Effect of Solidification Conditions on the Solidification Mode in Austenitic Stainless Steels

N. SUUTALA The effect of the solidification conditions on the solidification mode in the composition range in which the primary austenitic and ferritic modes compete is studied by varying the welding parameters in gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding and by comparing the results with those obtained from other laboratory experiments. A good agreement holds if the effect of the composition is described by the ratio Cr~q/Ni~q (Creq = pet Cr + 1.37 pet Mo + 1.5 x pet Si + 2 x pet Nb + 3 pet Ti and Nieq = pet Ni + 0.31 pet Mn + 22 pet C + 14.2 x pet N + pet Cu) and the effect of the solidification conditions by the growth rate. The critical value of the ratio Cr~q/Nioq corresponding to the transition from primary austenitic to ferritic solidification increases from 1.43 to 1.55 with increasing growth rate. The upper limit is valid in GTA welding at high welding speeds, while the lower limit corresponds to the practical conditions which exist in ingot and shaped casting. The validity and applicability of this solidification model are discussed.

I.

INTRODUCTION

THE composition,

i.e., the balance between austenite and ferrite-forming elements, basically determines how an austenitic stainless steel will solidify. 1-5 Four different solidification modes, austenitic, austenitic-ferritic, ferriticaustenitic, and ferritic, can be recognized as a function of the ratio of the chromium and nickel equivalents. 3'5 The effect of solidification conditions on the solidification mode is less well known, however. Sometimes no changes have been found with the compositions and cooling conditions used, while sometimes they are associated with changes in composition, especially in the nitrogen content. 6 Fredriksson7 uses gradient experiments to suggest that more rapid cooling favors ferrite as the primary phase. Comparison of the results obtained from welds with those from the slowly cooled thermal analysis samples suggests the opposite conclusion, however, that more rapid cooling favors austenite as the first solidifying phase. 8 The cooling rate is nevertheless only of secondary importance. The aim of this work is to evaluate the effects of solidification conditions on the solidification mode in the composition range in which primary austenitic and primary ferritic solidification compete and to discuss those basic parameters which suitably describe these effects. For this purpose the effects of various welding parameters on the solidification mode are studied in autogeneous gas tungsten arc (GTA) welds. The results are compared with those obtained from other laboratory experiments.
II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

autogenous GTA welding on the plate. The materials were the same as used in previous studies on weld metal solidification. 9'1~ The "rewelding" was carded out at the same welding speed (8 cm per minute), but with the welding current halved. This doubled the cooling rate at solidification temperatures from 300 ~ per second to 600 ~ per second, as estimated by simple calculations (see Appendix 1). No marked changes were found in the solidification mode, however, and the changes in the Ferrite Number (FN) were also small: IAFN[ < 2. Secondly, the speed of the autogeneous GTA welding was varied on sheets of thickness from 1.5 mm to 3 mm. Two welding speeds, 10 cm per minute and 30 cm per minute, were used, and the current was selected so that the fullpenetration welds were produced. The welds were sectioned and the solidification mode analyzed metallographically. The results are presented in terms of two different chromium and nickel equivalents in Figure 1. As shown in this figt/re, the equivalents developed by Hammar and Svensson4 give between the composition and solidification mode a better correlation than DeLong's equivalents. There is a narrow transition zone close to the value Cr~q/Nieq = 1.5" where
* ( C r ~ --- pet Cr + 1.37 x pet Mo + 1.5 pet Si + 2 x pet Nb 3 pet Ti J Nioq = + pet Ni + 0.31 x pet Mn + 22 x pet C + 14.2 pet N + pet Cu These equivalents have been planned for the solidification mode. 4 They are used in Figure 1 and throughout this paper, since an excellent correlation is thus maintained between the composition and solidification mode. 4'a Different equivalents are compared in details in another paper of the author.12

A. PreliminaryExperiments
The effects of the welding parameters on the solidification mode were preliminarily outlined in the following way. Firstly, the effect of the welding current was studied in
N. SUUTALA, formerly Research Metallurgist, Laboratory of Physical Metallurgy, University of Oulu, is now Research Engineer, Outokumpu Company, Stainless Steel Division, Tomio, Finland. Manuscript submitted December 2, 1981. METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

the welding parameters will have some effect, the upper and lower boundaries corresponding to the lower and higher welding speeds, respectively. The solidification is always primarily austenitic above this transition zone and primarily ferritic under it. Consequently, this zone corresponds to the location of the peritectic-eutectic valley of Fe-Cr-Ni phase diagram as applied to the welding of real steels under different conditions. In comparison, the demarcation between primary austenitic and ferritic solidification in GTA plate welding at a speed of 8 cm per minute corresponds to a value
VOLUME 14A, FEBRUARY 1983-- 191

ISSN 0360-2133/83/0211-0191500.75/0 9 1983 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS AND THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY OF AIME

20

19

S
?
/
X3-O ~ F A 1

Cr~q/Nioa = 1.52. 8 The dashed line in Figure l(b) is obtained from the work of Hammar and Svensson 4 and represents the boundary between primary austenitic and primary ferritic solidification in thermal analysis experiments at a cooling rate of 20 ~ per minute. It is located somewhat higher than the corresponding boundary in the case of the welds cooled more rapidly.

B. Main Experiments
One series from among the sheets used in the preliminary work was selected for closer examination (see Figure 1). These sheets were of commercial grades of Type AISI 316. Their compositions are presented in Table I. They were chosen to be of constant thickness, 2 mm, in order to achieve maximally similar cooling conditions. The welding parameters are given in Table II. The range of welding speeds was relatively wide, varying from 2.5 cm per minute to 80 cm per minute. The welding current was controlled so that a full-penetration weld was produced in every case. Under these conditions the estimated cooling rate increased with the welding speed from 30 ~ per second to 300 ~ per second (see Appendix 1). The cooling rate in these full-penetration welds was in any case lower than in any previous partial-penetration welds on thick plates. Pure argon was used as the welding, backing, and trailing gas in order to ensure welds of an unchanged composition. The Ferrite Numbers of the pickled welds were measured using a Magne-Gage calibrated according to the procedure AWS A 4.2-74. This term replaces "percent ferrite" and is used widely as the comparable means of specifying the ferrite content.13 The welds were sectioned in different directions and analyzed metallographically. In order to check for any changes in composition, nitrogen content was analyzed for some welds by a method based on combustion in an inert cartier gas and thermal conductivity measurements.

u 17
X 0 +

J
Xl

15 z
II

"~AF4 ,rx~,o
-

oo~..x 2

o~e I/

13

12t-18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Creq = * / , C r + * / , M o + 1.5 x * / , S i + 0.5 x * / , N b

17

fS" f
PRIMARY AUSTENITIC f ii ~

9 9 II

J
+16
Z x

, / /

..f
f AF4- O . z ~ "

L~ x

2x,,,

III.

RESULTS

'~ 13

A. Weld Appearance and Macrostructure

The welds decreased in width from 7 mm to 5 mm with increasing welding speed, but no marked differences were found in the penetration properties of the sheets. The form of the weld pool was clearly affected by the welding speed, a tear drop-shaped puddle being produced at speeds greater than 20 cm per minute, while this was elliptical at lower speeds (see Figure 2). In the case of the tear drop-shaped pools the grain structure was columnar to the center line, or else a discontinuous or continuous equiaxed zone existed at the center line. The critical welding speed at which signs of the formation of an equiaxed zone began to appear, was not unique, but it varied from 20 to 80 cm per minute depending on the sheet concerned. The average local solidification rate R was determined from the equation R = v cos 0, where v = welding speed and 0 = angle between the welding direction and the growth direction of the dendrites. The results concerning center parts of the welds are presented in Figure 2. The points are mean values for determinations performed from

~12 g
11 19
I I I I i

20 21 22 23 24 Cr, q=%Cr + 1 . 3 7 x % M o + 1.5 x % S i + 2 x*/,Nb + 3 x % T i

25

Key to the solidificotion modes: 9 Austenitic-ferritlc ot lOcm/min ond 30cm/min 9 Ferrltic-oustenitic at 10cm/min and 30cm/min O Both modes con oppeor depending on the welding speed

Fig. 1 - - Effect of the composition on the solidification mode in GTA welds on sheets as expressed in terms of DeLong's and Hammar's equivalents. The open symbols show those welds in which the solidification mode depends on the welding parameters. The upper solid line corresponds to the welding speed 10 cm/min, and the one under to the speed 30 cm/min. The dashed line, from the work of Hammar and Svensson, 4 is valid in thermal analysis.

192--VOLUME 14A, FEBRUARY 1983

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

Table I. Code AF1 AF2 AF3 AF4 X1 X2 X3 X4 FA1 FA2 C 0.047 0.028 0.025 0.035 0.025 0.026 0.044 0.028 0.038 0.042 Si 0.36 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.54 0.53 0.41 0.63 0.58 0.50 Mn 1.36 1.68 1.54 1.47 1.73 1.69 1.72 1.65 1.80 1.59 P 0.031 0.035 0.034 0.029 0.037 0.031 0.036 0.034 0.032 0.039

Chemical Compositions of the Sheets (Wt Pct) S 0.003 0.016 0.015 0.001 0.010 0.003 0.010 0.018 0.012 0.020 Cr 17.3 17.3 17.2 16.7 17.4 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.7 16.7 Ni 13.3 12.7 12.9 12.2 12.5 11.9 11.1 11.7 11.1 10.9 Mo 2.61 2.58 2.70 2.50 2.66 2.70 2.63 2.53 2.63 2.63 Cu 0.22 0.16 0.17 0.13 0.26 0.18 0.20 0.15 0.17 0.14 N 0.043 0.061 0.030 0.020 0.023 0.049 0.061 0.051 0.065 0.043 Ti 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 Creq 21.5 21.6 21.6 20.9 21.9 21.4 21.0 21.2 21.4 21.1 Ni~q 15.6 14.9 14.5 13.8 14.2 13.9 13.7 13.7 13.6 13.1 Ratio 1.38 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.55 1.57 1.61

Table II. Filler metal Welding current* Travel speed Pole voltage Arc length Electrode Shielding gases Torch position Polarity Welding position Technique

Welding Conditions

E
2.5 40 5

None 55, 60, 65,100, 150, and 260A 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 cm/min 9 to 15 V 2mm EWTh-2, diameters 1.6 mm (cone angle 60 deg) and 2.4 mm (cone angle 90 deg) 99.99 pct Ar, flow 3 x 8 1/min Vertical, orifice diameter 11 mm and distance from the sheet 10 mm DC, straight Flat Mechanized stringer bead

10

20

40

80 cm/min

E~ L

"5.
o o

20 /
/ / 0 / / 9

/
f

Ot

~ ~0 8
0

I0

20

30 40 50 60 70 Welding speed , cm/rnin

80

g0

10O

*The current depended on the travel speed, and it was adjusted so that

a full-penetration weld was produced in every case.

Fig. 2 - - Effect of the welding speed on the growth rate and the form and relative size of the weld pool. Growth rate was determined close to the center line of the welds.

the welds on sheets numbers AF1, X1, X2, and X3 (20 measurements per weld). The differences among these four sheets were smaller than scatter within each weld.

3. The secondary arms of the dendrites were better developed, and 4. An equiaxed zone existed at the center line in some welds. These differences can be interpreted partially as being due to the lower cooling rate, and partially as pointing to a lower ratio between the thermal gradient and the growth rate at the solid-liquid interface during solidification. These differences have no effect on the evaluation of the solidification mode, however, which can still be based on the location and morphology of the delta ferrite. 9J~ The results are presented in Table III. The effect of the welding

B. Microstructure
The microstructures of these full-penetration sheet welds resemble those in partial-penetration plate welds, but with certain differences: 1. The solidification substructure was coarser, 2. No zone of planar growth was found at the weld interface, Table III.

Solidification Modes at Different Welding Speeds

AF = Austenitic-ferritic (fraction > 3/4) FA = Ferritic-austenitic (fraction > V4) AF + FA = Both modes Welding Speed, cm/min Code AF1 AF2 AF3 AF4 X1 X2 X3 X4 FAt FA2 Creq/Nieq 1.38 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.55 1.57 1.61 2.5 AF AF AF AF AF+FA FA FA FA FA FA 5 AF AF AF AF AF+FA FA FA FA FA FA 10 AF AF AF AF AF+FA A F + FA AF+FA FA FA FA 20 AF AF AF AF I AF AF+FA AF+FA FA FA FA 40 AF AF AF AF AF I AF AF + FA FA FA FA 80 AF AF AF AF AF AF ] AF I AF + FA FA FA

[ I

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

VOLUME 14A, FEBRUARY 1983-- 193

speed is quite small, but essential: an increase in the speed favors austenite as the leading phase. In the welds in which both austenitic-ferritic and ferritic-austenitic solidification modes were found, these modes were existing in individual grains (Figure 3). The Ferrite Numbers* of the welds varied from 1 to 6, the *The small size of the specimens in this study may result in systematically low FN values, for the thickness of the sample must be about 6 mm or more to obtain true readings using the Magne-Gage(the readings deviate only slightly down to a thickness of about 3 mm).is The measured values presented in Table IV are nevertheless comparable one with another.

values from 3 to 5 corresponding to the change in the solidification mode (Table IV). The effect of the welding parameters on the FN was quite small. The FN decreased about 1 to 2 units as the welding speed was increased from 2.5 cm per minute to 80 cm per minute. All the measured values were of the same order, as estimated from the DeLong diagram, the accuracy of which is 3 FN.14 The nitrogen analyses carried out on some welds indicated that there are no marked changes in nitrogen content (Table V). The changes observed in the solidification mode and FN are thus not due to changes in nitrogen content but to the solidification conditions.

IV.

DISCUSSION

A. Basic Solidification Parameters

The growth rate R and thermal gradient G are of great significance in the theory of solidification, as the ratio G / R affects the growth morphology and the product GR (cooling rate) determines the spacing of the dendrite secondary arms. 16 The values of G and R are to a great extent dependent on the casting and welding process. Some typical values applying to the solidification of steel in different casting and welding operations are given in Table VI, which suggests that G and R can be several orders of magnitude greater in welds than in ingots. Additionally, no nucleation event is necessary in welds, and the motion of molten metal is typically much greater. 2~ The values of G and R also depend on the casting and welding technique used (superheat, mold material, distance from mold wall, etc. ). In welding, for instance, an increase in the welding current at a constant welding speed

Table IV. Ferrite Numbers at Different Welding Speeds. FNo Is the Calculated Value Based on the Heat Analysis and Obtained from DeLong Diagram. Welding Speed, cm/min Code AF1 AF2 AF3 AF4 X1 X2 X3 X4 FA1 FA2 Cr~q/Ni~qFNo 2.5 1.38 0 1.3 1.45 0.5 1.8 1.49 2.5 2.4 1.51 2.0 3.1 1.54 4.5 4.5 5.6 1.54 2.5 4.6 1.54 1.0 1.55 3.0 4.7 1.57 2.0 5.3 1.61 3.5 5.7 5 10 20 40 80 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.3 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.8 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 2.8 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 4.1 4.4 ]_.3.._8 3.7 3.6 5.1 I 4.6 4.3 I 2.9 3.0 4.0 I 3.4 3.3 3.4 ~3.1 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.9 ] "4.~Z 4.3 4.8 4.8 4.3 4.0 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 4.7

Table V. Results of the Nitrogen Analysis of Some Welds (Wt Pct). No Is the Heat Analysis of the Sheet. Welding Speed, cm/min Fig. 3--Micrographs showing both austenitic-ferritic (AF) and ferriticaustenitic solidification (FA) in sheet No. X3 at the welding speed 20 cm/min. Dendritic and interdendritic ferrite are labeled by the 8o and 6~D,respectively. Electrolyticetching in the solution H20 + 60 pct HNO3 (T = 20~ = 1.1V). 194--VOLUME14A,FEBRUARY1983 Code X1 X2 X3 No 0.023 0.049 0.061 5 0.028 0.047 0.053 20 0.028 0.055 0.065 80 0.025 0.050 0.065

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

Table VI. Typical Values for Growth Rate R, Thermal Gradient G, and Cooling Rate GR in Various Casting aTas and Welding 19 Processes with Steels
R G

9
135

OarectionakweLdssolidification

GR

Definition of the Process i tonne, surface Ingot casting tonne, center tonne, surface tonne, center Continuous [Slab, surface casting ~Slab, center Welding Full-penetration GTA weld

cm/min ~ 2.2 0.2 1.0 0.1 6 1 6 70 10 150 4 330 40 700

~ 150 2 150 0.4 2000 40 4000

9
1./.0 1./.5
150

&O
9

~AO00
9 9 9 9

9 A USTENITIC
9

her:mat analysis

"

P RIHARY

3 {_) 155

~-lt--~ 9149
PRIMARY FERRITIC A
A

4,0

O/ 9149

9 9
o
O

o
A ~A O

o o o o
O O O0 A

1.60 1.65 1.70

A
A

Ingot casting 0,1

Continuous cast,no
. . . . . . . . I

WeLding ~0 .... , A,1~00

1.75

, , ,,,,,I

results in a shallower thermal gradient, while an increase in the welding speed increases the macroscopic growth rate (see Figure 2). In practice, the effect of the solidification conditions is often described using the cooling rate GR. The results of this study nevertheless suggest that this does not uniquely describe their effect on the solidification mode in austenitic stainless steels. This statement becomes more understandable when one remembers that growth undercooling, dendrite tip composition, and primary arm spacing are not uniquely determined by the cooling rate, but depend on the growth rate and thermal gradient in a more complex manner, z~-24
B. Solidification Mode

l Growth rote R, cm/min

Fig. 4--Effect of growthrate on the solidificationmodeunderconditions of the dendritic growth. Data have been obtained from unidirectional solidification 2'7'25-3~and thermal analysisexperiments 3'4'29and from the welds of this study. Simultaneousgrowth is found in the shadedfield of thermal analysis.

The results of the preliminary and main experiments of this study indicate that the welding speed ratl)er than the welding current or arc power will serve as a good parameter to describe the effect of the welding parameters on the solidification mode (see Figure 1 and Table III). The effect of the welding speed is similar in all welds labeled by open symbols in Figure 1: an increase in the welding speed favors austenite as the first solidifying phase. This can be interpreted as implying that the growth rate is dominant and the effect of the thermal gradient insignificant under the solidification conditions prevailing in a GTA weld. More generally, the solidification conditions have only a minor effect on the solidification mode in austenitic stainless steels. This statement is confirmed by the results obtained from experiments on unidirectional solidification2'7'2s-3~ when rearranged on a Croq/Nioq-R plot (Figure 4). This figure shows that high growth rates favor austenitic solidification, while the Cr~q/Ni~q value corresponding to the transition from primary austenitic to primary ferritic solidification in GTA welding agrees almost exactly with that obtained by extrapolating the results of unidirectional solidification experiments to higher growth values. The shaded field in Figure 4 represents the location of this same borderline, based on the thermal analysis experiments with the assumption that the growth rate is about from 0.1 to 1 cm per minute at cooling rates of 6 to 200 ~ per minute) '4'27'29 This boundary has a somewhat higher location than in unidirectional solidification. This may be due to lower thermal gradient or to nucleation effects in the thermal analysis experiments, where nucleation takes place heterogeneously on the mold wall, and the undercooling
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

needed for nucleation may play a separate role. If nucleation is easier for ferrite than for austenite, as proposed by Jacobi and Pitsch3~in the case of low-alloyed steels, the difference observed in Figure 4 could be explained by such nucleation effects. This explanation is in agreement with experience obtained from the inocculation of austenitic stainless steel ingots, which is easier in primary ferritic than primary austenitic solidification,n'33 When explaining these slight differences in the location of the borderline, however, one must bear in mind that these may be partially due to the slight systematic differences in the composition determinations carded out at the different laboratories. In this study, the accuracy in the values of chromium and nickel equivalents are of the order 341ACr~l < 0.3 and IA Nieq I ~ 0.2 which is almost as large as the width of the transition zone in Figure l(b) and the width of the shaded field in Figure 4. In any case, the difference between the thermal analysis experiments and welds is real (see Figure l(b) and Figure 4). Why the solidification conditions have only a minor effect on the solidification mode in dendritic growth, as it is the case under conditions referred to in Figure 4? This can be argued qualitatively in the following way based on the modem theories of dendritic growth. 21"23'24Both of the possible primary phases, austenite and ferrite, are metallic phases and have quite similar properties. Consequently, the terms determining the growth undercooling are of the same order for both, and generally, the growth undercooling is low. Instead, the growth undercooling in planar and cellular growth is significantly larger, 23'24 and the effect of solidification conditions may be more pronounced. According to Fredriksson7 the rapid cooling favors ferrite as the first solidifying phase. This apparent discrepancy compared with the results of this study may be due to the fact that Fredriksson used very low growth rates at a high thermal gradient in some of his experiments which means nondendritic form of growth (R < 0.05 cm per minute, G = 100 ~ per cm, and thus G / R >- 2000 ~ min
VOLUME 14A, FEBRUARY 1983 - - 195

per cm2). Under these conditions he found primary austenitic solidification at the ratios C r e q / N i e q = 1.55 to 1.62. A corresponding phenomenon can also be found in welds, i.e., the zone of planar or cellular growth often existing at the weld interface can solidify primarily as austenite at values as high as Cr~q/Nieq = 1.59, whereas the main parts of the same weld will solidify primarily as ferrite. 3s

experiments, and values of be expected.

Creq/Nieq =

1.43 to 1.50 are to

V.

SUMMARY

C. Ferrite Number
The delta ferrite is an instable phase at RT, its volume fraction being dependent both on its maximum volume fraction during solidification and on the rate of the transformation from ferrite to austenite. This transformation is controlled by diffusion, even at the high cooling rates typical of arc welding, as described in detail elsewhere. 1L36-38 The rate of the transformation is thus dependent on both the diffusion distance and time. The results of this study, Table IV, suggest that the FN decreases with increasing cooling rate (welding speed). The effect of the cooling rate is slight, however. This agrees with DeLong's statement ~4 on the minor effect of heat input on the FN, and with the results of Hoffmeister and Mundt, 39 according to which the ferrite content decreases slightly with increasing cooling rate in ferritic-austenitic solidification. The minor effect of the cooling rate can be explained by its opposing effects on the diffusion time and diffusion distance (i.e., dendrite arm spacing), which are partially self-compensating.

The effects of composition and solidification conditions on the solidification mode in austenitic stainless steels are studied under conditions prevailing in GTA welding. The results are compared with those obtained from various laboratory experiments and a solidification model is developed. The solidification mode depends essentially on the composition of the steel, the effect of which can be described using the ratio of the chromium and nickel equivalents. The effect of the solidification conditions can be expressed in terms of the rate of steady-state dendritic growth. An increase in this growth rate will favor austenite as the primary phase in the composition range in which the austenite and ferrite dendrites are competing. Nucleation in some solidification processes and the thermal gradient in nondendritic growth may have additional effects of their own. The overall effect of the solidification conditions is nevertheless of secondary importance. APPENDIX 1 The cooling rate at the center line of the weld can be estimated from a simple analytical solution in the case of three-dimensional (3-D) and two dimensional (2-D) heat flow as follows: 44

D. Practical Importance
Information on the solidification mode is of considerable value, since the susceptibility to solidification cracking, 4~ the hot workability, 4'a2 and the formation of nonmetallic inclusions, 43 for example, are all dependent to a greater or lesser extent on whether the steel solidifies primarily as austenite or ferrite. The present results confirm the role of the composition as the most important factor in predicting and controlling the solidification mode. The effect of the solidification conditions is of secondary importance and can be reduced to that of the growth rate if the solidification is dendritic, as in most practical situations. As far as the values for the ratio Creq/Nieq corresponding to the transition from primary austenitic to ferritic solidification are concerned, the following generalizations are justified (see Figure l, Figure 4, and Table IV). Welding: In arc welding (GTA, GMA, and SMA) the values are Creq/Nieq = 1.50 to 1.55 depending on the welding speed, but independent of the welding method. The welding technique (method, parameters, shielding, etc. ) may have some effect on the solidification mode, however, since it affects the composition of the weld metal through dilution and nitrogen pick-up, for instance. Continuous casting: The growth rate and thermal gradient are lower than in welding, and values around Creq/Nieq = 1.5 are to be expected. Nucleation at the beginning of solidification and macrosegregation at the end may have some effect. Ingot and shaped casting: The growth rate and thermal gradient are much lower than in welding. Solidification with the nucleation effect is analogous to that in thermal analysis
196--VOLUME 14A, FEBRUARY 1983

dT dt dt
where A = a -19 = c = E = I = U = v = r/ = T = To = d =

= 27rA

(T - To)2 E
(T - To)3

[3-D]

[2-DI

thermal conductivity thermal diffusivity = A/pc density specific heat heat input = rlIU/v welding current arc voltage welding speed thermal efficiency of the arc temperature examined initial temperature of the sheet or plate thickness of the sheet

In austenitic stainless steels A = 0.17 W / c m ~ per second and a = 0.036 cm 2 per second. Consequently, the cooling rates at solidification temperatures (T = 1425 ~ under the conditions referred to here can be estimated. Equation [3-D] gives the value 300 ~ per second at I = 190A and the value 600 ~ per second at I = 100A in plate welding (partial penetration) when ~ = 0.5 and v = 8 cm per minute. In the case of full-penetration sheet welds the cooling rate increases with increasing welding speed being 30 ~ per second at I = 50A, v = 2.5 cm per minute, ~7 = 0.4 and 300 ~ per second at I = 250A, v = 80 cm per minute, r / = 0.6, as calculated from Eq. [2-D].
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Financial support from the Foundation of Outokumpu Oy, the Foundation for the Advancement of Technology, and the Academy of Finland is gratefully acknowledged. The author wishes to thank Mr. M. Hicks, M.A., for revising the English text. REFERENCES
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