan rcscurcc rc|cn|icn and nunan
rcscurcc atai|aoi|i|q. The diffeience lelveen lhe Iallei lvo nechanisns is lhal HR
ielenlion iefeis lo lhe pieseivalion and slaliIily of lhe voik unils hunan iesouice
pooI, vhiIe hunan iesouice avaiIaliIily iefeis lo lhe exlenl lhal a voik unil can
201
counl on lhe fuII (nenlaI and physicaI) polenliaI of lhe hunan iesouice pooI. Il
conslilules lhe diffeience lelveen nainlaining a slalIe hunan iesouice pooI vilh
enpIoyees connilled lo and salisfied vilh lheii jol and lhe oplinaI avaiIaliIily of
lhe hunan iesouices in leins of enpIoyees vilh Iov IeveIs voik-ieIaled oi voik-
hone-ieIaled heaIlh piolIens and lheiefoie a giealei eneigy ieseive. Il is IikeIy lhal
undei lhese condilions, hunan iesouice vilaIizalion can have an oplinaI enduialIe
inpacl on voik unil effecliveness. As lhis disseilalion asseils, il is lhe aclivalion of
enpIoyee vigoui and (deveIopnenlaI) pioaclivily lhal evenluaIIy conliilules lo
voik unil effecliveness, aIlhough lhe enduialIe naluie of lhis effecl is IikeIy lo le
dependenl on lhe slalIe piesence of and access lo an adequale hunan iesouice pooI.
TheoielicaIIy, a chaIIenge foi ieseaicheis is fiisl of aII lo give noie specific
nanageiiaI neaning lo lhe enpIoyee alliludes and lehaviouis lhal aie sludied: vhal
exaclIy do lhese enpIoyee alliludes and lehaviouis nean lo an oiganizalion` y
vaIidaling lhese cIusleis of enpIoyee alliilules lhiough lhe exaninalion of lheii
diffeienliaI effecls on voik unil peifoinance indicalois, paves a vay foi lhe
exaninalion of lhe conpIenenlaiilies lelveen passive and aclive enpIoyee
nechanisns in expIaining lhe effecl of voik and oiganizalionaI faclois on
suslainalIe voik unil peifoinance. This aIso inpIies a lellei undeislanding of hov
aggiegaled voik unil-IeveI enpIoyee alliilules shouId le inleipieled.
OiganizalionaI cIinale ieseaich (e.g. Ialleison el aI., 2OO4, 2OO5) couId le heIpfuI
heie, as enpiiicaI ieseaich in lhis fieId incieasingIy incIudes lhe aggiegaled
neasuies of aII soils of enpIoyee veII-leing and lehaviouiaI vaiialIes in ieIalion lo
oiganizalionaI peifoinance oulcones. Hovevei, in lhe exaninalion of hov nuIlipIe
expIanaloiy nechanisns nighl conline, lhe lensions lelveen lhe nechanisns
shouId le laken inlo accounl. Ioi inslance, enpIoyee deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily
couId aIso nean lhal enpIoyee luin ovei viII inciease, as enpIoyees seaich foi nev
vays lo deveIop lhenseIves in lheii piofession inside oi oulside lheii cuiienl jol.
Heie, il vouId aIso le inleiesling lo exanine vhelhei, foi inslance, lhe inleiaclion
lelveen oiganizalionaI connilnenl and deveIopnenlaI pioaclivily couId expIain
vhelhei enpIoyees vouId invesl in lhe deveIopnenl of noie oiganizalionaI-specific
skiIIs oi in noie geneiic skiIIs aIso vaIualIe in olhei oiganizalions.

Dlsentang|lng the effects of uork ractlces (at dlfferent |ete|s)
IinaIIy, findings in lhis disseilalion ieseaich enphasize lhe diffeienliaI naluie of
voik piaclices vilh iegaid lo ils effecls on enpIoyee vilaIily and voik unil
202
peifoinance. AIlhough HIWS Iileialuie sufficienlIy has addiessed lhese diffeienliaI
effecls of voik piaclices vhich aie assuned lo inpacl oiganizalionaI peifoinance
lhiough lhe enhancenenl of enpIoyee aliIilies, nolivalion and oppoilunily, lhe
acluaI inpacl on enpIoyee voik expeiiences is noslIy negIecled. Oui sludy shoved
lhal nol aII voik piaclices couId le consideied lo conliilule lo voik unil
effecliveness lhiough aclive enpIoyee peifoinance. As shovn in Iiguie 8-2 and
aIieady discussed in noie deplh, olhei voik and oiganizalionaI faclois lhal did nol
nake up a deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HIWI lundIe can sliII conliilule effecliveIy lo
suslainalIe voik unil peifoinance lhiough ieduclions in luinovei and/oi sickness
alsence iales. TheoielicaIIy, lhis couId enlaiI lhal lhe nolion of a one oveiaII High
Ieifoinance Woik Syslen is nol vaIid. Ralhei lhan lheoiizing fion a lighl syslens
peispeclive, lhis couId enlaiI a noie hoIislic fianevoik vhich piovides ioon foi (1)
sepaiale effecls of a lundIe of high-connilnenl voik piaclices (Iike alove naikel
vages, voik-Iife laIance aiiangenenls), (2) a lundIe of deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe voik
piaclices and (3) lhe effecls of heaIlh-focused voik piaclices (foi inslance, voikIoad
nanagenenl, individuaI heaIlh piogians).
AIso, shovn in Iiguie 8-2, lhis couId nean lhal a hoIislic HIWS fianevoik
incoipoiales diffeienl IeveIs al vhich voik and oiganizalionaI faclois have lhe nosl
neaningfuI vaiiance. Ioi inslance, decisions on alove naikel vages nighl noie le
an oiganizalionaI oi eslalIishnenl IeveI nallei. Olheivise, deciding on
deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe voik aiiangenenls nighl le noie a nallei of Iine nanageis
al lhe voik unil IeveI, vhiIe heaIlh-focused inleivenlions (lo deaI vilh peisonaI
voikIoad piolIens vhich veie found lo negaliveIy inpacl individuaI-IeveI
enpIoyee vigoui) nighl aIieady expIain lhe Iaigesl pail of vaiiance in eneigy/sliain
IeveIs lelveen individuaI enpIoyees in lhe sane voik unil. LnpiiicaIIy,
diffeienlialing in lhe neasuienenl IeveI of voik and oiganizalionaI faclois vilhin a
connon hoIislic HIWS fianevoik couId le a fuluie ieseaich avenue. This aIso
shouId incIude lhe fuilhei vaIidalion of voikpIace inleivenlions al diffeienl IeveIs in
lhe Iighl of lheii ieIalionship vilh nuIlipIe nechanisns and oulcones of voik. As il
is veiy connon lo oiganizalions lo conducl HR inleivenlions al lhe oiganizalionaI,
voik-unil and individuaI IeveI, a nuIli-IeveI HIWS fianevoik couId piovide a
lellei undeislanding of lhe fil lelveen lhese inleivenlions in ieIalion lo
suslainalIe peifoinance oulcones. Lxanining cioss-IeveI inleiaclions lelveen
diffeienl voik piaclices, couId iesuIl in noie insighl in, foi exanpIe, vhelhei an
oiganizalion vhich pays alove-naikel vages eilhei suppoils oi olsliucls lhe voik
203
unils deveIopnenlaI effoils lo aclivale enpIoyees inlo pioaclive Ieaining
lehaviouis. AIso, one couId exanine vhelhei deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe voik piaclices
inleiacl vilh individuaI-IeveI jol denands in such vay lhal lhey piovide ceilain jol
iesouices lhal luffei lhe negalive voikIoad effecls on lhe avaiIaliIily of eneigy.

Contextua|ltlng the exected beneflts of uork|ace lntertentlons
Lasl, a Iaige fuluie ieseaich issue vhich vas nol fuilhei incIuded in lhis disseilalion
sludy is lhe oiganizalionaI, voikpIace oi jol conlexl in vhich lhe peifoinance and
veII-leing effecls of ceilain voik and oiganizalionaI aie exanined. In lhis sludy, ve
incIuded piivale and (seni-)pulIic oiganizalions as veII as veiy diffeienl voik unils
vhich enpIoy voikeis ianging fion, foi inslance, hospilaI cIeaneis, Iov-skiIIed
nachine opeialois, high-skiIIed lechnicians lo financiaI advisois al a IocaI lank. The
oiganizalionaI dependence on discielionaiy enpIoyee effoil is IikeIy lo le veiy
diffeienl acioss lhese jols (Lepak & SneII, 1999). This couId inpIy lhal inveslnenls in
a deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HIWI lundIe and lhe consequenl hunan iesouice
vilaIizalion conslilules nuch Iess added vaIue lo a hospilaI cIeaning depailnenl lhan
lo a voik unil of financiaI advisois. AIso, lhe conlexluaI dynanics aie IikeIy lo le
veiy diffeienl as financiaI advisois voik in a highIy conpelilive naikel, vhiIe
hospilaI cIeaneis (in lhis case) do nol.
Nolvilhslanding lhe facl lhal each of lhe diffeienl voik unils is affecled ly
lhe lhiee peifoinance oulcones desciiled in Iiguie 8-2, lhe inpacl of ceilain HR
inleivenlions nighl diffei in slienglh, lul possilIy aIso in diieclion. Ioi inslance,
vilh iegaid lo slienglh, alove-naikel vages nighl le a sliong incenlive lo cIeaneis
lo slay vilh lhe oiganizalion, vhiIe foi highIy educaled financiaI advisois nol lhe
cuiienl saIaiy lul lhe alliacliveness of fuluie saIaiy giovlh possiliIilies is nuch
noie inpoilanl. Ioi lhe Iallei enpIoyee calegoiy, cuiienl alove-naikel vages aie
onIy haIf lhe sloiy, vhiIe foi lhe cIeaneis il has a giealei inpacl. LnpiiicaIIy, vilh
iegaid lo lhe inpacl of jol conlexl on lhe diieclion of peifoinance effecls, one couId
exanine vhelhei invesling in lhe liaining and deveIopnenl of financiaI advisois
Ieads lo quaIily IeveIs and conpeliliveness going up, vhiIe in lhe case of lhe cIeaneis
liaining lakes up a sulslanliaI anounl of line vhich cannol le spenl on nanuaIIy
going aloul a ceilain nunlei of squaie neleis vhich sinpIy need le cIeaned
(negalive peifoinance effecl). Theiefoie, fuluie ieseaich shouId le noie sensilive lo
lhe oiganizalionaI oi jol conlexl in vhich lhe lenefils of voikpIace inleivenlions aie
sludied.
204









8.6 IMPLICATION5 AND 5UGGE5TION5 FOR PRACTICE
In Iine vilh lhe afoienenlioned ieseaich chaIIenges lhal foIIov fion lhis lhesis, lheie
aie seveiaI inpIicalions foi piaclice. Wilh lhe focus on nanagenenl ly vilaIily al lhe
voik unil IeveI, piaclicaI suggeslions and inpIicalions aie ained al fiisl Iine
nanageis and HR piofessionaIs and olhei nanagenenl iepiesenlalives vho deaI
vilh peisonneI issues Iovei dovn lhe oiganizalionaI hieiaichy. In Iiguie 8-3, lhiee
nain piaclicaI inpIicalions lhal undeipin a nanagenenl ly vilaIily appioach aie
shovn.









F|gure 8-3: |mp||cat|ons and suggest|ons for pract|ce


Conduct sustalnab|e HR erformance audlts
In essence, enhancing enpIoyee vilaIily is nol lhe coie oljeclive of HR nanagenenl
inleivenlions. In Iegilinizing inleinaI HR nanagenenl decisions, piaclilioneis focus
on nuIlipIe oljeclive HR peifoinance indicalois coveiing lusiness-specific
opeialionaI peifoinance (e.g., pioducl/seivice quaIily, deIiveiy lines, saIes elc.),
luin-ovei iales and sickness alsence iales. Civen lhe chaIIenges slaled in lhe
pievious paiagiaph lhis cIeaiIy shouId nol le discouiaged, aIlhough lhey couId le
used in a noie laIanced and Iong-lein nannei. Lileialuie on laIanced scoie caids
disceins lhe conlinuous focus on nuIlipIe peifoinance indicalois vhich connecl lo
lhe needs of nuIlipIe slakehoIdeis (highei nanagenenl, cusloneis and enpIoyees).
Hovevei, aIlhough keeping liack of nuIlipIe peifoinance indicalois nighl give a
good oveiviev of lhe allainnenl of inpoilanl lusiness goaIs, il does nol piovide
insighl in possilIe inleiieIalions and connon deleininanls conceining lhe goaIs. Il
nay iesuIl in sinpIe scoiecaid oi dashloaid nanagenenl lhal vievs nuIlipIe
HR peifoinance indicalois as decoupIed and independenl oulcones vhich

Enact coherent
hR |ntervent|ons


6onduct
susta|nab|e
hR performance
aud|ts

6onduct regu|ar
v|ta||ty scans|
sess|ons

205
consequenlIy Ieads nanagenenl inlo ad hoc HR inleivenlions lo iesoIve lhe
pailicuIai peifoinance oi ielenlion piolIens al hand. AIleinaliveIy, suggeslions
foIIoving fion lhis lhesis vouId poinl lovaids lhe foinuIalion of an oveiaiching
peifoinance indicaloi oi ialionaIe, vhich acknovIedges lhe inleiieIalion and
lensions lelveen nuIlipIe indicalois.
Nolvilhslanding lhe inpoilance of financiaI cosl/lenefils ialios foi
nanagenenl decision naking, lhe focus on suslainalIe HR peifoinance ialios
couId piovide addilionaI and noie infoined insighl in lhe voik unils vialiIily.
Such suslainalIe peifoinance indicalois couId consisl of opeialionaI peifoinance
indicalois in conlinalion vilh lhe voik unils luin ovei and alsence iales. Ralhei
lhan decoupIing each of lhe indicalois in decision-naking, conlining lhen gives
ansvei lo a nanagenenl queslion Iike al vhal sccia| cosls (luin ovei / alsence)
does oui voik unil allain ils opeialionaI peifoinance goaIs`. Heie, sociaI cosls do
nol iefei lo lhe financiaI cosls ieIaled lo luin-ovei and alsence (iepIacenenl cosls,
ieciuilnenl cosls), lul lo lhe oljeclive enpIoyee heaIlh and lehaviouiaI oulcones
lhal acconpany opeialionaI peifoinance oulcones. The goaI of such a suslainalIe
HR peifoinance audi|, in vhich oiganizalions couId disliilule voik unils aIong lhe
Iines of high/Iov opeialionaI peifoinance and high/Iov sociaI cosls, is lo idenlify
lhose voik unils lhal iun a fuluie peifoinance oi suslainaliIily-iisk.
Ioi exanpIe, if a voik unil is a high peifoinance voik unil in leins of ils
high saIes peifoinance, vhiIe al lhe sane line figuies poinl lovaids an inciease of
voik unil sickness alsences (high sociaI cosls), lhis couId indicale lhal lhe voik unil
is loosling saIes al lhe expense of enpIoyee heaIlh. In lhe Iong iun, lhe voik unil
couId face a suslainaliIily iisk as lhe fuII hunan iesouice polenliaI decieases lo a
poinl lhal saIes slail lo diop and exlia nanagenenl piessuie on saIes enhancenenl
viII lackfiie innedialeIy lecause enpIoyee iesiIience is nov Iov. The advanlage of
lhis piaclicaI inpIicalion is lhal conlining aIieady exisling indicalois of pasl HR
peifoinance cieales nev nanagenenl infoinalion on voik unil vialiIily in lhe
fuluie. Inpoilanl lo nole is lhal lhe oljeclive peifoinance gains and sociaI cosls
oflen do nol piesenl lhenseIves sinuIlaneousIy. Theiefoie, suslainalIe HR
peifoinance audils shouId nol focus on one yeai lul on a Iongei peiiod of line lo
giasp a sociaI and opeialionaI peifoinance pallein. Inleiesling aie lhe diffeiences
lelveen voik unils vhich shov slalIe high opeialionaI peifoinance vilh Iov sociaI
cosls and voik unils vhich shov Iaige fIuclualions and inlaIances ovei a peiiod of
line. AIso, inpoilanl lo nole is lhal Iine and HR nanagenenl invoIvenenl in
206
deciding on vhich HR peifoinance neasuies aie conpaialIe acioss voik unils is
ciuciaI lo lhe acceplance lhioughoul lhe oiganizalion.

Conduct regu|ar em|oee tlta|lt scans
As oljeclive suslainalIe HR peifoinance infoinalion can le used lo cIassify lhe
voik unils, addilionaI dala galheiing on enpIoyee vilaIily can piovide Iine and HR
nanageis vilh noie in-deplh infoinalion on vhy ceilain voik unils peifoin
diffeienlIy. To a ceilain exlenl lhis disseilalion sludy vaIidaled lhe ieIalionship
lelveen pioaclive and vigouious enpIoyees and highei geneiaI voik unil
effecliveness. AddilionaIIy, lhis sludy aIso dislinguished passive enpIoyee heaIlh
and peifoinance alliilules (Iike voik-ieIaled faligue and voiiying and enpIoyee
feeIings of jol salisfaclion, connilnenl) vhich possilIy aie noie diieclIy Iinked lo
enpIoyee sickness alsence and luinovei iales. Conlining lhese neasuies inlo a
ieguIai enpIoyee vilaIily queslionnaiie piovides dala lhal lies lhe voik unils
oljeclive suslainalIe peifoinance oulcones lo lhose suljeclive enpIoyee vilaIily
indicalois lhal diffei sulslanliaIIy lelveen voik unils. Idenlifying lhe lies lelveen
enpIoyee infoinalion and suslainalIe voik unil peifoinance conliilules lo lhe use
of suivey dala as ciilicaI peifoinance indicalois. The idea of idenlifying hol spols
(Ciallon, 2OO7) vhich iefei lo leans, voikpIaces oi oiganizalions lhal luzz vilh
eneigy, foIIovs a siniIai Iine of lhoughl. Ciallons hol spol concepl oveiIaps vilh
lhe nolion of a vilaI voik unil, as il sulsciiles lhal as Iong as eneigy vilhin
oiganizalionaI unils is nol igniled, enpIoyees nay feeI vigouious, vilhoul lhis
Ieading lo any peifoinance advanlages. Theiefoie, liinging enpIoyee pioaclivily
neasuies inlo enpIoyee heaIlh and allilude suiveys, conliilules lo a fuIIei specliun
of aclionalIe enpIoyee infoinalion foi Iine nanageis, HR nanageis and, foi
inslance, occupalionaI heaIlh iepiesenlalives.

Enact coherent HR lntertentlons
A Iasl inpIicalion foi piaclice iefeis lo lhe HR inleivenlions lhal nallei vilh iegaid
lo nanagenenl ly vilaIily. Heie, an inpoilanl inpIicalion fion lhis sludy is lhal
voik piaclices as indicaled ly Iine nanageis and HR piofessionaIs indeed ieIale lo
enpIoyee seIf-iepoils of vigoui and pioaclivily. This enphasizes lhe ioIe HR
inleivenlions pIay in eilhei dininishing oi enhancing enpIoyee vilaIily. Il iejecls
possilIe vievs of nanageis lhal vilaIily is an individuaI, peison-dependenl aspecl,
ialhei lhan an enpIoyee ieaclion lo lhe voik enviionnenl. Iuilheinoie, lhis sludy
207
shoved lhal lhe enhancenenl of enpIoyee vilaIily is seived lesl vhen invesling in a
deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HR slialegy. This enphasizes lhe ioIe of Iine nanagenenl as
a iesouice nakei in conliasl lo, foi inslance, nanageis vho choose a luy
slialegy vhen alliacling laIenl vilh high alove naikel vages oi naking use of
lenpoiaiy voikeis lo deaI vilh peisonneI shoilages. This inpIies a choice foi
exlensive liaining and deveIopnenl piaclices acconpanied ly a cIeai choice lo ieIy
on coie (and nol necessaiiIy noie) enpIoyees in deaIing vilh fIuclualions in voik
denands and lhe voik piocess in geneiaI. Ioi fiisl Iine nanageis lhal face lhe
oiganizalionaI ieaIily lhal lhey have lo voik snailei ly deIiveiing noie vilh fevei
enpIoyees lhis neans lhal lhey sinuIlaneousIy shouId legin lo invesl in a
sophislicaled liaining and deveIopnenl. If nol, giealei voik inlensificalion vilhoul
Ieaining oppoilunilies can pul unheaIlhy piessuie on enpIoyees vilhoul lhe ioon
lo Ieain and deveIop nev vays of deaIing vilh changed voik silualion al hand. If
nanageis vouId choose lo iaise pay IeveIs (oi unions vouId caII foi lhis) lo
conpensale coie enpIoyees, lhis incieases pay salisfaclion lul does nol foslei nev
iesouices.
LvenluaIIy, lhis nighl endangei lhe Iong-lein success of such a choice in
leins of enpIoyee vilaIily. The Iallei inpIicalion is diavn fion lhis sludys findings
lhal enpIoyee vages and lenefils do nol nix veiy veII vilh vilaIily-enhancing voik
piaclices. Of couise, lhis does nol nean culling lack on pionised vages and
lenefils. Hovevei, Iine nanageis shouId le avaie of lhe diffeienliaI and/oi
confIicling naluie of voik piaclices. In lhe case of high vages and lenefils, lhey aIso
aie found lo lenpei lhe posilive effecls of a HIWI lundIe on lhe enpIoyees
viIIingness lo invesl eneigy. The Iallei finding addilionaIIy poinls lovaids lo
possilIe dislinclion lelveen nanagenenls shoil-lein conpensaloiy focus (aIso
incIuding peifoinance appiaisaIs) and a Iong-lein deveIopnenlaI focus. An
inpIicalion couId le lhal a conpensaloiy focus couId veiy veII voik foi allaining
shoil-lein opeialionaI peifoinance, lul lhal a Iong-lein deveIopnenlaI focus is
evenluaIIy noie coheienl and aIigned vilh lhe sulsequenl goaI of suslainalIe HR
peifoinance lhiough lhe enhancenenl of enpIoyee vigoui and pioaclivily (see
Doienlosch, Van de Vooide & Van VeIdhoven, sulnilled). Lasl, il shouId le poinled
oul lhal focusing on a deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HR slialegy vas aIso found lo ieIale lo
enpIoyees expeiiencing Iess voik-Iife suppoil fion lheii oiganizalion. This couId
have leen a iesuIl of enpIoyees in a noie fIexilIe slaffing silualion vho nake noie
208
oveiline lhal giaduaIIy couId luin inlo a heaIlh iisk. Theiefoie, nanageis nusl le
avaie of lhe possilIe adveise effecls of deveIopnenlaI-fIexilIe HR focus.


8.7 CONCLUDING REMARK5
This disseilalions chaIIenge lo exanine lhe deleininanls and oulcones of enpIoyee
vilaIily nade cIeai lhal enledding a usefuI and neaningfuI concepl of enpIoyee
vilaIily in nuIlipIe discipIines and slieans of ieseaich is a chaIIenge in ilseIf.
NeveilheIess, ly liinging lhe lesl of diffeienl discipIines inlo in lhis sludy, il
piovides a fiisl exaninalion of lhe vaIue of an enpIoyee vilaIily nechanisn foi lolh
acadenics and nanagenenl piaclilioneis lhal aie open lo a suslainalIe appioach lo
lhe nanagenenl of lolh enpIoyee veII-leing and oiganizalionaI (unil) peifoinance.
AIlhough lhe issue has liiggeied nany schoIais in lhe pasl, lhis lhesis nay piovide a
good slailing poinl, lolh in leins of inlegialive lheoiy and nelhods, lo fuilhei
exanine and iesoIve lhe anliguilies, paiadoxes and lensions vilh iegaid lo
suslaining enpIoyee veII-leing in lodays high peifoinance voikpIaces.
209
8anenvattIng (8ummary in Dutch)


Aan|ciding
De iedeneiing dal een gezonde en levieden veiknenei ook een pioduclieve
veiknenei is kIinkl nienand onIogisch in de oien. Weikneneis die onlevieden zijn
in hun veik en iegeInalige gezondheidskIachlen hellen zuIIen nindei genoliveeid
en in slaal zijn on een oplinaIe en pioduclieve inspanning le Ieveien. Mede
hieidooi Ialen veeI oiganisalies zich infoineien ovei hel aIgeheIe veikneneiveIzijn
(en haai iisicos) niddeIs peiiodiek aileidsgezondheidsondeizoeken (IACOs) of
nedeveikeileviedenheidsondeizoeken (MTOs). Hieinee kiijgen ze inzichl in
lijvooileeId (op hel affeclieve vIak) veikneneisleliokkenheid en laanleviedenheid
en (op hel gezondheidsvIak) lijvooileeId veiksliesskIachlen Vooi een effeclief
peisoneeIsleIeid ofveI Hunan Resouice Managenenl (HRM) is deze infoinalie een
vaaidevoIIe loelssleen lij hel voingeven van HRM insliunenlen ofveI piaklijken
die lol doeI hellen hel veikneneiveiIoop en -veizuin le lenvIoeden en lepeiken.
Maai diagen HRM piaklijken die sluien op een levieden veiknenei zondei aI le
veeI veiksliesskIachlen ook lij aan de pieslalies van een oiganisalie` Mel deze
'gevoeIsIogica voidl in de piaklijk vaak genoegen genonen, naai velenschappeIijk
slaal deze ieIalie aIIeslehaIve ononsloleIijk vasl. Dil pioefschiifl leloogl en
ondeizoekl in hoeveiie, ondei de noenei van ucr|ncncrti|a|i|ci|, aclieve
psychoIogische veikneneiskenneiken een neei accuiale loelssleen voinen vooi
HRM piaklijken die lijdiagen aan funclioneien van een oiganisalie dan de
liadilioneIe focus op hel lenvIoeden van passieve en negalieve kenneiken
(zoaIs veikneneisleviedenheid en veiksliesskIachlen).
CenliaaI slaal de ti|a|c ucr|ncncr. Dil is een veiknenei die zich eneigiek voeIl
en pioaclief opsleIl dooi inilialief le nenen en zich hieidooi goed opgevassen ziel
on in de conpIexileil en onzekeiheden van de hedendaagse veikconlexl een
effeclieve lijdiage le Ieveien aan hel funclioneien van een oiganisalie(eenheid).
Zondei zichzeIf daailij uil le pullen. Ingeled in de Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cn
(HIWS) Iileialuui (AppeIlaun el aI., 2OOO), voidl ondeizochl in hoeveiie een
conlinalie van High Ieifoinance HRM piaklijken de vilaIileil van veikneneis
zodanig slinuIeeil dal ook oiganisaliepieslalies ei op vooiuil gaan. Dil voinl de
lasis van hel conceplueeI nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI in dil pioefschiifl.
210
Hc| cndcrzcc|
Len ondeizoek naai dil conceplueeI nodeI veigl een inlegialieve kijk op zoveI
psychoIogisch aileidsgezondheidsondeizoek aIs lediijfskundig hunan iesouice
nanagenenl ondeizoek. eide slioningen Ieggen vaak andeie lheoielische accenlen
op de aileidsoiganisaloiische deleininanlen van veIlevinden en pieslalies. Daailij
voiden deze dooigaans ook op veischiIIende anaIyseniveaus (individueeI veisus
oiganisalieniveau) en nel lehuIp van veischiIIende ondeizoeksinsliunenlen en -
onlveipen voiden geloelsl. Ceposilioneeid lenidden van deze eneizijds neei
uc|zijnsgeiichle en andeizijds neei prcs|a|icgeiichle ondeizoeksslioningen en
gedieven dooi de zoeklochl naai viuchllaie lheoielische en nelhodoIogische
veilinlenissen, voidl hel nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI veidei uilgediepl.
Hel ondeizoek iichl zich specifiek op hel niveau van (veikneneis linnen)
oiganisalie-ccnncdcn. De ieden hieivooi is dal veeIaI op dil Iijnnanagenenl niveau
HRM in piaklijk voidl geliachl. De enpiiische deeIsludies in dil pioefschiifl
sleunen op een viagenIijslondeizoek naai o.a. veikneneivilaIileil linnen 13
oiganisalies uil diveise secloien nel een iespons van 1769 veikneneis (59)
veilonden aan lolaaI 112 oiganisalie-eenheden (afdeIingen, leans, unils). In 12
oiganisalies vas hel vooi 53 oiganisalie-eenheden (772 veikneneis) nogeIijk on
niddeIs gesliucluieeide inleivievs nel Iijnnanageis en inleine HR adviseuis le
ondeizoeken (1) veIke High Ieifoinance HRM piaklijken nel veIke inlensileil
voiden loegepasl en (2) veIk ooideeI Iijnnanageis veIIen ovei de aIgenene
pieslalies van hun oiganisalie-eenheid. UileindeIijk is ei geliuik genaakl van een
evenvichlige seIeclie van zoveI de lolaaI leschiklaie veikneneisdala aIs de
gekoppeIde nanagenenl- en veikneneidala uil de 53 oiganisalie-eenheden.
In zes inhoudeIijke keinhoofdslukken van dil pioefschiifl konen viei
ondeizoeksviagen aan lod.

1. la| ta|| cr cp oasis tan tccrgaand cndcrzcc| |c ccnc|udcrcn ctcr ncc
arocidscrganisa|criscnc fac|crcn sinu||aan oijdragcn aan zcuc| ucr|ncncruc|zijn a|s
crganisa|icprcs|a|ics?

Hnnfdstuk 2 zel de lheoielische spanningen uileen nel leliekking hel nanagen van
zoveI veikneneisveIzijn aIs oiganisaliepieslalies. OndeiveideeId in een
oplinislisch, pessinislisch, sceplisch en inlegialief peispeclief voidl een
ondeischeid genaakl in ondeizoekslevindingen, lheoiien en nanagenenlnodeIIen
211
die een veischiIIende invIoed veiondeisleIIen van aileidsoiganisaloiische facloien
op veikneneisveIzijn en oiganisaliepieslalies. Len cp|inis|iscn peispeclief
veiondeisleIl dal de facloien in hel veik die hel veikneneiveIzijn levoideien
dezeIfde zaken zijn die ook oiganisaliepieslalies kunnen levoideien. Andeizijds,
veiondeisleIl een pcssinis|iscn peispeclief dal hel naxinaIiseien van pieslalies juisl
op gespannen voel slaal nel de levoideiing van veikneneiveIzijn. Len sccp|iscn
peispeclief gaal eivan uil dal de facloien die pieslalies levoideien niel dezeIfde zijn
aIs die facloien die veIzijn levoideien en dus naasl eIkaai leslaan. CeconcIudeeid
voidl dal ei in de ondeizoeksIileialuui opvaIIend veinig consensus leslaal ovei de
nogeIijkheden van hel sinuIlaan levoideien van veikneneiveIzijn en
oiganisaliepieslalies. Dil Ieidl ei vaak loe dal ei in ondeizoek vanuil een van de
peispeclieven voidl geiedeneeid.
Lchlei, lheoiien linnen een in|cgra|icf peispeclief zouden van loepassing
kunnen zijn on legensliijdigheden veg le nenen. Dil peispeclief eikenl dal
veischiIIende aileidsoiganisaloiische piaklijken een veischiIIende ieIalie kunnen
hellen op veikneneisveIzijn en pieslalies (= sceplisch) en dal deze op de koile
leinijn ook op gespannen voel kunnen slaan (= pessinislisch). De kunsl is on ei aIs
oiganisalie op de Iangeie leinijn vooi le zoigen dal, nel hel Ieveien van pieslalie-
inspanningen, de fysieke en psychoIogische eneigielionnen van veikneneis niel
voiden uilgepul naai voiden geiegeneieeid. Hieinee lIijfl hel veIzijnsniveau
zodanig op pijI zodal veikneneis pieslalies duuizaan kunnen lIijven Ieveien (=
oplinislisch). On dil peispeclief veidei invuIIing le geven, konl in de voIgende
ondeizoeksviaag hel ondeilouven en nelen van veikneneivilaIileil aIs loelssleen
vooi hel nanagen van veikneneiveIzijn en pieslalie aan lod.

2. Hcc |an ccn nicuu ucr|ncncrti|a|i|ci| ccnccp| oijdragcn aan nc| cndcrzcc| naar
ucr|ncncruc|zijn cn crganisa|icprcs|a|ics cn ua| zijn dc |cnncr|cn ccn ta|idc
ti|a|i|ci|ccns|ruc|?

In hnnfdstuk 3 en hnnfdstuk 4 voidl hel concepl van veikneneiti|a|i|ci| veidei
uilgeveikl. VilaIileil onval posilieve veIzijnsaspeclen aIs de eivaien eneigie die
een veiknenei heefl en viI lesleden in hel veik, pIus een aclieve
pieslalieoiinlalie. Hieilij sleIl de veiknenei zich pioaclief op dooi hel nenen van
inilialief iichling hel veileleien van de eigen veiksilualie en de eigen inzellaaiheid
op de Iange leinijn. De conlinalie van eneigie en pioaclivileil naakl de vilaIe
212
veiknenei veeilaai en vendlaai linnen een veeIeisende aileidsconlexl. Li voidl
gesleId dal een vilaIe veiknenei hieidooi effeclievei kan lijdiagen aan
oiganisaliepieslalies dan vanneei oiganisalies zich zouden iichlen op liadilioneIe
indicaloien zoaIs hel veinindeien van psychoIogische cngezondheid en hel
levoideien van passieve indicaloien aIs veikneneileviedenheid en leliokkenheid.
Mel viagenIijsldala van 736 veikneneis in 51 oiganisalie-eenheden voidl geliachl
een neellaai vilaIileilconsliucl le vaIideien. Viei veischiIIende vilaIileilaspeclen zijn
genelen: (1) hel hellen van eneigie, (2) hel viIIen invesleien van eneigie, (3) de
pioaclivileil iichling veik(piocessen) en (4) de pioaclivileil iichling de eigen
inzellaaiheid. De iesuIlalen Ialen deeIs zien dal een eneigieke en pioaclieve
veiknenei andeie kenneiken heefl dan een leliokken en levieden veiknenei
zondei veinoeidheidskIachlen. Tevens lonen veideie anaIyses dal veikneneis
veikzaan in eendeide van de lesl piesleiende oiganisalie-eenheden neei vilaIileil
Ialen zien dan veikneneis in de oveiige lveedeide van de nindei piesleiende
oiganisalie-eenheden. Tussen deze lvee gioepen veikneneis is ei echlei geen
veischiI in de liadilioneIe veikneneikenneiken gevonden. Li voidl geconcIudeeid
dal veikneneivilaIileil een adequaal concepl is vooi hel ondeischeiden van HRM
piaklijken die lijdiagen aan leleie oiganisaliepieslalies zondei veikneneis daailij
uil le pullen. WeIk lype HRM piaklijken hieivooi hel neesl in aanneiking konen
slaal cenliaaI in de deide ondeizoeksviaag.

3. la| ucrd| cr tcrs|aan cndcr ccn Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cn cn uc||c Hign
Pcrfcrnancc HRM pra||ij|cn ta||cn cnpiriscn sancn nc| dc |nccrc|iscnc assunp|ics
tan ccn Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cn?

Hnnfdstuk 5 en hnnfdstuk 6 lieden inzichl in de Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cn
Iileialuui, vaaiin voidl gesleId dal een conlinalie van High Ieifoinance HRM
piaklijken (HIWIs) veikneneis zodanig faciIileeil dal ze een oiganisalie(-eenheid)
conpelilief vooideeI kunnen lieden. VeeI ondeizoek naai Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr|
Sqs|cns en oiganisaliepieslalies levijsl dal hieilussen een posilieve ieIalie leslaal.
Maai de giole diveisileil in nelhodes en insliunenlen die voiden gehanleeid lij hel
nelen van HIWIs naakl hel ondeizoek einaai vaak noeiIijk ondeiIing
veigeIijklaai. Na eeisl de sland van zaken op hel lheoielische en nelhodoIogische
vIak le hellen uileengezel, voiden de in dil pioefschiifl neegenonen HIWIs
veidei uilgeIichl. Op lasis van gesliucluieeide inleivievs nel Iijnnanageis en
213
gedecenliaIiseeide HR nanageis (funclioneeI veilonden aan 53 oiganisalie-
eenheden) kvan infoinalie leschiklaai ovei de inlensileil vaainee oiganisalie-
eenheden HIWIs op gelied van (1) cfficicn|c in|crngcricn|c pcrscncc|soczc||ing, (2)
func|icnc|c |raining, (3) |ccpoaancn|ui||c|ing, (4) prcs|a|icocccrdc|ing, (5) a||rac|ictc
arocidstccruaardcn cn (6) ucr|-pritc oa|ans in piaklijk liengen. Na hel consliueien van
iedeIijk lol goed leliouvlaie schaIen vooi eIk van de HIWIs voidl veidei
ondeizochl op veIke vijze deze zes HIWIs dooi veikneneis in hel dageIijkse veik
leIeefd voiden. CekoppeIde veikneneidala naakl duideIijk dal vooiaI de
inlensileil vaainee oiganisalie-eenheden inzellen op efficinle inleingeiichle
peisoneeIslezelling, funclioneIe liaining en IooplaanonlvikkeIing, de veivachle
posilieve ieIalies hellen nel veikneneileIeving (lijvooileeId genoeg
gekvaIificeeide coIIegas, IooplaannogeIijkheden, afvisseIing en IeeinogeIijkheden
in hel veik).
Alliaclieve aileidsvooivaaiden en veik-piive naaliegeIen lIeken ook de
veivachle ieIalie le hellen nel iespeclieveIijk de veikneneisleviedenheid nel hel
saIaiis en de nogeIijkheden on veik en piive le conlineien. Andeizijds lIeek een
leooideIingssyslenaliek vaainee nanageis hun veikneneis op duideIijke
pieslaliedoeIen sluien niel aan le sIuilen lij de veivachle leIeving dal veikneneis
hieidooi lelei velen val piecies van hen veivachl voidl en val hel iesuIlaal van
hun veik is. Daailij lIeek een focus op pieslalieleooideIing ook negalief le ieIaleien
aan lijvooileeId de eivaien IeeinogeIijkheden en de afvisseIing in hel veik. Op
lasis van deze uilkonslen voiden |crn en f|an|crcndc HIWIs ondeischeiden. De
eeisle diie genoende HIWIs voiden hieilij aIs kein HIWIs leslenpeId, ondal
ze gezanenIijk veigeIijklaie en neeideie posilieve ieIalies hellen nel de veivachle
veikleIevingen en in een addilioneIe anaIyse ook posilief ieIaleien aan
afdeIingspieslalies. Alliaclieve aileidsvooivaaiden en veik-piive naaliegeIen
voiden aIs fIankeiende HIWIs leslenpeId, ondal ze afzondeiIijk veI de
veivachle posilieve veilanden lonen nel de leIeving van hel veik, naai nindei
eenduidig veiland houden nel leleie afdeIingpieslalies. IieslalieleooideIing voidl
in hel veideie veiIoop van hel pioefschiifl niel geiekend lol een HIWI vanvege hel
onllieken van een posilieve lijdiage aan de veivachle veikleIevingen (en zeIfs
negalieve ieIalies Iaal zien) en ondal hel niel ieIaleeil aan leleie afdeIingspieslalies.
Hel genaakle ondeischeid lussen veischiIIende HIWIs en hel eeidei gevaIideeide
vilaIileilconcepl lieden uileindeIijk de louvslenen vooi hel leanlvooiden van de
Iaalsle ondeizoeksviaag.
214
4. lc||c ccnoina|ic tan Hign Pcrfcrnancc HRM pra||ij|cn octcrdcr|
ucr|ncncrti|a|i|ci|, cn in ncctcrrc ncdiccr| ti|a|i|ci| ccn pcsi|ictc rc|a|ic |usscn Hign
Pcrfcrnancc HRM pra||ij|cn cn dc prcs|a|ics tan crganisa|ic-ccnncdcn?

In hnnfdstuk 7 voidl hel conceplueeI nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI ondei de Ioep
genonen. Mel lvee sludies voidl ondeizochl in hoeveiie veikneneivilaIileil de
ieIalie lussen een conlinalie van kein en fIankeiende HIWIs en leleie
afdeIingspieslalies kan veikIaien. Uil de eeisle nuIli-IeveI sludie naai de ieIalie
lussen HIWIs op afdeIingsniveau en de viei vilaIileilsaspeclen op individueeI
veikneneiniveau, voidl duideIijk dal de opleIson van kein HIWIs indeidaad
een oveivegend sleik posilief effecl heefl op hel hellen en viIIen invesleien van
eneigie in hel veik en een pioaclieve opsleIIing iichling hel veikpioces en de eigen
onlvikkeIing. Veidei voidl ei veivachl dal de ieIalie lussen de kein focus op
efficinle inleingeiichle peisoneeIslezelling, liaining en peisoneeIsonlvikkeIing en
veikneneivilaIileil inlensievei is naainale deze kein HIWIs gefIankeeid voiden
dooi alliaclieve aileidsvooivaaiden en goede veik-piive naaliegeIen. Dil is echlei
niel hel gevaI. De iesuIlalen suggeieien zeIfs dal vanneei een oiganisalie-eenheid
ook sleik inzel op conpelilieve aileidsvooivaaiden, de lijdiage van de kein
HIWIs aan de veikneneisnolivalie on eneigie in hel veik le viIIen invesleien
afneenl. Ook vanvege de veinig eenduidige en veeIaI afvezige ieIalie lussen de
lvee fIankeiende HIWIs en veikneneivilaIileil, voidl hieivan de ioI in hel
conceplueeI nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI niel veidei lekeken.
De lveede sludie op afdeIingsniveau loelsl in hoeveiie enkeI de lundeIing
van de diie kein HIWIs Ieidl lol leleie afdeIingspieslalies via een veileleiing van
geniddeIde veikneneisvilaIileil in de afdeIing. De iesuIlalen vijzen vooizichlig uil
dal een posilieve ieIalie lussen de kein HIWIs en afdeIingspieslalies vooiaI voidl
veikIaaid dooidal veikneneis eneigie viIIen invesleien in hel veik en zich
pioaclief opsleIIen iichling hun eigen onlvikkeIing en Iooplaan. Hel hellen van
veeI eneigie en hel nenen van inilialief iichling hel veileleien van veikpiocessen
zijn niel aan le vijzen aIs significanle veikneneiskenneiken in hel levoideien van
afdeIingspieslalies. Hieidooi voidl geconcIudeeid dal hel nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-
nodeI slandhoudl nel (1) diie van de zes ondeischeiden HIWIs vaainee
oiganisalie-eenheden leleie iesuIlalen kunnen loeken en nel (2) lvee van de viei
vilaIileilkenneiken die deze ieIalie ook deeIs nediien. In hel Iaalsle hoofdsluk
voiden de uileindeIijke concIusies lediscussieeil en aanleveIingen uileengezel.
215
Ccnc|usics cn aanoctc|ingcn
Tegen de achleigiond van de conpIexe laak vooi HR en Iijnnanageis on
veikneneis in goede gezondheid naxinaaI le Ialen piesleien, keeil Hnnfdstuk 8
leiug naai de cenliaIe viaag in hoeveiie veikneneivilaIileil hieivooi een adequale
loelssleen voinl en vaaiop Iijnnanageis zich kunnen iichlen on
veikneneisvilaIileil le levoideien` TeiuglIikkend op de vooigaande hoofdslukken
voiden vijf keineIenenlen van nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q ondeischeiden.

Benader management b tlta|lt tanult een lntegratlef ersectlef
De geiinge consensus die ei leslaal ovei de aileidsoiganisaloiische facloien die
zoveI hel veIzijn van veikneneis aIs de pieslalies van een oiganisalie(-eenheid)
kunnen levoideien, naakl dal ondeizoek en piaklijk laal heefl lij een fiisse lIik op
dil lhena. Hel eikennen dal hel levoideien van oplinaIe veikneneigezondheid
vooi oiganisalies die nel sleeds conpIexeie en sneIIeie veiandeiingen le naken
kiijgen ook een haid slialegisch lhena is liedl een opening naai kiilische
evaIualie van slialegische HRM lheoiie (zoaIs de High Ieifoinance Woik Syslens
Iileialuui) vaailij veikneneiveIzijn vaak luilen leschouving voidl geIalen.
innen een inlegialief peispeclief loonl dil pioefschiifl dal niel aIIe HRM piaklijken
zoveI veikneneisvilaIileil aIs afdeIingspieslalies posilief lenvIoeden. De
sysleenlenadeiing vaaiin een conlinalie van een giole diveisileil aan HIWIs hel
neesl effeclief voidl geachl noel dus nel enige vooizichligheid voiden lenadeid
aIs hel gaal on de duuizane levoideiing van zoveI veikneneisveIzijn en
pieslalies. Daailij vaIl op dal juisl een HRM piaklijk aIs pieslalieleooideIing vaai
vaak veeI van voidl veivachl in leinen van leleie veikneneipieslalies, geen
posilieve lijdiage Ieveil aan een slinuIeiende veikongeving vooi vilaIileil.

Onderscheld actlef" tan asslef" uerknemersue|tl]n- en restatles
Waai ei in aileidsgezondheidspsychoIogie een veischuiving pIaalsvindl van de
focus op negalieve veiksliesskIachlen naai posilieve gezondheidsindicaloien,
lenadiukl dil pioefschiifl ook hel leIang van aclieve veisus passieve
veikneneikenneiken. De conlinalie van posilieve en aclieve vilaIileilkenneiken
aIs eneigie en pioaclivileil lieden nogeIijk een leleie lenadeiing vooi hel
ondeischeiden van duuizane High Ieifoinance HRM piaklijken die lijdiagen
aan koile leinijn oiganisaliepieslalies en die veikneneilionnen on op de Iange
leinijn le lIijven lijdiagen niel uilpullen. Uil dil ondeizoek lIijkl dal veikneneis
216
die een conlinalie van eneigie in hel veik en pioaclivileil veilonen zich kunnen
ondeischeiden van leliokken, levieden veikneneis zondei veikgeieIaleeide
veinoeidheidskIachlen. Oiganisalies zouden scheipei noelen inzellen op vilaIileil
aIs loelssleen vooi hun HRM piaklijken aIs ze hieinee hel oiganisaliefunclioneien
zouden viIIen levoideien. De eeidei genoende IACO en/of MTO insliunenlen
zouden hieivooi kunnen voiden uilgelieid on de nale van veikneneivilaIileil
linnen oiganisalie-eenheden le noniloien.

Onderscheld Hlgh Performance" tan f|ankerende HRM raktl]ken
Veidei concIudeeil dil pioefschiifl dal de inlensileil vaainee voidl ingezel op
efficinle inleingeiichle peisoneeIslezelling (vaailij Iijnnanageis eivooi kiezen on
piolIenen nel de peisoneeIslezelling nel hel huidige peisoneeI fIexileI op le
Iossen) een ondeischeidend ondeideeI is. Sanen nel de inlensileil vaainee voidl
ingezel op hel veizoigen van liaining en opIeidingen en veikneneis peispeclief
lieden vooi hoiizonlaIe en/of veilicaIe onlvikkeIing, ieIaleien deze diie HRM
piaklijken posilief aan de leIeving van een veikongeving vaaiin veikneneis
kunnen, viIIen en de nogeIijkheid kiijgen on goed le piesleien. Veidei lIijkl dal de
opleIson van deze diie HRM piaklijken ook posilief ieIaleeide aan
afdeIingspieslalies, vaaidooi ze aIs kein HIWIs veiden leslenpeId. In de
Iileialuui is ei nog veeI veivaiiing ovei veIke HRM piaklijken nu deeI uil naken
van een Hign Pcrfcrnancc lcr| Sqs|cn. Dil pioefschiifl sleIl dal ei naai enkeIe HRM
piaklijken die lol de kein HIWIs lehoien. Andeie HRM piaklijken op hel gelied
van lijvooileeId veik-piive laIans en alliaclieve aileidsvooivaaiden zijn daainee
nogeIijk andeie, fIankeiende HRM piaklijken nel een andei doeI. Ze noelen zekei
niel veivaaiIoosd voiden, naai ze kunnen ook niel aIs ondeideeI van hel
nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI voiden geiekend. Ze kunnen veI een leIangiijke ioI
speIen hel vooikonen van veizuin en hel aanliekken /lehouden van peisoneeI.

Voora| een f|exlbe|e, ontulkke|lngsgerlchte HRM focus actlteert uerknemers
Iijfl ovei de nogeIijke veikIaiing vooi vaaion juisl de inlensileil vaainee
nanageis inzellen op efficinle inleingeiichle peisoneeIslezelling, funclioneIe
liaining en hel lieden van peispeclief vooi hoiizonlaIe en/of veilicaIe onlvikkeIing
hel nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI lypeien. Len van de veikIaiingen is dal deze
HIWIs een (pio)aclieve lijdiage van veikneneis ondeisleunen, noliveien en
nogeIijk naken. Dooi lij lijdeIijke lezellingspiolIenen dil loch le lIijven opIossen
217
nel hel aanvezige peisoneeI (in pIaals van uilzendkiachlen), voidl veikneneis
iuinle geloden on neei eivaiing op le doen in andeie laken. IunclioneIe liaining
ondeisleunl dil nel inhoudeIijke laakkennis, leivijI onlvikkeIingsnogeIijkheden
veikneneis kunnen noliveien on hieinee iichling le geven aan de veideie
piofessioneIe onlvikkeIing. Hieinee voidl een pioces geschelsl vaaiin nanageis
Ieei- en onlvikkeIingslionnen en iuinle lieden vaainee veikneneis zodanig
voiden geslinuIeeid on zeIf pioaclief een lijdiage aan de afdeIingspieslalie le
Ieveien. VilaIileil in iuiI vooi hel lelei kunnen voiden in je laan en
Iooplaanpeispeclief, in pIaals van neei saIaiis of andeie aileidsvooivaaiden.

HRM o afde|lngsnlteau re|ateert aan uerknemers- en afde|lngsultkomsten
AIs Iaalsle vesligl dil pioefschiifl de aandachl vooiaI op hel afdeIingsniveau vaaiop
Iijnnanageis ondeisleund dooi HRM piofessionaIs keuzes naken in hoe HRM op de
veikvIoei lol zijn iechl konl. ekend is dal Iijnnanageis of afdeIingsnanageis
linnen oiganisalies eig kunnen veischiIIen in hoe coiiecl en inlensief ze HRM leIeid
in piaklijk liengen, ook aI lekijkl nog veeI ondeizoek vooiaI de HRM veischiIIen
lussen oiganisalies. Wanneei hel nanagcncn| oq ti|a|i|q-nodeI op een
oiganisalieniveau zou zijn ondeizochl, zou niel duideIijk zijn gevoiden dal de
vaiileil in hoe veikneneis van veischiIIende afdeIingen linnen dezeIfde
oiganisalie hun veikongeving leIeven sanenhangl nel hoe op afdeIingsniveau
HRM piaklijken voiden loegepasl. Ook zou dan niel duideIijk zijn gevoiden dal
een gedeeIde nale van veikneneisvilaIileil in afdeIingen posilief ieIaleeil aan de
diie ondeischeiden HIWIs op afdeIingsniveau. Veidei lIijkl ook dal de uilvoeiing
van HIWIs op hel afdeIingsniveaus sanenhangl nel afdeIingspieslalies, val de
invuIIing van HRM (naasl aIIe andeie veianlvooideIijkheden) vooi Iijnnanageis op
dil niveau lol een leIangiijke laak naakl.

De uil dil pioefschiiflondeizoek vooilkonende vijf eIenenlen van nanagcncn| oq
ti|a|i|q kunnen vooi de piaklijk handvallen lieden vooi hel ondeilouven, iichling
geven en noniloien van duuizaan pieslaliegeiichl HRM leIeid op hel
Iijnnanagenenlniveau.

218
219
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240
241
AppendIx A
High Performance Work Practicea Meaaurea


|NTERNAL 8TAFF|NC EFF|6|EN6Y
|nd|cator Rater |tems Heasurement 8ca|e
lRA use ol exrerna|/emp|o,menr agenc, r,pes?
Erp|oyrerl Agercy
0elacrrerl Agercy
Exlerra| Recru|lrerl & 3e|ecl|or Agercy
F|ex poo|
work un|r makes use ol.
1 = 1 agercy lypes
2 = 3 agercy lypes;
3 = 2 agercy lypes
1 = 1 agercy lype ;
5 = ro use ol agerc|es)
(reverse coded)
use/Presence
lRA Presence ol pracr|ces ro oea| aoequare u/srall|ng
neeos?
3ysleral|c lulure p|arr|rg
Adequale lerr|ral|or per|od lo l|rd
rep|acererl
Trarsparerl adr|r|slral|or or corlracl-erd|rgs
ard rel|rererl dales
work un|r makes use ol.
1 = 1 slall|rg pracl|ce
3 = 2 slall|rg pracl|ces
5 = 3 slall|rg pracl|ces
FLV
lRA
lnc|oenra| |aoour snorrages so|veo o, permanenr
srall?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
FLV
lRA
heu vacanc|es l|||eo o, |nrerna| cano|oares?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
$opn|sr|car|on
FLV
lRA
T|gnrer srall|ng rnan 2 ,ears ago?

1 = |ess Wor| vo|ure W|lr rore FTE
2 = equa|/|ess Wor| vo|ure W|lr
rore/equa| FTE
3 = |ess/equa|/rore W|lr |ess/equa|/rore
FTE
1 = equa|/rore Wor| vo|ure W|lr
|ess/equa| FTE
5 = rore Wor| vo|ure W|lr |ess FTE
Ellecr|veness FLV
lRA
$ar|sl|eo u|rn {neuj emp|o,ees |n rne|r
l|rsr ,ear |n luncr|on?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Note: lRA = |rlerra| lR adv|sor / FLV = l|rsl ||re rarager
242
FUN6T|0NAL TRA|N|NC
|nd|cator Rater hPwP |tems Heasurement 8ca|e
Preserce/use lRA lou man, rra|n|ng oa,s a ,ear?

1 = 0-2 days;
2 = 3-1 days
3 = 5- days
1 = Z-10 days
5 = > 10 days

FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr ro emp|o,ees nave a sa, |n rne r,pe
ol rra|n|ng rne, rece|ve?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl

3opr|sl|cal|or
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr are |earn|ng & perlormance ellecrs ol
rra|n|ng eva|uareo?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl

Ellecl|veress FLV
lRA
/r rn|s momenr are emp|o,ees aoequare|, rra|neo
ano eoucareo ro oea| u|rn currenr oo oemanos?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Note: lRA = |rlerra| lR adv|sor / FLV = l|rsl ||re rarager


w0RK-L|FE ALAN6E
|nd|cator Rater hPwP |tems Heasurement 8ca|e
use/Preserce lRA wn|cn ol rne lo||ou|ng arrangemenrs are useo ro
sr|mu|are uork-||le oa|ance?
F|ex|o|e slarl/l|r|sr|rg l|res
A|lerral|ve Wor| rour corpos|l|or (1x 9
rours/Wee|)
3upporled le|eWor||rg
Terporary parl-l|re Wor||rg
Lorg-lerr |eave (> 3 rorlrs) W|lr relurr
guararlee
3upporled cr||d care arrargererls
Trad|rg sa|ary lor exlra |eaves
Creal|or ol duo-joos (1 joo W|lr lWo erp|oyees)

1= 1-2 arrargererls
2 = 3 arrargererls
3 = 1 arrargererls
1 = 5 arrargererls
5 = -Z arrargererls
3opr|sl|cal|or FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr are uork-||le arrangemenrs acr|ve|,
useo o, emp|o,ees |n rn|s oeparrmenr?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl

Ellecl|veress FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr can emp|o,ees keep uork|ng |n rne|r
currenr oos unen pr|vare c|rcumsrances cnange?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Note: lRA = |rlerra| lR adv|sor / FLV = l|rsl ||re rarager
243
6AREER 0EVEL0PHENT
|nd|cator Rater hPwP |tems Heasurement 8ca|e
use/Preserce lRA use ol pracr|ces ro sr|mu|are emp|o,ee career
oeve|opmenr & moo|||r,?
Frequerl Career Assessrerls
Persora| deve|oprerl p|ar
lrlerra| roo|||ly cerlre
Career progrars lor cerla|r erp|oyee groups
(e.g. r|gr polerl|a|s, Worer)
Exlers|ve relra|r|rg poss|o|||l|es
1 = 0-1 pracl|ces
2 = 2 pracl|ces
3 = 3 pracl|ces
1 = 1 pracl|ces
5 = 5 pracl|ces
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr nas rne maor|r, ol emp|o,ees rne
poss|o|||r, lor verr|ca| grourn?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr oo emp|o,ees nave rne poss|o|||r, ro
cnoose lrom o|llerenr |nrerna| career parns {|n
conrrasr ro |arge|, l|xeo career parnsj?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
FLV
lRA
ln rne|r currenr oo, ro unar exrenr oo emp|o,ees
nave rne poss|o|||r, lor nor|zonra| grourn?
oy oola|r|rg rore lorra| respors|o|||l|es
oy oola|r|rg rore joo cra||erges

1 = ro poss|o|||l|es
3 = oola|r|rg e|lrer rore respors|o|||l|es
or cra||erges;
5 = poss|o|||ly lo oola|r oolr
FLV
lRA
/cn|ev|ng oeve|opmenra| goa|s a cenrra| parr ol rne
oo leeooack?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
3opr|sl|cal|or
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr oo emp|o,ees nave a sa, |n rne
oeve|opmenra| goa|s rne, uanr ro pursue?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Ellecl|veress FLV
lRA
ln rne|r currenr oo, ro unar exrenr are emp|o,ees
aoequare|, "in mor|on ro avo|o oeve|opmenra|
sragnar|on |n rne |ong run?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Note: lRA = |rlerra| lR adv|sor / FLV = l|rsl ||re rarager






244
ATTRA6T|VE wACE8 & ENEF|T8
|nd|cator Rater hPwP |tems Heasurement 8ca|e
lRA lou uou|o ,ou rare rne oase uages |n rn|s un|r |n
compar|son ro uages |n comparao|e oos |n orner
organ|zar|ons?
1 = |oWer
3 = equa|
5 = r|grer
use/Preserce
lRA Dn nou man, accounrs oo l|nanc|a| oenel|rs/perks
u|rn|n rn|s oeparrmenr pos|r|ve|, o|ller lrom rnose |n
rne lorma| 0o||ecr|ve 3arga|n|ng /greemenr?
erp|oyer corlr|oul|or |r rea|lr |rsurarce
s|c| pay / corlr|oul|or lo cr||d care cosls
ruroer ol pa|d vacal|or days
d|scourl producls-serv|ces
lrad|rg vacal|or days lor sa|ary
1 = or 0 accourls
2 = or 1 accourl
3 = or 2-3 accourls
1 = or 1 accourls
5 = or 5 accourls

FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr |s rne|r room ro negor|are srarr
sa|ar|es unen qua||l|eo oo app||canrs are nor
sar|sl|eo u|rn rne|r l|rsr oller?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
3opr|sl|cal|or
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr |s rne|r room ro negor|are sa|ar|es
unen qua||l|eo emp|o,ees rnrearen ro |eave rne
organ|zar|on?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr oo rne uages enao|e ,ou ro
arrracr rne r|gnr emp|o,ees?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl

Ellecl|veress
FLV
lRA
To unar exrenr oo rne uages enao|e ,ou ro
rera|n rne r|gnr emp|o,ees?
1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl -
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Note: lRA = |rlerra| lR adv|sor / FLV = l|rsl ||re rarager

245
PERF0RHAN6E APPRA|8AL
|nd|cator Rater hPwP |tems Heasurement 8ca|e
lRA T,pe ol {non-j |ncenr|v|zeo emp|o,ee appra|sa|
{oenav|oura|/resu|r/oornj?

1 = or|y ror-|rcerl|v|zed oerav|oura|
2 = |rcerl|v|zed oerav|oura| or ror-
|rcerl|v|zed resu|l-oased
3 = or|y |rcerl|v|zed resu|l-oased
1 = oolr ror-|rcerl|v|zed oerav|oura| &
resu|l-oased
5 = oolr |rcerl|v|zed oerav|oura| &
resu|l-oased appra|sa|

use/Preserce
lRA lou man, pa, componenrs make up rne
emp|o,ees rora| reuaro?

1 = or|y oase sa|ary (83);
2 = 83 pa|d overWor| rours
3 = 83 |rd|v|dua| ooruses
1 = 83 gerera| |rd|v ooruses
5 = 83 pa|d overWor| rours gerera|
|rd|v ooruses

FLV
lRA
T|mes per ,ear rnar emp|o,ees rece|ve lorma||zeo
oo/perlormance leeooack

1 = 1 l|re p/year
3 = 2 l|res p/year
5 = 3 l|res p/year or rore

FLV
lRA
/cn|ev|ng resu|r-oaseo goa|s a cenrra| parr ol rne
oo/perlormance leeooack?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl;
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
3opr|sl|cal|or
FLV
lRA
3aseo on nou man, cr|rer|a |s emp|o,ee luncr|on|ng
r|eo ro exrra pa,?
1 = 0-1 cr|ler|a
2 = 2 cr|ler|a
3 = 3 cr|ler|a
1 = 1 cr|ler|a
5 = 5 cr|ler|a

Ellecl|veress FLV
lRA
Perlormance appra|sa| o|llerenr|are oerueen n|gn
ano |ou perlorm|ng emp|o,ees?

1 = lo a very ||ll|e exlerl;
5 = lo a very |arge exlerl
Note: lRA = |rlerra| lR adv|sor / FLV = l|rsl ||re rarager


246
247
AppendIx B
EmpIoyee Work Experiencea Meaaurea



0PT|HAL 8TAFF|NC
0o you lr|r| lral lre corpary uses loo rary lerporary corlracls?
0o you lr|r| lral lre corpary uses loo rary lerporary slall?
0o you lr|r| lral lrere |s sull|c|erl slall or perrarerl corlracls?
0o you lr|r| lral reW|y r|red slall |s sull|c|erl|y qua||l|ed lor lre joo?
1 = rever
2= sorel|res
3 = oller
1 = a|Ways

J0 AUT0N0HY

0o you rave lreedor |r carry|rg oul your Wor| acl|v|l|es?
Car you dec|de roW your Wor| |s execuled or your oWr?
Car you persora||y dec|de roW rucr l|re you reed lor a spec|l|c acl|v|ly?
Car you orgar|se your Wor| yourse|l?
1 = rever
2= sorel|res
3 = oller
1 = a|Ways

J0 VAR|ETY

0oes your Wor| requ|re creal|v|ly?
ls your Wor| var|ed?
0oes your Wor| requ|re persora| |rpul?
0o you rave erougr var|ely |r your Wor|?
1 = rever
2= sorel|res
3 = oller
1 = a|Ways

LEARN|NC 0PP0RTUN|T|E8

l |earr reW lr|rgs |r ry Wor|
Vy joo ollers re opporlur|l|es lor persora| groWlr ard deve|oprerl
Vy Wor| g|ves re lre lee||rg lral l car acr|eve sorelr|rg

1 = |arge|y d|sagree
2 = d|sagree
3 = ror agree ror d|sagree
1 = agree
5 = |arge|y agree




248
J0 6LAR|TY
0o you |roW exacl|y Wral olrer peop|e expecl ol you |r your Wor|?
0o you |roW exacl|y lor Wral you are respors|o|e ard Wr|cr areas are rol your
respors|o|||ly?
0o you |roW exacl|y Wral you car expecl ol olrer peop|e |r your deparlrerl?
ls |l c|ear lo you exacl|y Wral your las|s are?
1 = rever
2= sorel|res
3 = oller
1 = a|Ways

J0 FEE0A6K

0o you rece|ve sull|c|erl |rlorral|or or lre resu|ls ol your Wor|?
0oes your Wor| g|ve you lre opporlur|ly lo crec| or roW We|| you are do|rg
your Wor|?
lr your Wor|, do you rave access lo sull|c|erl dala ard |rlorral|or?
1 = rever
2= sorel|res
3 = oller
1 = a|Ways

0EVEL0PHENTAL 0PP0RTUN|T|E8

Tr|s orgar|sal|or g|ves re erougr lra|r|rg ard educal|ora| opporlur|l|es lo
perlorr oeller |r ry joo
l ar sal|sl|ed W|lr lre deve|oprerla| poss|o|||l|es W|lr regard lo a lulure joo
l rece|ve erougr gu|darce W|lr regard lo ry career deve|oprerl

1 = |arge|y d|sagree
2 = d|sagree
3 = ror agree ror d|sagree
1 = agree
5 = |arge|y agree

6AREER P088||L|T|E8

Vy joo ollers re lre poss|o|||ly lo progress l|rarc|a||y
Vy joo g|ves re lre opporlur|ly lo oe proroled
Vy your currerl joo |rproves ry crarces ard opporlur|l|es or lre joo rar|el

1 = |arge|y d|sagree
2 = d|sagree
3 = ror agree ror d|sagree
1 = agree
5 = |arge|y agree

J0-E0U6AT|0NAL HAT6h

0o your qua||l|cal|ors ralcr your currerl joo?

1 = No, over-qua||l|ed
3 = No, urder-qua||l|ed
5 = Yes ,exacl|y qua||l|ed





249
w0RK-L|FE 8UPP0RT
Car you la|e days oll Wrer |l su|ls you?
Are your Wor||rg rours ard resl per|ods We|| orgar|sed?
0o you rave lre poss|o|||ly ol Wor||rg rours Wr|cr
su|l lre parl|cu|ar requ|rererls ol your pr|vale ||le?
ls your pr|vale ||le adverse|y allecled oy |rregu|ar Wor||rg rours?
0oes your erp|oyer ever resc|rd your lree days or A0v?
Car you dec|de Wrer you la|e a orea|?
1 = rever
2= sorel|res
3 = oller
1 = a|Ways

EFF0RT-REwAR0 ARCA|N

Vy orgar|sal|or pays good sa|ar|es
l car ||ve corlorlao|y or ry pay
1 = |arge|y d|sagree
2 = d|sagree
3 = ror agree ror d|sagree
1 = agree
5 = |arge|y agree