**Papertobepresentedatthe2010UACESconferenceinBruges,September68** **Workinprogresspleasedonotquote**

Motivationandcapacitytobesustainableconsumers:typesofparticipant andnonparticipantcitizens 1
HenricBarkman DepartmentofPoliticalScience,StockholmUniversity henric.barkman@statsvet.su.se

1Introduction
ThatcitizensofEuropeanandotherhighincomecountrieschangetheirlifestylesisseenbyanincreasing numberofscholarsascrucialtoreachasustainabledevelopment(Dobson2003,Smith&Pangsapa2008), IPCC2007).Inaddition,policymakerssuchastheEuropeanUnionarenowtryingtomotivateandenable citizenstotakeresponsibilityforsustainabledevelopment,especiallybyadoptingmoresustainable consumptionpractices(EuropeanUnion2004,SwedishEnvironmentalProtectionAgency2009,Skr 2005/06:107,Skr1994/95:120).However,thischangeofsometimesdeeplyrootedconsumptionpatternshas proventobeachallengingmatterinaglobalizedworld.Thishasledsomescholarstobelievethatinorder toaccomplishsuchachange,citizensofEuropeandelsewhereneedtoadoptanewcitizenshipmodelasa complimenttofinancialincentivesandregulations.Neithertraditionalcivicrepublicanandliberal citizenshiptheoriesnorthemorerecentcosmopolitantheoryareseenascapableofprovidingthe foundationneededtoachievesustainabledevelopment.Somesuggestthatthesustainablecitizenship 2 can fillthisgapbystretchingthecitizenshipspatially,timewiseandmaterially(e.g.Dobson2007,Matti2008,
1 Thetextwillinthefuturebetransformedtomakeupapartofachapterinmydissertation. 2 Manyscholarsprefertousethetermecologicalcitizenship.Thisstudyusethetermsustainablecitizenshipasinterrelatedto ecologicalcitizenshipbutwithgreaterfocusontheeconomicalandsocialdimensionofsustainabledevelopment.

Seyfang2006,Connelly2009). Sustainablecitizenshipscholarsarguethattheecologicalfootprint 3 createdbycitizensbytheiractionsin boththepublicandprivatespheressometimesgiverisetoinjusticesthatlinkcitizensovertheworldto eachotherandtofuturegenerations(Dobson2003).TheSwedishEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhasfor examplemadecalculationsshowingthattheSwedesemissionsofgreenhousegasesfromprivate consumptionhastobereducedbynolessthan80%untilyear2050(2008).Onemajorcontributortothis pollutionispeoplesfoodconsumption,especiallytheconsumptionofmeatwhichisthelargestsourceof greenhousegasesemissions(18%ofallemissions).Meatconsumptionisalsoincreasingandiscalculated tobedoubledbytheyear2050(FAO2006).Privateconsumptionhasalsobeenlinkedtothesocialand economicaldimensionofsustainabledevelopmentinstudiesfocusingonworkerssituationinlowincome countrieswheremanyoftheproductsconsumedinhighincomecountriesareproduced(e.g.Young2006, Maldidier2008,Vuillon2008,Lori2008,MichelettiandStolle2007).Toredeemtheseinjusticeswhichwill harmthewellbeingofnowlivingandfuturegenerations,responsibilitytakingintheprivatesphereby changingonesownlifestyleissometimesnotonlypreferablebutalsonecessaryaccordinglytosome scholars(Dobson2003). Thisstudyinvestigatessustainableconsumptionasawaytotakeresponsibilityforsustainabledevelopment asacitizen.Thephenomenonofsustainableconsumptioncanincludevariouspractices,themostcommon formsbeingrefrainingfrombuyingproductsthatisbelievedtothreatenasustainabledevelopment (boycotting)ordeliberatelybuyingaproductinordertosupporttheprinciplesunderwhichitisproduced (boycotting).However,sustainableconsumptionisinthispaperexemplifiedandoperationalizedas choosingecologicalandFairtradelabeledproductsinthesupermarket.Thedramaticincreaseinsalesof thesetwoproductcategoriesinmanyEuropeancountriesalsoshowsthatsustainablecitizenshipisnotonly anidealbutanecessaryadaptionofcitizenshiptheorytoactualpracticesandshiftsinattitudesamong citizens.Thisdevelopmentisframeddifferentlybydifferentscholars,butisperhapsbestdescribedasthe postmodernshiftinthewordingsofRonaldInglehart(Inglehart1999). Theoverarchingaimofthispaperistoinvestigatewhothesustainableconsumersandthenonsustainable consumersare.Tofulfillthisaim,tworesearchquestionswillbeanswered:1)Whichindividual characteristicsarerequiredtobeasustainableconsumer?Thisquestionwillbeansweredtheoreticallyand empiricallywiththehelpofpreviousresearchoncitizenshipandcivicengagement.2)Whattypesof
3 Theecologicalfootprintisdefinedastheland(andwater)areathatwouldberequiredtosupportadefinedhumanpopulation andmaterialstandardindefinitely(WackernagelandRes1996inReynolds,Blackmore&Smith2009:261).Thefootprint metaphorhasalsobeenusedfordescribingtheimpactthatcitizenscouldhaveonthesocialandeconomicaldimensionof sustainabilitybyusingdifferenttermssuchassustainablefootprintorsweatyfootprint(Stolle,Berlin&Micheletti, forthcoming).

consumerscouldbefoundbasedontheirmotivationandcapacitytoparticipateinsustainable consumerism?Previouspoliticalsciencestudiesofpoliticalconsumerismhavebeenprofilingpolitical consumeratagenerallevel(e.g.FerrerFons2004;MichelettiochStolle2004;Tobiasen2004;Strmsnes 2004).Thesescholarswereabletoconcludethatpoliticalconsumersareoverrepresentedamonghighly educatedwomenwhoarefairlywelloff.Thisstudywilltakeanotherapproachbymakinguseof quantitativeclusteranalysistoidentifydifferentconsumertypes,basedontheirwillandcapabilityto participateinsustainableconsumptionwhichisseenascloselyrelatedtopoliticalconsumerism(cluster analysisisamethodtofindgroupsofrespondentswhichareassimilartoeachotheraspossibleonselected factorsmoreinformationaboutthemethodandtheanalyticalapproachwillbeprovidedbelow). Thechoiceofanalyticalapproachhasseveralaims:i)tomakeadeepenedanalysisofpoliticalandnon politicalconsumersbydiversifyingthegroupsandcreateatypology,ii)torootthistypologyinboththeory andempiricalmaterial,iii)toanalyzevariablesthatcouldbeunderlyingtocommonusedcategoriessuchas genderandclass,iv)tocreateafoundationforfurtherbothquantitativeandqualitativeanalyses.Reasons forparticipatingornotparticipatingcouldbedifferentfordifferentclusters.Treatingthegroupof consumersastoohomogenouscouldmakethesedifferencesbecomefuzzyoreveninvisible.Withthis approach,wealsohavetheadvantageofbeingabletoanalyzegroupsofconsumerswhobasedonprevious researchcouldbeassumedtobesustainableconsumersbutwhodonotparticipate.Analysesofthisgroup couldthusprovideanapprehensivedepictionofthebarrierstoaction(Hobson2003)orthelackof suitableopportunitiestheymightexperience(thistaskwillnotbecarriedoutinthispaperthough). DatafromthenationalrepresentativeConsumptionandSocietalIssuesSurvey2009,conductedin Swedenin2009with1053respondents,isutilizedtoanswerthequestionsposed.Thesurvey,aswellasthe dissertationprojectforwhichthistextwillbeused,isapartoftheresearchprojectSustainableCitizenship: OpportunitiesandBarriersforCitizenInvolvementinSustainableDevelopmentfundedbytheSwedish CouncilofResearch(seeattachment6formoreinformationonthedata).Thepurposeoftheproject SustainableCitizenshipistostudythebarrierstoandopportunitiesforsustainableactiononthepartof individualcitizensinSweden.Itinvestigateshowindividualsthinkaboutsustainabledevelopmentin relationtoprivateconsumptionandwhetherconcernsforsustainabledevelopmentaffecttheirconsumer choicesandpractices.Itsgeneralresearchquestionsare:(1)DoSwedishcitizenshavethenecessary prerequisitestobesustainableconsumers?(2)Dotheythinkabouttheconsequencesoftheirconsumer choicesandpracticesforsustainabledevelopment?(3)Dotheyexercisegood(sustainable)judgmentin theirconsumerchoicesandpractices?(4)Why/whynotisthisthecase?Theprojectstudiessustainable developmentasthreedimensional,includingtheenvironmentalaswellastheeconomicalandsocial dimensionofsustainability. 3

Thisintroductionisfollowedbyasectionthatpresentspreviousresearchandgivesatheoreticalfoundation forthecomingclusteranalysis.Afterthissection,methodandresultsoftheclusteranalysiswillbe presented,followedbyachapterdiscussingthefuturetasksforthisresearchproject.

2Motivationalandcapacitybuildingfactorsforsustainableconsumerism
Bothinsocialmovementandpoliticalparticipationtheory,thedominantmodeltoexplaincollectiveaction couldbedescribedasfollows(Kriesi&Westholm2007): Discontent+resources+opportunitycollectiveaction Itismainlythecontentandtherelativeimportanceoftheseconceptsthatiscontested,whichalsohashad someimpactontheexactwordingcapturingtheconcepts.Whilediscontent(ordissatisfaction)is commonlyused(Adman2008,Kriesi&Westholm2007,Peterssonetal1998)somescholarsusewider concepts,suchasmotivation(e.g.Teorell,Sum&Tobiasen2007)orcivicorientation(Leighly1995) indicatingthatcitizensdoesnotnecessarilychosetoparticipatebecausethattheyaredissatisfiedwith something,butalsotogivelegitimacyandshowsupportforexample.Futhermore,insteadofresources theconceptcapacityorcapabilityissometimesused(e.g.Teorell,Sum&Tobiasen2007).Thetermwas usedbyAmartyaSentodescribewhatanindividualorgroupisactuallyabletodoorbe(Sen1992). Asmentioned,therelationbetweenmotivationandcapacityiscontested.Oneexplanationsuggeststhat theyarelinkedtogetheradditively,likethemodelaboveindicates.Resourcesdonotbecomerelevant beforeyouaremotivatedtoparticipate,andopportunitiesdonotariseuntilyouhaveresources(Kriesi& Westholm2007).Althoughresourcesaredeemedcrucial,motivationisinthismodelanecessarycondition. Othersfocusontheroleofmobilizationandopportunities,partlybasedonempiricalevidencestatingthat theeffectofresourcesandmotivationsisrelativelysmallwhenastrongmobilizationfactorispresent (Leighly1995).Thiskindofgeneraltheoriesabouttherelationbetweenthedifferentfactorsishowever challengedbythosewhoarguethatthekindofmotivationandresourcesthatareneededandtherelation betweenthemaredependentontheformofparticipationandtheissueathand(Adman2008,Kriesi& Westholm2007,Sen2005).Forexample,votinghasbeenproventobelessdemandingofpoliticalinterest andskillsthanforexamplepartyinvolvement,andconsumerparticipationisstatedtobemuchmorereliant oncivicdutiesthanmostotherformsofparticipation(Armingeon2007). InthecomingsectionIwilldiscussmorespecificallywhatcontentthatcouldbeascribedtothesevery generalconceptsofmotivationandcapacityandalsohowtheycouldbeinterpretedinthecontextof sustainableconsumerism. 4

Motivationforsustainableconsumption Whenyouaresatisfiedwithsomething,therearelittleincentivesoftryingtochangeit.Thus,being dissatisfiedwithsomethingisthereforeperhapssomewhatselfevidentlyanimportantconditionfor participation.Andthemorediscontentyouarewithasituation,thelessaffectedyouarebyscarcityin resources(Kriesi&Westholm2007).Whenstudyingcivicengagementingeneral,generallifesatisfaction andsatisfactionwiththepoliticalsystemisoftenusedtomeasurepoliticaldiscontent,butdiscontentof morespecifiedareasofpoliticsisalsoused(Adman2008).Forpracticingsustainableconsumerism,one couldexpectthatatleastyouneedtohavesomekindofworriesaboutthepresentorfutureconditionof theenvironmentandotherpeople,butperhapsalsothatoneseesthelinkbetweenprivateconsumption andsustainabledevelopment. Whilesomestudiesalimitedtoinvestigatingpeoplesdissatisfaction,othersusemoreelaboratesetsof valuesfordescribingandexplainingcitizensmotivationtoparticipateinpolitics.Thesevaluescanbe incentivesofvariouskinds,suchastheentertainmentvalueyoucangetbybeinginterestedintheissueyou areparticipatingin.Itcanalsobeanexpressivevaluewhichisoftenlinkedtoideologicalvalues.Thelatter hasmainlybeenlinkedtoprotestformsofparticipation.Interestisundoubtedlyanimportantfactorin almostallparticipationresearch.Itcanbedirectlydeterminingforwhetheryouparticipateornotalthough itisalessneededfactorwhentheformofparticipationislowdemanding(Armingeon2007). Althoughyouarebothdissatisfiedwithsomethingandinterestedintheissue,ifyourstakeintheissueis notveryhigh,youmaystillnotparticipate.Studieshaveshownthatcivicnormsofparticipatingcouldbeof greatimportanceespeciallyintheseinstances(Martn&vanDeth2007).Whilerationalchoicetheoryhas hadsometroubleexplainingparticipationbyrelatingittomaterialgratifications,theconceptofcivicduty hasbeenwidelyappreciatedbythesescholars.Civicdutiesareseenastheresultofpoliticalsocialization, andtodotherightthingandfulfillingsuchdutiescouldleadtoapsychologicalgratificationforthe participant.Thetheoreticalreasoningisalsosupportedbyempiricalrationalchoicestudiesofelectoral turnoutswhichhaveshownthatthecivicdutytovoteisinfactthemostimportantfactorforwhetheryou choosetovoteornot(Armingeon2007).Thecivicdutiesunderpinningasustainablecitizenshipmightbe somewhatdifferentfromtraditionalrepublicanorliberalcitizenshiptheories.Asmentionedinthe introduction,thesustainablecitizenshipisstretchedoutsideofthenationstate,intotheprivatesphereand overtofuturegenerations.Itisfurthermoregroundedinafundamentalvirtue:justice.Itistheinjusticeof anunsustainablesustainablefootprinttheobligationsstemfrom(Dobson2003).Dutiesderivedfroma sustainablecitizenshipshouldthusbelinkedtothesecharacteristic. AnattempttooperationalizethetheoryofecologicalcitizensintoascalehasbeenmadebySverkerJagers 5

andJohanMartinsson(forthcoming).Itemsforthescalehasbeenderivedfromfouroverarching dimensionsofthesustainablecitizenship,calledSocialJustice/senseoffairness,Dismantlingthe distinctionbetweenpublicandprivate,Unboundedresponsibility,Nonreciprocalresponsibility.These headlinescapturethestretchingofthecitizenshipconceptspatially,materiallyandtimewiseasdescribed abovetoalargedegree. Inspiteoftheprovedimportanceofthenormsofcitizenship,theseidealsarenotverywellstudied(tomy knowledge,onlyfoursurveyshasincludedthesenorms:ReportfromtheDemocraticAuditofSweden 1987and1998,CitizenandInvolvementandthesurveyforthisproject,ConsumptionandSocietal Issues2009).IntwoofthesefourstudiesthefollowingidealwasincludedChooseenvironmentally friendly,ethicallyproducedproductseveniftheyarenotthebestand/orcheapestsolutionsforyou personally.Theidealcapturesimportant(butnotall)aspectsofsustainablecitizenship.Anditwasalso showntobearelativelyimportantideal,rankedto7,2ofascaletotenwhichcouldbecomparedtoVoting ingeneralelectionswhichwasrankedas8,0(Peterssonetal,1998). Capacitytopracticesustainableconsumption Althoughwecouldassumethatdifferentkindsofresourcesareneededfordifferentmodesofparticipation (asstatedabove),allresourcesintheoryandpreviousresearchcanbegatheredunderthreemain categories:physical,humanandsocialcapital(Coleman1994).Physicalcapitalismostoftenrepresentedas money.Humancapitalisalittlelessconcreteitistheskillsthatmakepeopleabletoactinnewways.Even lesstangibleisthesocialcapitalwhichconsistofrelationsaccessibletosomeone(ormoreoften;agroup) thatcanhelpthemrealizetheirinterests(ibid.).Beinginvolvedinanorganizationcangeneratesocialcapital bytheweaksocialtiesthattheyentail.Havingsuchnetworksincreasesthechancethatyouareasked (/mobilized)totakepartinpoliticalactivities(Teorell2003inTeorell,Sum&Tobiasen2007). Organizationalinvolvementishowevermostcommonlylinkedtothedevelopmentofhumancapitalinthe formofcivicskills.Civicskillsarecitizensabilitytoanalyze,organizeandcommunicate,whichiscrucial forseveralformsofpoliticalparticipation.Eventhoughtheymaybepracticesforpoliticalpurposes,they canbelearnedinanonpoliticalsettingsuchasanonpoliticalorganization,butalsointheworkplaceand inschool.Towritealetter,chairameetingortospeakinfrontofalargegroupareallactivitiesthatare practicedinthesecontexts.Andwhenyouhavedonetheseactivitiesinanonpoliticalsetting,theleapto dotheminapoliticalcontextwouldnotbefar.(Putnam2000,Bradyetal1995). Itistheunevendistributionofresourcesthatexplainstheimportanceofsocioeconomicstatus(SES) variablesforparticipation,accordingtoHenryEBrady,KayScholzmanandSidneyVerba(1995).Bradyetal measuredtheseskillsnotbymakingtherespondentstakeaspeakingorwritingtest,butbyaskingthem 6

abouttowhatextenttheyhadhadexperiencesthatcouldhavefosteredtheseskills.Anextensivesetof questionsregardingeducationwasforexampleincludedtomeasurethespeakingandwritingskill.These skillsaregenerallymoreabundantinmenthanwomen,whichisthemostimportantexplanationtowhy menareparticipatinginpoliticstoalargerdegree(Adman2008). However,whileBrady,ScholzmanochVerba(1995)andothercivicskillscholarshavestudiedparticipation ingeneral,thisstudyisoccupiedbyaspecificformofcivicengagementsustainableconsumption. Furthermore,sustainableconsumptionmightdeviatefrommoretraditionalformsofengagementsinceit ispracticedonthemarket.TheindicatorsusedbyVerbaetalwillthushavetobemodifiedtotakingthese differencesintoaccount.Itmakeslittletheoreticalsensetoincludethesevariableswhenaskingabout sustainableconsumerism.Aspointedoutearlier,differentresourcesmaybeneededfordifferentformsof participationandissues.Andskillssuchasknowledge,knowhowandinformationhavealsobeenpointed outaspotentiallyimportantforpoliticalparticipation(Kriesi&Westholm2007).Thepracticeofskillswithin workinglifeandorganizationalactivities,whichisusedasanindicatorofrelevantcivicskillsfortraditional formsofparticipation,mightinthecontextofsustainableconsumptionbetranslatedintothepracticeof skillswithintheprivatelifeandinstores.Astudyofpoliticalparticipationinsmallscaledemocracyactivities suchaseducationandhealthcare,inwhichwomenparticipatesmorethanmen,confirmsthatthe traditionalcivicskillsarenotasimportanthereasintraditionalparticipation(ibid.).Educationhasalso proventobemoreimportantforconsumerparticipationthanotherformsofparticipation(Armingeon 2007).

3Modelsandmethod
Inthecominganalysestheconsumersaredividedintotwomaingroupssustainableconsumersandnon sustainableconsumers.Nonsustainabledoesnotmeanthattheyarenecessarilyhavinganegative impactonsustainabilitybutsimplythattheydonotparticipateinsustainableconsumptionasitis operationalizedinthisstudy(seemoreinformationbelowonthemeasurements).Theycouldinfactbe peoplewhoareverysustainableingeneral,byforexamplelivinginasmallhouse,notdrivingacaretc.The actualaccumulatedeffectonsustainabledevelopmentisnotwhatisunderstudyinthispaper. Thereasonforseparatingthetwomaingroupsofconsumersistheopportunitytostudythedifferences betweenthesetwomaingroupsthoroughlyandwithgreaterclarity.Basedoncitizensmotivationand capacitytopracticesustainableconsumption,wecanlogicallyderivefourdifferenttypesforeachmain group,asdepictedinModel1below. 7

Model1Typologyofsustainableconsumersandnonsustainableconsumers
Not motivated Has capacity Doesnot have capacity Whenitcomestothesustainableconsumers,wecouldexpectwithgreatcertaintytofindmostofthemin groupBthemotivatedandcapable.Alltheothertypeslackeithercapacityormotivation,orboth,asfor typeC.However,sincemotivationandcapacityarenotstudiedinabsolutetermsintheempiricalanalysis thereisapossibilitytofindsomepeopleinanyoftheotherboxes.Ifthemodelandthevariablesare correctlyspecified,thereshouldbeveryfewrespondentsdwellingintheCboxthough(theincapableand unmotivated). Turningtothenonsustainableconsumers,wecanexpecttherespondentstobewiderspreadoverthe differenttypes.Sincenotparticipatingiseasierthanparticipating(youonlyneedtolackoneofthetwo maincomponentsinthemodel)thetaxonomyexpectedisamirrorofthesustainableconsumerswithallor almostallrespondentsinboxA,CorD.However,themodelisnottotallydeterministicoracompletemodel ofthefactorsneededforparticipation.Therecouldbefactorshinderingactionevenformotivatedand resourcefulconsumers. Measurements Themeasurementsusedfortheanalysesbelowarebasedonthereasoningabove.Commonlyusedfactors areincludedbutoftenwitharespecificationtofitthetopicathand:sustainableconsumption.Firstly,the followingitemsintheConsumptionandSocietalIssuesSurvey2009havebeenusedtoseparatesustainable consumersfromnonsustainableconsumers: Question12:Howoftenhaveyouboughtthefollowingitemsinthelast12months?Boughtproductswith anecolabel,Boughtfairtradeproducts. ThealternativesforthisquestionwereNotatall,Afewtimesinthelast12months,Afewtimesinthelast 8 C D A B Motivated

6months,Afewtimesinthelast3months,Afewtimesinthelastmonth,Afewtimesinthelastweek, Severaltimesaweek.Onlythosewhoansweredthattheyhadboughtecolabeledorfairtradeproducts AfewtimesinthelastweekorSeveraltimesaweekarestudiedassustainableconsumers,andtherest asnonsustainableconsumers.Asindicatedintheintroduction,sustainabledevelopmentdemandsa changeincitizenslifestylesandthebarforbeingasustainableconsumerhasthereforebeensetatthis highlevel. Turningtothefactorsthatwillbeusedtoformtheclusters,thevariablesbelowwillbeusedtomeasurethe citizensmotivationandcapacity. Motivation: Capacity: Physicalcapital Humancapital - Generalpoliticalknowledge - Skills Startingwiththeoperationalizationsofmotivation,dissatisfactionismeasuredbyindicatingtowhat extentonebelievesthatconsumptionofproductsinSwedenhasanegativeeffectontheenvironmentand otherpeople:Question32:Towhatextentdoyouagreewiththefollowingstatements?Manyofthe productsweconsumeinSwedenhavenegativeconsequencesfortheenvironmentandpeopleinother countries(1=Dontagreeatall,7=Stronglyagree). Interestisasummedscalecomposedoftwoitemsregardingonesinterestinsustainabledevelopment: Question1:Ingeneral,howinterestedareyouin:Environmentalissues,Humanrights(0=Notinterestedat all,10=Veryinterested). Andfinally,inordertomeasurethecivicdutytopracticesustainableconsumptionIwillusethesameitem asusedinpreviousstudies: 9 Socialcapital Dissatisfaction Interest Civicduty

Question17:Therearedifferentviewsonwhatittakestobeagoodcitizen.Inyourpersonalopinion,how importantisitto:Chooseenvironmentallyfriendly,ethicallyproducedproductseveniftheyarenotthebest and/orcheapestsolutionsforyoupersonally(0=Notimportantatall,10=Veryimportant). Yearlyincomeisusedtorepresentthephysicalcapitalasoneofthethreecomponentsofthecapacity buildingfactors.Thesecondone,Humancapital,isperhapsthecomponentwhichistheleastselfevident. Civicskillsarecommonlyusedasanindicatorofthisformofresource.However,asthetheoreticalsection abovesuggest,thetraditionalactivitiesmeasuringcivicskillsisprobablynotthebestsuitedforthisstudy. Insteadoftheseactivities,twoshoppingskillshavebeenincludedintheanalysistocapturethe respondentscapacitytocriticallyscrutinizeproductsthatarebeingsuppliedinthestores.Thequestionis phrasedasfollows: Question28:Inthelast4weeks,howoftenhaveyoudonethefollowingwhenbuyingfood?Checkedthe originofproducts,Readinformationonproductingredients(1=Notatall,7=Everytime)(summedscale). Thesamelogicisbeingusedhereaswhentraditionalcivicskillsaremeasured:thatnonpoliticalactivities canserveasindicatorsofpotentiallypoliticalskills.ThisCriticalshoppingskillisbeingcomplementedby anitemseekingtocapturetheirpotentialforpoliticalknowledgeandcapacitytocomprehendpolitical phenomenonsbyaskingabouttherespondentslevelofeducation. Thelastcomponentofthecapacityfactorsissocialcapital.Thedegreetowhichsuchcapitalispossessedis measuredbyaskingtherespondentsabouttheirengagementindifferenttypesoforganizations: Question53:Inthelast12months,haveyoubeeninvolvedwithanassociation/organisation 4 ?(Nine organizationsandfivetypesofactivitieswerementionedandaddedtoasummedscalefrom0to45). Theclusteranalysis Clusteranalysisisasuitableanalyticaltoolforinvestigatinghowunitsinanempiricalmaterialarelinkedto eachother.Clustersareformedbymeasuringthedistancebetweentheunitsandcreatingsolutionswhere theunitscreatingaclusterareassimilaraspossibleandthedifferencebetweendifferentclustersisasbig aspossible.Differenceandsimilarityarebasedonwhichevervariablesthatarechosenbytheresearcher (AldenderferandBlashfield1987,Hairetal2006). 4 Thefollowingtypesoforganizationswereincludedinthesurvey:Sportsoroutdoorassociation,Environmental
organization,Politicalparty/alliance,Tradeunionorganization,Humanitarianaidorganization,Humanrightsorganization, Consumerorganization,Church/religioussociety,Othertypeofassociation/organization.Thefiveactivitieswere:"Takenpart inagathering/meeting/event","Takenpartinawebforum","Donevoluntarywork","Donatedmoney","Other".

10

 Ahierarchicalmethodwaschosentoformtheclusters(averagelinkage[withingroup]method,whichis especiallysuitableifoutliershavenotbeenremoved).Therearealsononhierarchicalclustermethods whichformclustersfromastartingseedchosenbytheresearcher.Thesemethodsareinthissenseless explorativeandevenmoredependentonthesubjectivechoicesoftheresearcher.However,allcluster analysesaretoagreatextenttheresultofsubjectivechoiceswhichmakesitimportanttoderivethe analysisfromtheoreticalreasoning.Thechoiceofhowmanyclustersthatshouldbeformedisalsotoa largeextentasubjectivematter.Severalstoppingruleshavebeendevelopedbutnoneofthemis dominatinginclusteranalysisresearch.Onewaytodecidethisistolookattheaveragedistancewhengoing fromonenumberofclusterstoonemorecluster.Ajumpcanoftenbespottedandusedasacutoffpoint, whichwasdoneintheanalysisbelow(atfourclusterspertaxonomy,whichalsosuitsthetypologywell) (Hairetal2006).

4Clusteranalysestypesofsustainableandnonsustainableconsumers
Beforetakingacloserlookatthedifferentclustersfoundintheclusteranalysis,Iwillstartoffbycomparing thesustainableandnonsustainableconsumersatlarge.AsshowninTable1,thegeneralmodeland assumptionofcapacityandmotivationfactorsseemstobecorrectsustainableconsumersscores significantlyhigheronthesetwocategoriesofvariablesthannonsustainableconsumers.

Table1Comparisonofsustainableandnonsustainableconsumers
Sustainableconsumers Nonsustainableconsumers Capacity(mean) 1,79 1,33 Motivation(mean) 1,80 1,28 Frequency(%) 24 68

Notes:n=1053.CapacityisasummedscaleconsistingofthevariablesdescribedundertheheadlineMeasurementsabove, rangingfrom03.MotivationisconstructedasCapacity.Allvariablesincludedinthesetwoscaleshavebeenstandardizedby settingthemedianvalueswithin33%oftherespondentsto0,5,allvaluesaboveto1andallunderto0(inordertocompensate forskewnessandmakingthevariablescomparabletoeachother).Thevariablesshouldthusberegardedasrelative measurements.Frequencyhasamissingrateof8%(Sustainableconsumers+Nonsustainableconsumers+missing=100%).

Thenumberofnonsustainableconsumersismuchhigherthansustainableconsumers(68%ofthe respondentsversus24%).Rememberingthestrictdefinitionofsustainableconsumerinthispaper(those whobuyeitherecolabeledorfairtradeproductsatleastafewtimesperweek)thisisnotverysurprising though.Furthercomparisonsalsoconfirmexpectationsfrompreviousresearch;thegroupofsustainable consumersisconsistedofmorewomenthanmen,manyrespondentswithahighereducationandwhoare 11

wellofffinancially.Thegroupalsohasanoverrepresentationofpeopleintheirmidlife(resultsnot presentedintableform). However,asshallbenotedinthecomingpresentation,thereisafairlylargevariationwithinthesetwo generalgroupsofconsumerswhichhasnotbeenpointedoutinpreviousresearch.Letusstartbylookingat thefourclustersofsustainableconsumers.

Figure1Taxonomyofsustainableconsumerclusters
Motivation Capacity

Notes:CapacityandmotivationhavebeencodedasdescribedinTable1.Thesizeoftheclustersarerelatedtohowmany respondentsthatisinthecluster.

Thecapacityandmotivationscalehasbeenconstructedsothattheoverallmediansaraalsothecenterof scales(1,5).Thismeansthat1,5onbothscalesrepresentthegeneralconsumerandtheresultsaretobe understoodasrelativetothatnumber.Thefigureshowsthatwhiletwooftheclusters(1and2)aremore motivatedandhavemoreresourcesthanthegeneralconsumer,thereisonegroup(3)whichisnotas motivatedandonlyslightlymorecapable.Whatissurprisingwiththisgroupisthatitisthebiggestofall fourclusters.Itseemsliketheirfysical,humanandsocialcapitalmakesengaginginsustainable consumerismsolowdemandingthattheydonotneedasmuchmotivation.Inaddition,thereisevena group(4)thathavebothlowercapacityandmotivationthantheaverage,whichisevenmoreofaanomaly. However,thisgroupisverysmallandwecanexpectthattheserepsondentsinsitutionalsettingand/or socialcontextisveryfavorableforsustainableconsumerism. 12

 TurningtothenonsustainableconsumerclustersinFigure2,wecanseethatthereseemstobehigh correlationbetweenmotivationandcapacityifyouarelowoncapital,youaregenerallyalsonotvery motivated.Itisalsostrikingthatthebiggestcluster(1)areactuallymoremotivatedthanthegeneral consumer,althoughlackingincapabilitytosomeextent.Thereisalsoagroupofnonsustainableconsumers whoareactuallybothquitemotivaedandcapableofconsumingmoresustainable.Thisgroupisofspecial interestinthecomingempiricalstudiesofthisprojectsincetheycanprovideuswithinformationaboutthe barrierstoactionthatmaybepresentforatleastsomeconsumers.Finally,thepresenseofclusterthree andfourwhicharelowonbothcapacityandmotivationtoavaryingdegreeisofcourseexpectedwhen lookingatnonsustainableconsumers.

Figure2Taxonomyofnonsustainableconsumerclusters

Motivation Capacity

Notes:CapacityandmotivationhavebeencodedasdescribedinTable1.Thesizeoftheclustersarerelatedtohowmany respondentsthatisinthecluster.

Iwillinthenextsteppresenttheclustersmorethoroughlybyoutliningtheirsocioeconomicstatus,a coupleofvaluesheldbythegroupsandtowhatextenttheyareengagedinothergreenbehaviour(no tablesofresultswillbepresentedbutcanbereceivedfromtheauthoruponrequest). 13

Sustainableconsumercluster1:Theidealists Aspresentedabove,thisgroupofconsumersisverymotivatedbutonlyhavingslightlymorecapitalthan theaverage.Theyactuallyscoreveryhighonhumancapital(educationandshoppingskillsthatis)buthave averylowincome(49%Earnlessthan20500Europeryear)andanaverageonsocialcapital(asmeasured inthispaper).Over70%oftheconsumersinthisclusterarewomenandarelativelylargedegreeofthem haveauniversitydegree(33%,whichisthemostcommonlevelofeducationinthisgroup[themode]). Thelowlevelofincomecouldbeexplainedbythehighlevelofpeopleonhighagepensioninthisgroup(27 %)andstudents(15%).45%oftherespondentsinthegroupareworking.Whenitcomestotheirother valuesandactions,theyoftenrecycletheirwasteandtrytosaveenergyintheirhousehold.Theyarevery trustingofpeopletheydonotknow,andbelievesthatweshouldstriveforasocietythatisenvironmentally friendly,evenifitmeansthatwehavetoacceptalowornoeconomicgrowth. Sustainableconsumercluster2:Theableandwillingly Thisgroupscoresveryhighonbothcapacityandmotivation.Theyhavetheresourcestopractice sustainableconsumerismandalsothewillingnesstodoso.Theyhavemuchlargerfinancialresourcesthan Theidealistsandareespeciallyconcernedabouttheimpactthatconsumerproductshaveonthe environment.Theyalsostronglybelievethatitisacitizensdutytochooseproductsthatarenotonlygood forthemselvesbutalsofortherestoftheworld.Mostofthemhavekids(80%)andareemployed(75%).In relationtotheidealists,theyarealsotrusting,believesthatenvironmentalconcernsaremoreimportant thaneconomicgrowth,sorttheirtrashandsavesenergy,althoughtoaslightlylowerdegreethanThe idealists. Sustainableconsumercluster3:TheOk,Illdoit Thethirdclusterisnotasmotivatedasthepreviousmentionedgroups.Thebiggestdifferenceisthatthey donotbelievethattheconsumptionofproductsaffectstheenvironmentnegativelyandtheydonothave thesamelevelofeducationandshoppingskills(theabilityandcustomtoscrutinizetheproductsoriginand ingredients)asclusteroneandtwo.Theyarealsonotasinterestedinsustainabledevelopmentorbelieve thatitisacitizensdutytoconsumewithotherpeopleandtheenvironmentinmind.Thisgrouphasamuch moreequalcompositionofmenandwomenandmostofthemareeitherworking(72%)orareonhighage pension(15%).Weneedtostudythisgroupfurthertounderstandwhytheyaresustainableconsumers despiteallfactorsspeakingagainstsuchabehavior.

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Sustainableconsumercluster4:Theunwillingresponsibilitytakers Thelastclustersofthesustainableconsumersarealsothemostunlikelyone.AstheOk,Illdoitcluster, theyarelowonthemotivationalfactors(actuallyevenlower,especiallywhenitcomestothedutyto chooseproductswithothersinmind)butarealsounderaveragewhenitcomestocapacity.However,they dobelievethattheproductsweconsumedoaffecttheenvironmentandotherpeopleinanegativeway.So theyseeathreattoasustainabledevelopmentbutdonotbelieveitisthecitizensresponsibilityto counterfeitthatthreat.Thecapitalthattheylackthemostandwhichisdraggingdowntheoverallcapacity istheirsocialcapital.Itseemsliketheothertwocapacityfactors(money,educationandshoppingskills) compensateforthelowlevelofsocialcapital.Thegrouphasthehighestlevelofpeopleonhighagepension (17%)andhasasomewhatequaldistributionofmenandwomen,astheOk,Illdoitgroup. Nonsustainableconsumercluster1:Thealmostthere Whenitcomestotheircapacityandmotivation,thefirstofthenonsustainableconsumerclustersareeven moremotivatedthantheOk,Illdoitgroupofsustainableconsumers,andonlyhasslightlylesscapacity. Thisgroupwantstobesustainableconsumersbutcannotforsomereason(s).Onereasoncouldbethat theyarenotaccustomedtobecriticalshoppersandtheydonothavethegeneralpoliticalknowledgewhich canbeacquiredfromahighereducation.Theyarealsonotasinterestedinissuesrevolvingsustainable developmentastheaverageconsumer.Thisgroupmainlyconsistsofmostmen(59%)whoareeither working(65%)orareonhighagepension(19%).Asmallnumberoftheconsumersinthisgroupare students(6%).Theyarenotthatdifferentfromthesustainableconsumerswhenitcomestotheirtrustin otherpeople,theirprioritizationoftheenvironmentversuseconomicgrowthorgreenbehaviorsuchas energysaving. Nonsustainableconsumercluster2:Theable,willinglybuthindered Cluster2,herenamedTheAble,willinglybuthindered,hasboththecapacityandmotivationtobe sustainableconsumers.Theyarenotaswellofffinanciallyastheaverageconsumerbutacoupleofthe sustainableconsumerclusterhaveaevenlowerfysicalcapitalthanthisgroup.Theyalsoholdothervalues favoringgreenthinkingandpractiseothergreenbehavior.Besidedtheeconomicfactor,wecouldonly assumethattheanswertowhytheyarenotparticipatinginsustainbleconsumerismliesinthethird categoriesoffactorsnecessaryforcollectiveaction(asdescribedabove);theopportunities.Alsothisgroup arethereforeofgreatinterestincomingempiricalanalysesoftheinstitutionalsettingsthatthese consumersareembeddedin.Thegroupconsistmainlyofwomen(64%)andthesomewhatlower economicalcapitalofthisgroupisexplainedbythattheyhaveahighlevelofpeopleonhighagepension 15

(31%). Nonsustainableconsumercluster3:Thecurious Thecurioushaveahighinterestinsustainabilityissuesandalsopossessahighlevelofshoppingskills. However,theyscorelowonallothercapacityandmotivationalfactorswhichmakesiteasytounderstand thattheyarenotsustainableconsumers.Almostallofthemareunemployed(16%),onsickleave(8%),are students(6%)orhavinghighagepension(49%).ItshouldalsobenotedthatThecuriousisaverysmall groupofconsumers. Nonsustainableconsumercluster4:Cantanddontwantto Thelastclusterderivedfromtheseclusteranalysesistheveryoppositeofthesustainableconsumercluster Theableandwillingly.Theydonotwanttoengageinsustainableconsumerismandcouldnotevenifthey wantedto.Almosteverybodyinthisgroupbelievesthatcitizensdonothavearesponsibilitytochoose productswithconcerntootherpeopleandtheenvironment.Theclusterhasahighlevelofunemployed(15 %)andconsistsofmorementhanwomen(58%men).Mostoftheconsumersinthegrouphavealow education(only17%hasstudiedatauniversity).

6Aquicklookaheadusingtheconsumertypesinqualitativeresearch
Thispapermakesupthefirststepintheempiricalanalysisofthedissertationproject.Ihavearguedthat establishedresearchoncivicengagementhasnotyetbeenadaptedtotheblurringoftheprivateandpublic sphereandindividualizationprocesses.Thestudyofsustainableconsumerismasacitizenlypracticewould especiallybenefitfromanupdateofthesocalledcivicskills.Ihaveproposedtoincludeshoppingskills totherepertoireofnecessaryhumancapital.Inaddition,Iarguethataclusteranalysisastheone presentedabovegivesresearchersandpolicymakersamoreindepthviewofthechallengesfacingboth sustainableandnonsustainableconsumers.However,therobustnessoftheproposedanalysesneedstobe furthertested. Thenexttaskfortheresearchprojectisqualitativestudiesbylookingmorecloselyatconsumersrelationto meatconsumptioninamiddlesizetownofSweden(Karlstad).Thesestudieswilltogetherwiththe quantitativeanalysesformacasestudy.Whiletheindividualcharacteristicshavebeeninfocusinthis paper,theopportunitieswillbeinthecenterofthenextstepbystudythefoodstores,theinformation aboutmeatconsumptionandsustainabilityprovidedtoconsumersofKarlstad,andtheorganizationsthat 16

giveopportunitiesforengaginginsustainableconsumerism. Thelaststepinthedissertationprojectwillcombinethefirstquantitativestepwiththequalitative observationsofsteptwobyperformingindepthinterviewswithconsumersthatcanrepresentstheclusters thathavebeenfoundinthispaper.Theinterviewswillbedoneinthestoresstudiedinsteptwo(oruse stimulatedrecallifrespondentsarenotcomfortablewithperformingtheinterviewsinthestores.Inthis way,themodelofcollectiveaction(motivation+capacity+opportunity=collectiveaction)depictedabove canbefullystudiedinanintegratedmannerinthisresearchproject.

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Attachment1TheConsumtionandSocietalIssues2009surveydata
ThenationalsurveyConsumptionandSocietalIssuesisaselfadministeredmailsurvey,sentouttoa randomnationwidesampleof3,000Swedesaged1878.Thesurveywasdesignedtogatherinformationon consumptionhabits,politicalparticipation,acceptanceofenvironmentalpolicysolutions,citizenshipideals, attitudestowardsdistributionsofresponsibilityforsustainability,trustininstitutions,andperceived environmentalrisks.ThesurveytookplacebetweenMayandAugust2009;theoverallresponseratewas35 %(N=1053).Fourremindercardsweresent,threeofthemwithanewquestionnaireformula.Theresponse rateappearsmodestcomparedwiththeonesbytheSwedishSOMInstitute(Society,Media,Opinion), whichreachesaresponserateofbetween6070%after10remindersbypostcardandtelephone,andthe nationalelectionsurvey(78%responseratein2006),whichinvolvesfacetofaceinterviews(homevisits) administeredbythepublicagencyStatisticsSwedenandincludesalsoanswerstoashortersurvey questionnairetoensurethattheresponserateisover50%. 5 However,ourresponserateisatthesame levelasotherrecentacademicsurveysonenvironmentalmatters,suchastheEcologicalCitizenSurvey (2009)with35%andtheSHARPsurvey(2005)with30%. 6 Itisalsocomparablewithseveralwellknown andreputableSwedishopinioninstitutes,includingDemoskop(40%responserate),andNovus(ca30%). Althoughtheresponseratewaslow,thefollowinganalysisshowshowitcomparestoSwedishdemographic statisticsandtherepresentativenessofotherstudies.Comparingoursampletothecorresponding populationinSwedenshowsasamplebiasintermsofgender,age,andeducation.Themajorityof participantsarewomen(54%,versus46%men)andtheaverageageis50(SD16.3).Womenare, therefore,overrepresentedinoursample(theirproportionofnationalpopulationis50.2%)asareolder people(meanageinthecorrespondingpopulationsegmentof18to78yearoldsis46yearsandthemean ageinthewholepopulationis41years). 7 Itshouldbenoted,however,thatsamplebiasesforgenderand agearereportedinseveralacademicsurveys,includingthoseconductedbytheSOMinstitute. 8 Intermsof education,28%havecollegeorapostgraduatedegree(andanadditional10%currentlystudyingatthe collegelevel),17%havecompulsoryschoolorequivalentmandatoryschoolastheirhighestlevelof education,andonly1%hasnotfinishedhighschooloranequivalentmandatoryschool.Theeducational levelamongourrespondentsishigherthanintheSwedishpopulationingeneral(19%haveacollegeor

StatisticsSweden(apublicagency)inthemid1970sdecidedtoadministerashorterquestionnairetoincreasetheresponserateof thenationalelectionstudy.In2006(theyearofthelatestelection),StatisticsSwedenreceiveda47%responserateforits longerquestionnaireandatotalof78%whenitsshorterquestionnaireisincluded. 6 TheEcologicalCitizenSurveyisadministeredbySverkerJagersandJohanMartinssonattheDepartmentofPoliticalScience, GothenburgUniversity.TheSHARP(SustainableHouseholds:Attitudes,ResourcesandPolicy)programwasaresearch collaborationinvolvingUmeandLinkpingUniversityandLuleUniversityofTechnology. 7 PopulationdatacomefromStatisticsSweden. 8 Forexample,the2008SOMsurveyreports53%womenandameanageof49years.

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postgraduatedegreeand21%havecompulsoryschoolorequivalentmandatoryschoolastheirhighest levelofeducation).Moreover,comparisonsofoursamplewiththeSOMsurveysonpointestimatesofkey environmentalattitudesthatwereaskedinbothsurveysindicatethattheeco/sustainabilityframeofthe surveyhasnotproducedaselfselectionbiasofecofriendlyorecointerestedpersons. 9 Ourcomparisonsof politicalandotherformsofparticipationovertimerelyondatafromtheSwedishSOM(Society,Opinion andMedia)Instituteandits2003survey.The2003SOMsurveywassplitintotwosubsurveyswithpartly differingcompositionsofquestions.Thequestionsusedinthispaperoccurredinoneofthesubsurveys witharesponserateof66%(N=1673).Thegeneralresponserateofthetotalsurveywasalso66%(3675 respondents).

Thisconclusionisbasedonthefollowingevaluation.TheproposalFocusonpromotingamoreenvironmentallyfriendlysociety evenifthismeanslowornoeconomicgrowthismorepopularintheSOMsurveythanintheConsumptionandSocietalIssues survey.TheproportionofrespondentswhothinkthattheproposalisveryorrathergoodishigherintheSOMsurveythan inoursurvey(50vs.45%).Andcorrespondingly,theproportionthinkingthatitisaveryorratherbadproposalishigherin oursurveythaninSOM(27vs.18%).Allreporteddifferencesarestatisticallysignificantatthe.05level.Moreover,SOM respondentsaremoreworriedforthefutureaboutenvironmentaldegradationsuchasglobalclimatechanges,deterioration ofthemarineenvironment(87towards82%forclimatechange;88towards83%forthemarineenvironment).These differencesarestatisticallysignificantatthe.05level.Whenitcomestoworriesforenvironmentalpollution,thereisno differencebetweenthetwosamples.Thequestionwordingaboutworriesforthefutureis:Whenyouconsiderthefuture today,whatdoyoufeelisthemostworryingaspectforthefuture?Thescalehas4pointsandrangesfromveryworryingto notworryingatall.Numbersaboverefertotheproportionofrespondentsindicatingveryorfairlyworrying.

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