Alternative Comparative forms

Use and Form: These structures can be used to compare two things. They are alternatives to the comparative form (-er / more ...). 1) Some phrases can be used to show that two things are identical. My pen is the same as yours. His house is the same size as ours. This phrase can be used with quantifiers: such as just, exactly, almost, and nearly. Your bag is exactly the same as mine! 2) Some phrases can be used to show that two things are the same or nearly the same. My bag was as expensive as yours. the same (noun) as

as (adjective / adverb) as He runs as quickly as me.

This structure is often used in literature to make similes. Shes as quiet as a mouse today. Youre as pretty as a picture! You can use quantifiers such as: just, almost, nearly with these phrases. He runs almost as fast as me. Your bag was nearly as expensive as mine. 3) Other phrases focus on differences. His results are a bit different from ours. Your jacket isnt as new as mine. He doesnt work as hard as I do. different from

This phrase can be used with quantifiers, such as slightly, a bit and a little. not as (adjective) as (negative verb) as (adverb) as

This structure be used with the quantifiers quite, half and nearly. My job isnt half as interesting as yours. He doesnt play the piano nearly as well as his sister. 4) When comparing adverbs and adjectives, we sometimes re-write the auxiliary verb at the end of the sentences. If there is not auxiliary, you can write do, does or did. Julia is just as sociable as Maria is. You cant run as fast as I can! I didnt sleep as well as I did on Sunday night. Common Mistakes: Some students try to use the er / more comparative form to make negative comparisons. However, not as as is more common. Im not taller than you. => Im not as tall as you.

BOTH AND NEITHER

Use:
1) Both Both means two of two things. I have two cats. I like both of them. 2) Neither Neither means not one or the other of two things. Neither of my cats is grey. Remember to use a singular verb after neither. Neither of the dogs are dangerous. => Neither of the dogs is dangerous. 3) Either Either means one or the other. There are two cakes. Please have one. You can have either one.

Form:
1) You can use both, neither and either directly before a noun. Both supermarkets are good. Neither supermarket sells electrical goods. We can go to either supermarket, I dont mind. 2) Both, neither and either are often used with of. But you must always use a determiner(the, my, these, those, his etc) before the noun. Both of children like chocolate cake. => Both of the children like chocolate cake. However, you dont have to use of with both. Both of the children like chocolate cake. Both children like chocolate cake. 3) You can use both, neither and either+ of + object pronoun(you, them, us). Both of them wore white dresses. Neither of us was late. Have either of you got a pen? 4) You can use both ... and ...; neither ... nor ..., and either ... or .... Examples: Both James and Diana work here. Neither James nor Diana works here. You can ask either James or Diana.

Second Conditional

Use: The second conditional structure is used to talk about imaginary situations and the consequences. Example: If I had a car, I could visit my friend. (But the truth is, I do not have a car, and I cannot visit my friend). The second conditional structure is also used to talk about imaginary abilities and the consequences. Example: If I could fly, I wouldnt need a car. (But the truth is, I cannot fly, and so I need a car.) Form: 1) Make the second conditional in this way. If I you he she... Example: Or I you he she... Example: were you If I were you, Id buy a bicycle. However, this rule is often overlooked. If he were more careful, he wouldnt break everything. => If he was more careful, he wouldnt break everything. 3) To talk about imaginary abilities, use could. If I you he she... Example: If I could help you, I would! could + verb (infinitive) , I you he she... would / wouldnt d verb (infinitive form) would / wouldnt d could / couldnt verb (infinitive form) if I you he she... Shed be more successful if she worked harder. past simple past simple , I you he she... If we had more money, we would buy that house. would / wouldnt d could / couldnt verb (infinitive form)

2) The verb to be can use were for all subjects. This is particularly true in the sentence: If I

4) Notice that the infinitive verb after the modal verbs is not necessary if the meaning is clear. Dont contract modal verbs when there is no infinitive verb present.

If I could pay, Id. Common errors:

=>

If I could pay, I would.

1) Many students write would after If If I would have a lot of money, I would buy that car! => If I had a lot of money, I would buy that car! If I played the drums, Id join a band. => If I could play the drums, Id join a band. 2) Many students forget to use could to talk about abilities.

Third Conditional
Use: Use the third conditional to talk about past events. Use it to describe what could have happened (event b) as a result of something else (event a). However, neither event a nor event bhappened. Therefore the third conditional describes hypothetical, imaginary situations. If I had been at home yesterday, Id have got your phone call. (But, I was not at home, and I didnt receive your call.) The third conditional is often used to criticise: If you had worked harder, you wouldnt have failed the test. (But you didnt work hard and you failed the test). Or it can be used to express regret: If I hadnt spent all my money, I couldve bought a computer. (But I spend all my money and I couldnt buy a computer). Or it can be used to express relief: If I wed taken that route, wed have been stuck in the traffic jam for hours! (But we didnt take that route, and we didnt get stuck) Form: a) Make the third conditional structure this way: would have If past perfect (had + past participle) (hadnt + past participle) EVENT A , wouldve d have wouldnt have EVENT B past participle

If youd told me that Anna had put on weight, I wouldnt have congratulated her on becoming pregnant. Or:

I / you / he / she / we / it / they

would have wouldve d have wouldnt have EVENT B past participle if

past perfect (had + past participle) (hadnt + past participle)

EVENT A

Jim wouldnt have made those mistakes if you had trained him properly. b) You can also use may have / may not have, might have / might not have or could have/ couldnt have to describe less certain possibilities rather than certain consequences. You might have had an accident if youd driven home in the snow last night. c) Sometimes the if clause is implied but not spoken. Id have helped. means Id have helped if youd asked me. I wouldnt have said that. means I wouldnt have said that if Id been there. Common Mistakes Some students write would after if. Would does not go in the If clause, it goes in the other clause. If I would have seen Sally, Id have told her the news. told her the news. If I had seen Sally, Id have

CONNECTING WORDS: Use: Connectives join two clauses, and show the relationship between them. The relationship can show: a contrast Although, but, even though, however, despite, in spite of a cause because, because of, as a result of, due to an effect so, consequently, as a result, thus, therefore These words cannot be used interchangeably. They may be located in different places with in the sentence, and they may use a different grammar. Form: a) Connectives showing Contrast Compare these sentences with the same meaning: i It is sunny but temperatures are low. Never start a sentence with But. You can use but after a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed. ii Although it is sunny, temperatures are low. / Even though it is sunny, temperatures are low.

Note how Although and Even though are located in a different part of the sentence from But.Although and Even though go before the known clause, whereas but goes before the unknown clause. The two clauses are separated with a comma. The order of clauses can be reversed. Temperatures are low, even though / although its sunny. iii It is sunny. However, temperatures are low. Note how however starts a sentence and is followed by a comma. It may also be seen after a semi-colon (;). Consequently, it is usually seen in longer sentences. iv Despite the sun, temperatures are low. In spite of the sun, temperatures are low. Note the position of Despite and In spite of before the known clause. The order of clauses can be reversed: Temperatures are low despite / in spite of the sun. Also note that these words are followed by a noun, not a verb clause. You can also use the ingform of the verb in these sentences. Despite / In spite of it being sunny, temperatures are low. b) Connectives showing a Cause Compare these sentences with the same meaning. i I arrived late because the traffic was bad. Because the traffic was bad, I arrived late. Note you can ONLY start a sentence with Because if there are two clauses in the sentence. Because we were late. INCORRECT Because we were late, we missed the start of the show. CORRECT Starting a sentence with Because is more formal than using it in the middle of a sentence, and is most commonly used in writing, not speaking. ii I arrived late because of the bad traffic. I arrived late due to the bad traffic. OR Because of the bad traffic, I arrived late. OR Due to the bad traffic, I arrived late.

I arrived late as a result of the bad traffic. OR As a result of the bad traffic, I arrived late. Note how these expressions are followed by a noun, not a verb clause. c) Connectives showing Effect Compare these sentences with the same meaning. i We were late so we missed the beginning of the show. Never start a sentence with So. So can follow a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed. ii We were late and thus we missed the beginning of the show. We were late and consequently we missed the beginning of the show.

We were late and as a result we missed the beginning of the show. We were late and therefore we missed the beginning of the show. Consequently, As a result, Therefore and Thus are more formal than So. They are common in formal sentences. They often start a sentence, but they can be joined to the previous sentence with and. Common Mistakes: 1. Some students begin sentences with But and So. Joe went to university. But he didnt like it. Joe went to university, but he didnt like it. 2. Some students write a sentence with because and only one clause. I went to the shop. Because I needed some bread. I went to the shop because I needed some bread. 3. Some students do not use nouns when they needed to. I went indoors due to it was cold outside. I went indoors due to the cold weather outside.

EMBEDDED CUESTIONS Use: Whenever you use an introductory phrase before a question, you must change the word order in the question. Introductions include: Can you tell me...? Do you know...? I dont know... Im not sure... I wonder... I cant remember... Whats the time? =>Can you tell me what the time is? Where did he go? =>I dont know where he went. Form: 1) If the question has an auxiliary verb, swap the positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can also do this in sentences with the verb to be. Example: When can you get here? Can is the auxiliary verb and you is the subject. Swap their positions when you add an introduction. Do you know when you can get here? Other examples: Where has he gone? What time is it? =>I dont know where he has gone. What are they doing? =>I dont know what theyre doing. =>Have you any idea what time it is? =>Do you know what time it is? You cannot contract the verb if it is the last word in the sentence. Do you know what time its? 2) If the question is in the present or past simple, remove do / does / did from the question. Change the verb ending so that the verb is in the correct tense.

Example: Where did he go? =>Did you see where he went? What time do you get up? =>Can you tell me what time you get up? Where does she work? =>I wonder where she works. 3) If a question does not have a question word (Where, What, Why etc.) use if or whetherbefore the question. Example: Does he live here? =>Do you know if he lives here? Are they coming to the party? FUTURE CONTINUOUS Use: a) Use the future continuous to talk about an event that will already be in progress at a specified time in the future. This time next week, Ill be driving to my parents house. Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include: By ..., This time next week..., In __ years time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple. When you arrive, Ill be driving home. By the time I get home, youll probably be having a bath. b) The future continuous can be used instead of the present continuous for future plans. Will you be going to Janes party? Yes, but Ill be getting there a bit late, because Im going to a meeting after work. c) We can also use the future continuous to make a guess about something that is in progressat the moment. Dont phone Richard now, hell be having dinner. Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! Itll be burning, I know it! These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what we assume is happening at the moment. Form: a) You can make the future continuous with will or going to. Make the future continuous this way: Positive and Negative I you he / she it we they will be wont be am / are / is going to be verb + ing =>Do you know whether they are coming to the party?

Questions Will Wont Am Is Are b) Remember that some verbs are not used in continuous tenses. These include verbs connected with possession: possess, own, belong, likes and dislikes: like, love, hate andother abstract verbs: seem, be, cost, want. I you he / she it we they going to be be verb + ing?

Grammar: So, such, too, enough

Too Use: Too means there is a lot of something. It shows a negative opinion. Its too hot = It is very hot and I dont like it. Form: You can use too before an adjective. Its too cold. My trousers are too small. You can also use it before an adverb, You walk too fast. James speaks too quietly. Before a noun, use too much (uncountable nouns) or many (countable nouns). I ate too much food. I ate too many sandwiches. You can also use too much after a verb. I ate too much. Paul drinks too much. Enough Use: Enough means you have what you need. We have enough food for everyone = everyone has some food. We dont have enough food for everyone = some people dont have chairs. Form: Write enough before a noun. We have enough chairs. But write it after an adjective or verb. Are you warm enough? Hes qualified enough. She isnt tall enough to be a model.

You dont work hard enough. Are you sleeping enough? Sentences with enough are sometimes followed by to + verb infinitive. Im not tall enough to reach the book. I havent got enough money to buy that coat. So Use: So means very. Its so hot! Form: So is generally used before an adjective or an adverb. Hes so funny! He plays the piano so well! However, in modern English, it is increasingly being used before nouns and verbs. That dress is so last year! (= That dress is last years fashion) Im so going to shout at him when I see him! (so = really) So can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause. I was so hot that I couldnt sleep.

Such Use: Such also means very. Such is used before an adjective and noun. They are such nice children. Form: A / an, if necessary, go after such, not before. Thats a such pretty dress. => Thats such a pretty dress! Like So, Such can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause. I was such a nice day that we decided to go to the park. Common mistakes 1) Some students use too with a positive meaning. But use so or very here Its too hot! I love the summer! => Its so hot! I love the summer! 2) Some students write enough in the wrong place. Do we have sugar enough? => Do we have enough sugar? 3) Some students use so / suchthat incorrectly. It was so hot that the sun was shining.

This sentence is not correct because the sun was shining is not a direct result of It was so hot. The hot day did not cause the sun to shine.

May Might and Adverbs of Probability

May and Might Use: Use May and Might to talk about what will possibly happen in the future. May and Might meanmaybe will. They can refer to the future or the present. Examples: I might have a pen in my bag. ( = present use) She may arrive tomorrow. ( = future use) Form: May and Might are modal verbs, like can, will and should, so they follow the same rules. 1) Do not add s to the third person singular. He may come. NOT He mays come. She might stay. NOT She mights stay. 2) To form a negative, add not after may and might. He may not come. She might not stay. 3) To form questions, invert may/might and the subject. However, questions with might are not common. Might he be late? 4) May can be used with I or we to make requests. However, can and could are more common. May I have some chocolate? May we go to the party? 5) May and Might are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form. I might go. NOT I might to go. She might stay. NOT She might staying.

Will + adverbs of probability Use: You can use will and wont with different adverbs to show how probable a future event is. Ill possibly go to the party. Ill probably go to the party. Ill definitely go to the party. Ill certainly go to the party. Form: Note that will / ll is used before the adverb, but wont is used after the adverb. Ill probably see you later. I probably wont see you later

Using Modals for Recommendations

Use: The following modals can be used to give recommendations. must Must can be used to give a strong recommendation. You must see the Empire State Building while you are in New York. have to You can also use have to for recommendations, but must is more common. Have to is generally used to talk about rules and things beyond your control. You have to see the Empire State Building while you are in New York. should Should and ought to are used to give a suggestion. You should try haggis while you are in Scotland. could Could is used to give an option. You could stay in a hotel, or you could stay at a guest house. dont have to Dont have to is used to say that something isnt necessary. You dont have to get a taxi; the metro is really fast and efficient. shouldnt Should is used to warn someone gently against doing something. You shouldnt walk home alone after dark. mustnt Mustnt is used to warn someone strongly against doing something. You mustnt go to that part of the city its dangerous. Form: Must, should and could are modals. Modals follow the following rules. 1) Do not add s to the third person singular. He must. NOT He musts 2) To form a negative, add not after the verb. I shouldnt. NOT I dont should 3) To form questions, invert themodal verb and the subject. Must you? NOT Do you must? 4) Modalsare always followed by a verb in the infinitive form. I should go. NOT I should to go. / I should coming. Have to is a regular verb. 1) Use Do / Does / Did to form questions. Do you have to go? NOT Have you to go? 2) Have to is followed by a verb in the infinitive form. I have to go. 3) Use dont / doesnt / didnt to form negative sentences. I dont have to go. NOT I havent to go.

Common Mistakes: 1. Many students use to after modal verbs. You must to visit the museum. You must visit the museum. 2. Some students write the question and negative form of have to incorrectly. You havent to take the bus You dont have to take the bus. Have you to go now? Do you have to go now?

Past Modals for Deduction

Use and Form: The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past. must have + past participle verb Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct. The chickens have escaped! How did they get out? They must have got out under the gate. There is no other way out. may have + past participle verb might have + past participle verb could have + past participle verb Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct. The chickens have escaped! How did they get out? They may have got out under the gate, or they might have escaped through this hole in the fence. may not have + past participle verb might not have + past participle verb Use this when you make a guess about what didnt happen in the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct. Wheres John? Why isnt he at the meeting? He may not have got the message. / He might not have received the message. NOTE: may not is not contracted to maynt, and might not is rarely contracted to mightnt. cant have + past participle verb couldnt have + past participle verb Use this when you make a guess about what didnt happen in the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct. The chickens have escaped! How did they get out? They cant have got out under the gate. I fixed that yesterday. NOTE: you cannot use: mustnt have + past participle verb to make deductions about the past.

Common Mistakes: 1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can. Maybe I left my book at home. I may have left my book at home. I think Robin went to the restaurant without us. Robin must have gone to the restaurant without us. 2. Note that could have has the same meaning as might have and may have. Why is Tom late? He may / might / could have got stuck in traffic. However, in the negative form the meaning is not the same. Why is Tom late? He may / might not have got your message. (NOT could not) = Maybe he didnt get your message. Couldnt have has the same meaning as cant have. Why is Tom late? Im not sure! He cant / couldnt have forgotten about the party! = Im sure he didnt forget.

Modals for Deduction

Use and Form: The following modals can be used to make guesses about a present situation. must + infinitive Use this when you make a guess and you are almost certain that your guess is correct. Wheres John? Hes not here. He must be in the bathroom. may + infinitive might + infinitive could + infinitive Use this when you make a guess but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct. Wheres John? Hes not here. He may be in the bathroom, or he might be in the kitchen, or he could beoutside. may not + infinitive might not + infinitive Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct. Wheres John? Hes not here. He may not be at work today.

NOTE: Do not use could not here. cant + infinitive Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct. Wheres John? Is he in the kitchen? No, he cant be. I was in there a minute ago. NOTE: you cannot use: mustnt + infinitive to make deductions about what is not true. Common Mistakes: 1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can. Maybe your bag is in the classroom. => Your bag might be in the classroom.

Prepositions and prepositional phrases of place

Use: Use prepositions of place to describe where something is.

The ball is in the box. The ball is on the box. The ball is underthe box.

The ball is over the box. The ball is next to the box. The ball is between the two boxes.

The ball is near (to) the box.

The ball is in front of the box.

The ball is behind the box.

In is also used in these situations: Countries, cities, villages the world mountains and valleys buildings water the middle / centre books / films / newspaper We live in France / in Paris / in Madrid. Its the highest building in the world. They have a cottage in the mountains / in a valley. She works in a bank. Dont swim in the sea / the river / the lake. He lives in the middle of Paris / in the city centre. Which film was that actor in? I read about it in the newspaper.

On is also used in these situations: walls, ceilings, doors, floor: She hung the picture on the ceiling / the wall / the door. surfaces the front / side/ back left / right Floors lists / menus roads natural lines and borders Theres a dirty mark on the page / table Theres a label in on the box / bottle The school is on the left. Jims office is on the second floor. Whats on the menu? Did you buy everything on the list? I live on Jackson street. The nearest gas station is on the motorway. The post box is on the way to work. He lives on the coast. London is on the River Thames.

At is also used in these situations: the top / bottom (of a page) Sign your name at the top / bottom. Directions: Position (next to something) the front / the back the beginning / the end events buildings Turn left at the traffic lights / roundabout / end of the street. Wait at the traffic lights / corner / tree. I wrote my name at the front / back of the book. What happened at the beginning / end of the film? I met him at a party / conference / football match Ill meet you at the airport / the station / home

Common mistakes: 1. Some students miss out part of the prepositional phrases. I live next a small shop.=> I live next to a small shop.

I parked the car in front the I parked the car in front the building. building. => 2. Some students add a second preposition where it is not necessary. Your bag is behind of the door.=> Your bag is behind the door.

Prepositions of Time
Use: Use prepositions of time before days, months, years and other time words. AT: Use before: Times: Were leaving at 3 oclock Lunchtime / bedtime: Hes arriving at lunchtime. Night: I cant sleep at night. The weekend: See you at the weekend! Festivals: We went away at Easter. IN: the morning / afternoon / evening: See you in the morning! Months: My birthdays in June. Seasons: We always go on holiday in summer. Years: He was born in 1996. ON: Dates: We arrived here on 4th August. Days of the week: Lets go to the zoo on Saturday. Single day events: We always eat out on Christmas Day. Use ON before a day + morning/ afternoon/ evening/ night. See you on Tuesday night! Dont use a preposition before: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday.

Future perfect
Use:

Use the future perfect to talk about an event that will be finished and complete before a specified time in the future.

This time next week, Ill will have finished this project.

Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include: By ..., This time next week..., In __ years time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple. When you arrive, Ill have prepared the dinner. By the time I get home, my mum will probably have tidied the house.

The future perfect is also use to make predictions about future events that will be complete before a specified future

time. Do you think Mel will have eaten all the chocolate cake? No, she wont have done that! Form: Make the future continuous this way: Positive and Negative

I you he / she it we they

will have wont have past participle

Questions

I Will Wont you he / she it we they Be going to is rarely used to make the future perfect tense. Toms going to have finished his lecture by the time we get there. have past participle?

Future perfect continuous

Use:

Use the future perfect continuous to talk about an event that will be in progress for some time before a specified time in the future. Janet will be really tired when we get home. She will have been looking after the children all day!

It can be used to make predictions about event that will be in progress before a specified time in the future.

Joe wont mind that we are late. He wont have been waiting long.

It can be used to predict what was happening in the past.

What do you think the men were doing in the store room? Dont worry. They will have been unpacking boxes.

Both the fixed future time and the length of time of are often mentioned in future perfect continuous sentences.

By the end of this week, Ill have been working here for five months. Fixed future time: Length of time: the end of this week five months

But this is not always the case. Anne will be in a bad mood at the party this evening because shell have been doing housework. Form: Positive and Negative

I you he / she it we they

will have wont have been + verb-ing

Questions

I Will Wont you he / she it we they have been + verb-ing?

Mixed Conditionals
Use: Mixed conditional sentences combine two different conditional patterns. Several patterns can be used:

mixed first conditional sentences

First conditional sentences can use a variety of modal verbs. If + present simple, can / may / might / will / should + verb (infinitive) If you give me some money, I can buy some milk. If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends? If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work. First conditional sentences can also use going to, as well as will. If + present simple, going to + verb (infinitive) If you dont get ready soon, were going to be late!

The present continuous and Going to can also appear in the If clause If youre going to the shop, can you buy me some cola? If youre going to pay him, make sure you get a receipt. The present perfect may also appear in the If clause. If youve finished your work, you can go home.

mixed third / second conditional

This combination describes an imagined event in the past and the present result. If + past perfect, would + verb (infinitive) If he'd taken the medicine, he wouldn't still be sick. He wouldnt still be sick if hed taken the medicine.

mixed second / third conditional

This combination describes a situation which is never true, and the past consequence of this situation. If + past simple, would have + verb (infinitive) If you were better at speaking in public, the presentation would have been more successful. The presentation would have been more successful if you were better at speaking in public.

Defining Relative Clauses

Use: Use defining relative clauses to give information about a noun in a sentence. The listener or reader NEEDS this information to understand the sentence. A doctor is a person who cures sick people. The girl who sits next to me at work has a bag just like yours. Form:

Use who to give more information about a person.

An architect is a person who designs buildings. Use which or that to give more information about a thing.

A corkscrew is a thing which you use to open bottles. The book that you gave me for my birthday is really interesting.

Use where to give more information about a place.

Thats the place where we got married. The town where my uncle lives is a few miles from here.

Because non-defining relative clauses give essential information, no commas (,) are needed.

If the noun which the relative clause describes (usually at the beginning of the sentence) is the OBJECT of the sentence, you can delete which, that or who. The man who is wearing the blue suit is my brother. The man is the subject of the sentence. You cannot delete who. The man (who) George is talking to is my brother. George is the subject of the sentence. The man is the object of the sentence. (The sentence can be rewritten: George is talking to a man. The man is my brother). So youcan delete who. The book you lent me is really good. You is the subject of the sentence.

The book is the object of the sentence. (The sentence can be rewritten: You lent me a book. The book is really good. Which / that isnot necessary.) The book which is on the table is really good. You is the subject of the sentence. (The sentence can be rewritten: The book is on the table. Its really good. Which / that is necessary.)

Non Defining Relative Clauses

Use: Use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about a noun in a sentence, or part of a sentence. The listener or reader does not need this information to understand the sentence. Relative clauses can define the subject of the sentence: Miranda, who used to go to the same university as me, is having a baby. Or the object of a sentence: We went to a lovely restaurant, where we both had steak. Or the sentence as a whole. She gave me some money, which was very nice of her.

Form:

Always put the relative clause as close as possible to the noun that you are describing.

Use who to give information about a person, whose to introduce a possession, and whichto give information about a thing. Do not use that. Use where to give information about a place ONLY if you introduce another subject after where. Otherwise, use which. We met at Bristol University, where we both studied Biology. We met at Bristol University, which is in the west of England.

Who, which, where and whose cannot be omitted in defining relative clauses.

As non-defining relative clauses are not necessary to understanding the sentence, they are always placed within commas. The man who lives next to me has five motorbikes. In this sentence, who lives to me is necessary. Without it, the sentence (The man has five motorbikes) is meaningless because it is not clear which man is being talked about. Therefore, commas are NOT necessary. Tom, who lives next to me, has five motorbikes. In this sentence, who lives to me is not necessary. Without it, the sentence (Tom has five motorbikes) still has meaning. Who lives next to me adds more information, therefore, commas ARE necessary.

Common Mistakes Some Students do not put the non defining relative clause close to the noun it describes. The chemicals flow into rivers, which are toxic. => The chemicals, which are toxic, flow into rivers.

Past Perfect Continuous

Use: The past perfect continuous is used when telling a story about the past. It is generally used alongside other narrative tenses such as the past simple.

The past perfect continuous describes an event which was in progress for a period of time before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the order they happened. Example: A sentence with the events in the order they happened: John was having trouble sleeping, so he went to the doctor late. A sentence in which the events are NOT in order: John went to the doctor because he had been having trouble sleeping. The continuous event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense. b) Write any adverbs between had and been They had already been waiting for half an hour. Hed only been working there a week before he got fired. Form: I you he / she / it we they had / d hadnt been + verb-ing

will / be going to for prediction

Use:

Use the future perfect continuous to talk about an event that will be in progress for some time before a specified time in the future. Janet will be really tired when we get home. She will have been looking after the children all day!

It can be used to make predictions about event that will be in progress before a specified time in the future.

Joe wont mind that we are late. He wont have been waiting long. It can be used to predict what was happening in the past.

What do you think the men were doing in the store room? Dont worry. They will have been unpacking boxes.

Both the fixed future time and the length of time of are often mentioned in future perfect continuous sentences.

By the end of this week, Ill have been working here for five months. Fixed future time: Length of time: the end of this week five months

But this is not always the case. Anne will be in a bad mood at the party this evening because shell have been doing housework. Form: Positive and Negative

I you

will have wont have been + verb-ing

he / she it we they

Questions

I Will Wont you he / she it we they have been + verb-ing?

Used to / Would
Use:

We say Used to to talk about something that was true in the past, but is not true now. There used to be a park here, but now theres a shopping centre. My grandmother used to have beautiful blonde hair, but now her hair is grey.

You can say used to to talk about states (things that were true for a long period of time) or repeated actions (things that happened several times). I used to live in Denver. (True for a long period of time) I used to go to the park every Friday. (A repeated action) Write adverbs before used to. I always used to cycle to school. I never used to eat vegetables.

You can use Would in a similar way to used to. It describes things that were true in the past but are not true now. When I was a child, my dad would read to me every night.

Would CANNOT be used to talk about states. It can only be used to talk about repeated actions. There would be a park here. => There used to be a park here.

Write adverbs after would. I would always talk to my grandma when I had a problem. Form: used to I / You / He / She / It / They / We didnt use to / never used to would wouldnt verb (infinitive)

Questions Did you / he / she / it / they use to + verb (infinitive)

Would Common Mistakes:

verb (infinitive)

Many students confuse used to do and be used to doing. This is another phrase. It means be familiar with doing something. I am used to live near here. => I used to live near here.

Wish / If only
Use: Wish and If only can be used: a) To wish for an ability now or in the future. I wish I could play the guitar! If only I could dance like that!

I wish I could go to your wedding next week, but I cant. If only I could see my grandmother more often, but I cant. b) To wish that something could be true at the moment. I wish I had long hair! c) To wish that something was happening at the moment. I wish I was lying on the beach right now! If only I was lying on the beach right now! If only I were taller!

d) To wish that something kept happening again and again, or to wish it could stop happening. I wish you wouldnt shout so loudly. If only he wouldnt shout so loudly.

e) To wish that something in the past had happened in a different way. I wish I had studied for my exam! If only I hadnt argues with him!

Form:

To wish for an ability now or in the future. I wish (that) / If only + subject + could + infinitive verb I wish that I could sing.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + could + infinitive verb If only I could come to Australia too!

To wish that something could be true at the moment.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + past simple I wish I had a pony. I wish (that) / If only + subject + past simple I wish I was rich. When using the verb be, you can use were for all persons. I wish I were rich. If only I were rich.

To wish that something was happening at the moment.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + past continuous I wish that this traffic was moving. If only this traffic was/were moving!

To wish that something kept happening again and again, or to wish it could stop happening.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + would + past participle I wish you would tidy up more often. Often: I wish (that) / If only + subject + would stop + verb-ing I wish he would stop shouting. I wish (that) / If only + subject + wouldnt keep + verb-ing I wish you wouldnt keep hitting me.

To wish that something in the past had happened in a different way.

I wish (that) / If only + past perfect I wish I had studied for my exam! If only I hadnt argued with him!