Refrigeration

INTRODUCTION
"Refrigeration is the Science of the Production of 'Coldness'" Refrigeration is a cooling process used to remove heat energy from a substance by the evaporation principle, to produce a temperature below that of its surroundings. Simple examples of refrigeration are:

1. In desert locations, the Nomads throw water over their tents. As the water evaporates, the heat required for the evaporation process is removed from the interior of the tent thereby causing cooling. 2. If you dip your finger in alcohol, and then blow gently on it, your finger feels colder - again this is due to the evaporation process which removes heat from the finger. In order to produce the cooling effect required, a substance called a 'REFRIGERANT' is used. The desirable properties of a refrigerant are listed below:

A Low Boiling Point - below the temperature it is expected to maintain. A Low Freezing Point - below the minimum temperature the system can reach - to prevent solidification of the refrigerant. A High Latent Heat - Will require more latent heat of vaporization which will remove more sensible heat from the substance or space being cooled. A High Critical Temperature -Can be easily condensed. A Low Critical Pressure -Will condense at relatively low pressure, thereby needing low energy to produce the condensation pressure. Non-Corrosive, Non-Toxic, Non-Flammable.

However, some refrigerants used in industry do not meet all of these conditions. For example:

Ammonia (BP -28 F) is a good refrigerant, but it is toxic and, in the presence of water, it is corrosive. Propane (BP -44F), is also a good refrigerant but, it is highly flammable.

Generally, refrigerants used in cooling systems are:

Arcton and Freon - trade names for a group of refrigerants called 'ChloroFluoro- Carbons' (CFC's), are used in some industries and particularly in domestic fridges, and meet the requirements listed above. CO2 - (BP = -108 F), can also be used as a refrigerant.

However, attempts to decrease the amount of 'Chlorofluorocarbons' (CFC's) are being made, in an effort to prevent the deterioration of the Ozone layer around the earth with helps to protect us from high levels of Ultra-violet light from the sun. Modern refrigerants are being developed which are not based on CFC's. The purpose of a refrigeration system is to maintain a material or an inside environment (fridge, freezer, office, home, car, etc) at a desired temperature below that of the atmosphere. To accomplish this, the refrigeration substance, (refrigerant), must continuously remove the heat from the material or the space being cooled. The removed heat will then be dissipated into the atmosphere OUTSIDE of the space being cooled. When your fridge or freezer at home is running, you will note that there is quite a lot of heat coming from the back of the unit. This heat is due to the compression of the refrigerant gas PLUS the heat removed from the food in the fridge / freezer. Due to this heat, the room in which the fridge / freezer is kept, will be at a higher temperature than the rest of the building interior, (unless the building is air conditioned, which includes the room containing the fridge - usually the kitchen).

REFRIGERATION PRINCIPLES
As stated earlier, water thrown over a tent in the hot desert sun will cause cooling. Evaporation of a liquid needs heat energy. The latent heat required for the evaporation to take place is produced by the sensible heat from the tent interior which, in turn causes cooling of the tent. If you dip your fingers in a volatile liquid like gasoline or alcohol and then allowed the liquid to evaporate, you can feel a cooling effect. The same thing will happen with water but, will not be as noticeable, as the evaporation process is slower. The cooling effect, again, comes from the heat being removed from your fingers to evaporate the liquid. Large, modern refrigeration units use the evaporation principle to produce the low temperatures necessary to do the job required. The process consists of a cycle of compression, cooling and condensation, then the expansion of the liquid, evaporation and re -compression of the vapour.

THE VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The principles used in a vapour compression refrigeration system are: A. Compression of a gas causes its temperature to increase. When the gas is cooled and sensible and latent heat removed, the temperature decreases and the gas condenses to liquid which is also the boiling point of the liquid. (The compression also increases the temperature at which the liquid boils). The liquid is then further cooled to around atmospheric temperature. B. When the liquid is expanded (volume increased) into a lower pressure system, it will boil and cause the liquid temperature to decrease rapidly as it gives up sensible heat to provide the latent heat of partial vaporization of the liquid. The cold liquid and vapour, (the latent heat does not increase the vapour temperature), now pass through the coils inside the ' Co ld Box ' (or Evaporator) of the system. Exchange of heat between the refrigerant and the material or space being cooled, adds more heat to the refrigerant liquid which continues to evaporate. The refrigerant, on leaving the cooling system is now all cool vapour and passes to the suction of the compressor to begin the cycle again. The sequence of the refrigeration cycle is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Compression of the refrigerant gas. Cooling and condensation of the refrigerant to liquid. Expansion and partial evaporation of the liquid into a lower pressure which causes cooling. Continued evaporation of the liquid in the 'cold box' - further heating by removal of sensible heat from the item being cooled, to provide the latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant. 5. Re-compression of the vapour to begin the cycle again.

Figure: 7, shows a simple block diagram of the refrigeration thermo -dynamic cycle.

Figure: 7 The type of compressor used in refrigeration systems may be reciprocating or centrifugal in operation. Large industrial units may have multi-stage compression systems with inter-stage cooling, in order to achieve the required refrigerant pressure without excessive temperature increases. The cooling / condensing unit of a system can consist of cooling by natural convection - as in a household fridge, or by forced air cooling - i.e. a fan or fans to force the air over the cooling coils (similar to a car radiator), or by water cooled heat exchange equipment. (Shown in Figure: 8). Control of a refrigeration unit can be by a thermostatic system which will start and stop the compressor - (a bi-metal strip switch or mercury switch), or, in large units, by control of the expansion valve. When the unit shuts down, the expansion valve will also close by activation of a solenoid valve. Following are some typical uses of refrigeration in industry and everyday life.

To Reduce the Rate of Chemical Reactions - and Storage of Food and Other Perishable Goods

To Store Flammable Materials To Condense the Vapour of Low Boiling Point Liquids For Air Conditioning For Freeze Drying of Materials For Separation and Recovery of Process Fluids To Produce Cryogenic Temperatures

Figure: 8

CHEMICAL REACTION RATE

Some chemical reactions take place so rapidly that large releases of energy occur - such as heat, fire and explosion. In these cases, the danger can be eliminated if the reactants are cooled before and during the reaction to a much lower temperature, the reaction rate decreases and proceeds more slowly. An example of this is the mixing of strong acids with strong alkalis; the heat produced may cause violent boiling and vaporization of the liquids giving rise to safety hazard s. Cooling of the reactants will slow down the rate of reaction to a safer level. Another good example of the need for cooling is the storage of food. A piece of meat at about 20 C will begin to decompose in a day or two - decomposition is a chemical reaction. By keeping the meat

in a refrigerator, it will stay quite fresh for up to a week and, if stored in a freezer at about -25C, it will keep for 6 months or more. The decomposition reaction is slowed down considerably. A further example is the storage of drugs under refrigeration in order to protect them from deterioration. Figure: 9, Shows a typical household refrigerator. The thermostat simply starts and stops the compressor driver.

STORAGE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS

Some liquids are said to be 'Flammable' - i.e. will burn. However, it is not the liquid that burns but its vapour. The ease with which a vapour from a liquid will catch fire, is known as the ' Flash Point ' of the liquid. The flash point is defined as 'The Lowest Temperature at which a Mat erial gives off a vapour that will ignite when exposed to a flame'. Some liquids having a very low flash point - i.e. BELOW the normal ambient temperature, and are likely to explode if exposed to a spark - electrically or mechanically produced. In this case, the liquids may have to be stored under refrigeration to keep them safely below their flash point temperature. Also, low BP liquids can 'Auto-ignite' if increased to the temperature at which this will occur - such as leakage on to a steam line or other hot surface. HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATOR

CONDENSATION OF THE VAPOUR OF LOW BP LIQUIDS

Normal Butane has a boiling point temperature of - 0.5 C (31 F), therefore, at normal atmospheric temperatures, butane is a gas. Butane gas can be liquefied by compression and cooling to ambient or higher temperature or, it can be condensed by refrigeration - cooling to below its boiling point. When the pressure of butane gas is raised to about 75 psi, (around 5 bar), it will condense at about 42 C (108 F). A further reason for condensing butane gas is that its volume as a liquid is about 1,000 times less than as a gas. The storage space needed is therefore also reduced. Cylinders of butane liquid are used for cooking and heating and other purposes, both domestically and in industry. However, in cold winter conditions, the ambient temperature will possibly be too low for the but ane liquid to boil and give off its flammable vapour. In these cases, Propane liquid is used which boils at 42 C (- 44 F) which will give off vapour in very cold conditions. Lighter gases, like Ethane and Methane can also be liquefied, (Liquid Natura l Gas - LNG), but, in these cases, the condensation will not take place at ambient temperature, no matter what pressure is applied to them. However, they will condense if cooled to a specific temperature - called the 'Critical Temperature' of the gas concerned. Critical Temperature: is defined as : 'The temperature ABOVE which a gas WILL NOT liquefy, irrespective of the pressure applied'. Even at the critical temperature, very high pressure may be needed to condense the gas. Associated with critical temperature, is 'Critical Pressure', which is defined as : 'The pressure required to condense a gas AT ITS CRITICAL TEMPERATURE'. Table - 1, below, gives typical Critical Temperatures and Pressures of some gases.
GAS CRITICAL TEMPERATURE CRITICAL PRESSURE

1. Nitrogen - 147 C (- 232 F) 2. Oxygen - 118 C (- 180 F) 3. Methane - 83 C (- 117 F) 4. Ethane 32 C ( 90 F )

3.40 MPa (500 psi) 5.00 MPa (730 psi) 4.60 MPa (670 psi) 4.90 MPa (700 psi) 4.25 MPa (620 psi)

5. Propane 96 C ( 208 F ) TABLE - 1

In order to condense gases 1, 2 & 3, (in Table 1), they must be cooled to very low temperature in addition to being at high pressure.

The process of compression and cooling to below critical temperature is known as the ' Liquefaction of Gases ' and is used to produce liquefied air from which liquid oxygen and nitrogen can be extracted by distillation. It is also used to produce Liquid Natural Gas (LNG). After a gas has been condensed at high pressure, the liquid can be stored at just above atmospheric pressure - but, in this case, the storage vessel must be specially constructed and insulated. Some 'boil-off' of vapour will take place and the gas from the boil off may be utilised as fuel or simply vented to a flare system. The construction and insulation method will govern the amount of vapour boil-off which will occur due to some heat energy finding its way into the liquid. This boil off (evaporation), will remove heat from the liquid and therefore maintain the liquid temperature at its boiling point, at the storage pressure involved, which is controlled. An example of boil-off gases being utilised, is in the shipping of LNG. The boil-off gas is used as fuel to the ship's turbines driving the propellers. Table - 2, below, shows the effects of pressure on the boiling point of some liquids.
Substance BP @ 0 Psig BP @ 50 Psig BP @ 100 Psig

Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Water TABLE - 2

- 259 F - 124 F - 44 F 31 F 97 F 156 F 212 F

- 218 F - 68 F 28 F 115 F 192 F 258 F 300 F

- 200 F - 38 F 66 F 156 F 237 F 307 F 338 F

4. AIR CONDITIONING (See Figure : 10)

In hot climates and in summer time, we often feel uncomfortable due to the heat and humidity of the atmosphere. Many modern work places, homes and vehicles, now have Air Conditioning (A/C) Units installed. These operate by having an 'Air Mover' (Fan) circulating air through a chamber which contains refrigerated cooling coils. The actual refrigeration system is installed OUTSIDE the building or space being cooled. The refrigeration coils are set into the cooling chamber, also outside or in a separate room, through which air from the INSIDE of the space is being drawn by the fan (air mover).

The cooling coils are carrying a refrigerant, that has been expanded across an expansion valve and is being re-vaporised by removing heat from the circulating air passing over the coils and, after cooling by the refrigerant, the air is discharged back into the building. As the cooled air exchanges heat with the contents of the space, the space and contents cool down, the warmer air then returns to the fan to repeat the cycle. At the same time, the air gives up much of its moisture (humidity) by condensation on the cooling coils. The condensed water is collected in a drip-tray and disposed of. The amount of work done by the system depends on the insulation of the building or space being cooled. Poor insulation may result in the fridge unit not being able to handle the amount of heat to be removed. Working, living and driving conditions are thereby made much more comfortable. In summary, the process is as follows: THE HEAT REMOVED FROM THE SPACE AND ITS CONTENTS, IS ABSORBED BY THE EVAPORATION PROCESS OF THE REFRIGERANT LIQUID AS IT PASSES THROUGH THE COILS IN THE HEAT EXCHANGE CHAMBER. THIS HEAT, TOGETHER WITH THE SUBSEQUENT HEAT OF COMPRESSION, PASSES INTO THE ATMOSPHERE (OR CONDENSER COOLANT), BY WAY OF THE OUTSIDE REFRIGERANT CONDENSER.

AIR CONDITIONING UNIT

Figure: 10 Refrigeration control systems vary depending upon the requirements. A house -hold fridge or freezer has a simple, bi-metallic strip type thermostat which starts and stops the compressor motor according to the temperature setting. If continuous operation is needed, it will be controlled by the automatic, thermostatic operation of the expansion valve. (See Figure: 11)

REFRIGERATOR COLD BOX

Figure: 11 In an A/C system, the air circulation fan will be connected by electrical relays into the cooling system controls in that, as the fridge unit reaches its set temperature and switches off, the fan also stops. A selector switch in the control system may, however, be set to keep the fan running when the fridge unit shuts down, This would be used to maintain air circulation through the building. In winter time when the cooling system is not needed, the contro l system can be adapted by the addition of a heating element system which, if temperature drops too much, the heaters will come on to maintain a comfortable environment. (See Figure : 12) Heating can also be achieved by operating the fridge unit as a ' Heat Pump'. This is done by an automatic valving system which by-passes the refrigerant cooler / condenser and

the expansion valve thus using the heat of compression to heat the coils in the exchanger chamber, thereby heating the circulating air. In this system, when the temperature rises to the set point of the thermostat, the compressor will shut down and also, if set to do so, the fan will stop. As the air is circulating, a proportion of the discharge air from the fan, (HP), before cooling (or heating), is allowed to escape to atmosphere and an equal amount of fresh (LP) air allowed to enter the system at the fan inlet. In this way, the air is being refreshed over a period of time. (The opening and closing of doors as people enter and leave the building, will also help to renew the air). However, too much fresh air being allowed to enter, will decrease and even destroy the cooling or heating effect of the system causing it to run continuously.

Figure: 12 In the above example, the fan, heating and cooling are set to 'AUTO'. The heating is set at 65 F the heating will control at this temp. Should the temp. rise to 70 F, the cooling will switch on and, in each case the fan will operate automatically.

5. FREEZE DRYING
The usual way of drying (dehydrating) substances or objects, is to use a desiccant solid or liquid to adsorb or absorb water, or to drive out the moisture by addition of heat - i.e. by evaporation. Some substances cannot be dried by heating as they may be sensitive to heat or they cannot be contacted with a desiccant in case of contamination. In these cases, a system called 'Freeze Drying' is used to remove the moisture. The process consists of freezing the material to be dried, to between - 20 C and - 25 C. It is then placed inside a chamber where the temperature is allowed to rise slowly. The slow temperature increase causes 'Sublimation' of the ice particles to take place. This is a process wherein the solid ice changes to water vapour directly with no liquid phase. Dry air or inert gas passed through the chamber, carries away the water vapour leaving a freeze dried product.

6. SEPARATION AND RECOVERY OF PROCESS FLUIDS

In some processes, refrigeration is needed to separate a mixture of components for use as refrigerants or in other processes. In addition, the cooling also recovers other process liquids from the mixture. An example of this is used in a Gas Plant where PROPANE is extracted from the Natural gas feed by fractionation of gas condensate produced when the gas is cooled, first in a gas/gas exchanger and then in the inlet gas chiller and finally in the fractionation overhead gas chiller. The propane is used as a refrigerant to cool the inlet gas stream and cond ense the water vapour. Glycol is injected into the gas stream solely to prevent freezing of the water when the gas is cooled. The gas, condensate and water/glycol mixture are then separated. The gas and condensate pass on to the other processes (from which the propane is produced for the refrigeration process). The water / glycol mixture goes to the glycol regeneration process. See Figure : 13

PROPANE REFRIGERATION PROCESS

Figure: 13

CRYOGENICS
This section is purely for interest in the process of 'SUPER REFRIGERATION' as applied to one method of producing Liquid Natural Gas. 'CRYOGENICS' is 'THE SCIENCE OF THE SUPER-COLD' i.e. Temperatures COLDER than -150 F. Cryogenic temperatures can only be achieved by using special methods as in the production of Liquid Air (which can then be separated to produce Liquid Nitrogen, Oxygen and other (rare) liquefied gases. Cryogenic operations are used to produce Liquid Natural Gas (LNG), by a number of methods.

L.N.G PRODUCTION - INTRODUCTION

Following is a very simplified explanation of one process of LNG productio n by cryogenics, as used in some operations. (This is an example of a MULTI-REFRIGERANT SYSTEM (MCR). Liquid Natural Gas is a mixture of, mainly, Methane and Ethane which is liquefied at a temperature of -262 F (-163 C). This is achieved by compressing the natural gas to a high level (depending on operational requirements). The gas is first processed to remove Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S), Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O), to desirable levels by absorption, adsorption and separation processes. (These contaminants are undesirable as they will freeze in the very low temperature cooling processes). H2S is also a toxic, corrosive, acid (sour) gas; CO 2 is also acidic (sour) and corrosive in the presence of water). (Other available booklets give detailed accounts of some dehydration and purification methods used). The HP gas is first cooled to about ambient temperature and, at high pressure, much of the water vapour in the gas will be condensed and drop out in a separator vessel together with most of the condensed heavier hydrocarbon mixture of Propane and Butane and heavier components. The water is drained away to a disposal pit and, the hydrocarbon liquids go to dehydration units and then passed on to a Fractionation Unit for separation of the comp onents. These components are then used to produce a Multi-component refrigerant (MCR) with excess going to LPG production and/or fuel. After the separation of the above liquids, the Natural Gas Feed is then passed through dehydration units and on to a series of cooling coils in a cryogenic exchanger. Cooling is carried out in stages by the 'Multi-component Refrigerant' (MCR), which consists of a mixture of: -Nitrogen (N2), Methane (CH4 or C1), Ethane (C2H6 or C2), Propane (C3H8 or C3) and Butane (C4H10 or C4),. The Nitrogen is added in order to achieve a final component liquid mixture of N2 and C1 with a Boiling Point (BP) BELOW the temperature required to condense the natural gas at -262 F (-163 C). The nitrogen will bring the MCR final BP down to about - 275 F (- 170 C). This provides the necessary differential temperature (.T) to fully condense the feed gas in the final stages of cooling. The different, progressively colder boiling points of the components, enables the refrigeration, as mentioned, to take place in stages across the cryogenic exchanger. Butane being the highest BP at 31F, begins the cooling process of the feed gas AND the other components of the refrigerant. Passing upwards through the cryogenic exchanger, as each refrigerant component condenses, it is collected in a vessel and separated from the lighter component vapours. The liquid is then passed

through a sub-cooling coil then an expansion valve into a refrigerant drum and the resultant colder liquid is sprayed over tube bundles carrying the refrigerant mixture - both vapour and liquid phases. The sprays also cool the tube bundles carrying the natural gas feed. This process is repeated for each component of the refrigerant. At the top of the cryogenic exchanger, the nitrogen/methane mixture condenses and is expanded to produce a liquid refrigerant at about -275 F. (Methane itself condenses at about -259 F and therefore cannot condense the feed gas without help from the nitrogen. The process not only involves cooling but al so the removal of Latent Heat). The refrigerant at -275 F will have enough 'cold' to give the necessary heat exchange to bring the final cooling and condensation stage of the feed gas down to -262 F, at which temperature it will liquefy and can then be stored in special, insulated tanks. Between the last two cooling stages, the pressure of the feed gas is decreased. This is to begin the pressure drop prior to going to the LNG storage tanks at - 262 F and 0.5 Psi - just above atmospheric pressure. The process of heat exchange between the refrigerant liquid, vapour and feed gas coils, results in a cool, mixed MCR vapour which passes out of the cryogenic exchanger bottom and returns to the MCR compressors to begin the cycle again. The MCR is compressed in two stages by two multi-stage compressors and has inter and after coolers using sea water as cooling medium to give a final discharge at around 100 F, at which temperature the butane and some of the propane will condense to begin the cooling process described above. Lighter gases, like Nitrogen, Methane and Ethane can be liquefied but, in these cases, the condensation will not take place at ambient temperature, no matter what pressure is applied to them. However, they will condense if cooled to a specific temperature - called the 'Critical Temperature' of the gas concerned. Critical Temperature: is defined as: 'The temperature ABOVE which a gas WILL NOT liquefy, irrespective of the pressure applied'. Even at the critical temperature, very high pressure may be needed to condense the gas. Associated with critical temperature, is 'Critical Pressure', which is defined as: 'The pressure required to condense a gas AT ITS CRITICAL TEMPERATURE'.

Table - 3 below, gives typical Critical Temperatures and Pressures of some gases.
GAS CRITICAL TEMPERATURE CRITICAL PRESSURE

1. Nitrogen - 147 C (- 232 F) 2. Oxygen - 118 C (- 180 F) 3. Methane - 83 C (- 117 F) 4. Ethane 32 C ( 90 F )

3.40 MPa (500 psi) 5.00 MPa (730 psi) 4.60 MPa (670 psi) 4.90 MPa (700 psi) 4.25 MPa (620 psi)

5. Propane 96 C ( 208 F )

However, once a gas has been condensed, the pressure may be decreased resulting in a decrease in temperature (a refrigeration principle). The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling point temperature of the liquid. Table 4 as follows, shows these effects: Table 4
Substance BP @ 0 Psig BP @ 50 Psig BP @ 100 Psig

Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Water

- 259 F - 124 F - 44 F 31 F 97 F 156 F 212 F

- 218 F - 68 F 28 F 115 F 192 F 258 F 300 F

- 200 F - 38 F 66 F 156 F 237 F 307 F 338 F

Temperature Figures will be in degrees Fahrenheit (F) should C be required, use the following simple conversion formula:

All future pressure Figures will be in Pounds/Square Inch Gauge (psig). If 'Pascals' are required, use the following conversion calculation: Pounds/Square Inch (psi) x 6894.757 = Pascal (Pa)

e.g. 1. Atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) x 6894.757 = 101,352.9279 Pa = 101.3 kPa e.g. 2. 620 psig x 6894.757 = 4,274,749.3 Pa This can be expressed in Mega-Pascal as: -4.27 MPa Where pressure is indicated as 'psig' (gauge pressure), it denotes pressure that disregards atmospheric pressure. For Absolute Figures (psia) we have to add 14.7 to the gauge reading to convert to psia. e.g. Atmospheric pressure is Zero psig. To change to psia we add 14.7. i.e. 0 psig + 14.7 = 14.7 psia etc.

LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG)

Where large Oil Companies have a number of producing fields, some formations produce Crude oil and Natural gas. This gas is called 'Associated Gas' - i.e. produced with crude oil. In this case the fluids will normally be separated in the field and the oil sent by pipeline to the main centre for export or processing. Separated water will be drained away to disposal pits. Oth er fields may produce gas only. This is called 'Non-associated gas'. The gas from each field will generally be dehydrated and, depending on the H 2S content, may be put through a sweetening process before entering a main pipeline to the processing (LNG) p lant. Removal of water and H2S is carried out to protect the pipelines from corrosion. A chemical corrosion inhibitor will also be injected into the gas flow at various locations for the same reason. In some cases the producing field will be at a high enough pressure to perform the necessary processes involved in the field. In others, the gas will need to be compressed to the required pressure. Throughout processing, the gas pressure will be controlled at the desired level. Treated gas is then injected i nto the main pipeline as feed gas to the central processing plant - the LNG plant. On arrival, due to friction and retrograde condensation of heavy components, the pressure decreases during the journey and gas condensate and water a formed. In order to s weep these liquids along to the processing plant, the pipeline will be 'Sphered' or 'Pigged'. Also on arrival at the LNG facility and before re-compression, the liquid components are separated from the gas. The separated liquids are piped to water separa tion units and the hydrocarbon liquid is pumped to a drying unit and on to a Naphtha & LPG production plant. In order to liquefy the Natural gas, it will be re-compressed to the pressure required for the process used.

GAS TREATMENT UNIT

Prior to liquefaction, the gas at high pressure and near ambient temperature, is passed through a sweetening process to remove H2S and CO2 by absorption into an absorbent solution. (The process used depends on the requirements set down by the Company Process and Chemical Engineers). The 'Rich' absorbent is then regenerated (stripped) in a regeneration tower at reduced pressure and elevated temperature. Heat is provided by a reboiler using superheated steam as heating medium or a fuel fired reboiler. The sour gases removed from the absorbent in the regeneration system are sent to the flares for disposal. From the sweetening process, the gas is cooled and separated from liquids, The liquid hydrocarbons are piped to the liquid drying section together with liquid from othe r plant areas. Gas goes to the vapour drying section and the water is drained away. In the drying sections, a solid desiccant is used. (Other systems use a glycol circulation for dehydration of the gas). The dry gas passes on to the LNG plant (or other process). The dry liquid goes to the Fractionation Section together with dry liquids from other areas. Here, the components of the liquid are separated by distillation into: -Methane (C1), Ethane (C2), Propane (C3), Butane (C4) and (C5 + heavier) components. These components are used mainly to maintain the inventory of the MCR in the Cryogenics process. Excess liquids are used to produce LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) for domestic use in cylinders. Any further excess may go to Naphtha recovery and storage or to the plant fuel system. Figure: 14 is a simplified diagram of a gas and liquid treatment unit. Figure: 15 shows a drier system using a solid desiccant. SIMPLIFIED GAS TREATING UNIT

Figure: 14

DRIER SYSTEM USING A SOLID DESICCANT

Figure: 15 In Figure 15, driers 1 & 2 are receiving the wet gas and discharging to the dry gas system. Some of this dry gas is passing to the regeneration furnace where it is heated to 5 00 F and piped to drier #4 to regenerate the desiccant. (Notice the reverse flow). When regeneration is complete, the hot gas will be shut off and replaced by the cooling gas for four hours. Drier #4 will then go on standby and #3 will go into service. The saturated drier #1 or 2 will then go on to regeneration, Etc.

THE CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION PROCESS

MCR REFRIGERANT COMPOSITION

The Multi Component Refrigerant (MCR) has the following approximate composition:

Nitrogen (N2) 5% Methane (CH4) (C1) 35% Ethane (C2H6) (C2) 45% Propane (C3H8) (C3) 10% Butane (C4H10) (C4) 5%

The above MCR inventory is maintained by the controlled injection of required components obtained from the fractionation unit. (Except for the Nitrogen which is provided by the Nitrogen generation unit). Excess inventory can be vented to flare as needed. The volume of MCR (as vapour) required to liquefy the feed gas is FOUR times the volume of feed gas processed.

MCR COMPRESSION AND COOLING SYSTEM

(See Figure: 16) Beginning at the MCR vapour return line from the Cryogenic towers - EC.1 (Main) and EC.2 (Sub). The cold MCR vapour flow through the sub-cryogenic tower is achieved by passing the MCR from the tower bottom into a Venturi-tube placed in the main tower MCR outlet line. The pressure drop across the Venturi gives sufficient DP across EC. 2. to provide the required MCR flow. The 'A' bundle feed gas outlet temperature is controlled by a TCV place d in the outlet line. The combined refrigerant flow at about 20 psig now passes to the MCR compression units. It first enters a suction knock-out drum to prevent any liquid from entering the 1st stage compressor. Any liquid which may separate out here is re-vaporised by a hot sparge gas injection into the vessel bottom via a perforated pipe. This is done to preserve the total inventory of the MCR vapour. On leaving the KO drum, the make-up components are added to the MCR flow via control systems. The MCR now passes into the 1st stage MCR compressor. This is a multi-stage, centrifugal compressor drive by a condensing steam turbine. (A combustion Gas Turbine may be used in some locations). The first stage of compression increases the MCR to 125 psi and a bout 225 F. It is then cooled to about 110 F in the inter-coolers and passed into the inter-stage drum where again, any liquid dropout is re-vaporised by hot sparge gas. A computerised flow controller (FRC) is placed in the compressor discharge line. Should the Mass Flow drop below a pre-set point, the controller will begin to open the recycle valve and take discharge gas back to the compressor suction to maintain a pre-set Minimum Flow through the compressor. This is necessary to prevent 'Surging' in the compressor.

(Surging in this type of machine must be avoided in order to prevent damage to the compressor, its internals and associated equipment and piping caused by high vibrations set up by the surging action). The 2nd stage MCR compressor takes suction from the inter-stage drum and raises the gas pressure to 450 psi and about 250 F. The MCR is discharged through the salt water cooled after coolers and piped to the first MCR separator D.1 on the main cryogenic tower EC. 1. Again, as in the first stage, a computerised flow element meters the mass flow and controls a recycle system for minimum flow protection against surging. Both MCR compressors may be driven by condensing steam turbines or by combustion gas turbines as required by the Company. Each machine also has over-pressure protection by safety valves to flare, installed in the discharge line. Suction and discharge lines are fitted with electric motor 'Remote Operated Valves' (ROV's) for quick operation if emergency operation is required. The following simplified diagram (Figure: 16) shows the layout of the MCR compression system.

Figure: 16

CRYOGENIC EXCHANGER - BASIC OPERATION

(See Figure: 17) The MCR from the 2nd stage compression and cooling process enters the first separator D.1. Here, the butane (C4) and some propane (C3) separate out as liquid.

REFRIGERANT VAPOUR FLOW

The MCR Vapour from D.1. is piped through the 'B' vapour coils of the main cryogenic tower EC.1. (cooled by the sprays from D.5.), and into separator D.2. where C3 and some C4 separate as liquid. Vapour from D.2. is piped through the 'C' vapour coils (cooled by the sprays from D.6.), and into separator D.3. where C2 and some C1 separate as liquid. From D.3, the vapour is cooled in the 'D' bundles by sprays from D.7. then passes thro ugh 'E' bundle cooled to -262 F. From the 'E' bundle the MCR, now mainly liquid Methane (C 1) and Nitrogen (N2) passes into D.4. via an expansion valve where the pressure gives a final refrigerant temperature of about -275F which feeds the 'E' bundle sprays. The vapour from D.4. is piped directly into the main tower top. The expansion valve at D.4. maintains the upstream MCR at high pressure - some pressure loss from the original pressure occurs through the system, due to the liquids formed in the prec eding separators and friction due to the restriction to flow through the tube bundles and other fittings in the system.

2. REFRIGERANT LIQUID FLOW

The C4/C3 liquid from D.1. is passed through the 'B' liquid coils and piped to Refrigerant drum D.5. via an expansion valve (Temperature Control Valve) which controls the temperature of the MCR vapour leaving the 'B' bundle. The expansion valve causes a sudden pressure drop in D.5. and, due to the 'Joules-Thomson' effect the expansion of the high pressure liquid causes its partial vaporisation and therefore a large decrease in its temperature. The cold vapour from D.5. is passed directly into the main cryogenic tower. The sub-cooled liquid is sprayed over the 'B' bundles i.e. the refrigerant liquid and vapour coils, and the Feed Gas coils, cooling the bundles to the operation requirement. This begins the cryogenic process. The MCR liquid (C3/C2), that separates out in D.2. passes through the 'C' MCR liquid bundles before passing into D. 6. via the expansion valve. The pressure drop further reduces this liquid temperature. This liquid is sprayed over the 'C' bundles thus further decreasing the temperature of the three streams. (Upstream of the D.6. expansion valve, some refrigerant is piped to the fractionation uni t for the cooling process in the recovery of Methane & Ethane. This MCR is returned to the system downstream of the D.5. expansion valve). The MCR vapour from the 'C' bundles passes into D. 3. where C 2/C1 liquids drop out to be piped

through the 'D' MCR liquid bundle, through the expansion valve into 'D. 7.' where the pressure drop produces a much lower liquid MCR temperature. This is sprayed over the 'D' bundles to give their required outlet temperatures. The liquid refrigerant formed in D. 4. consists mainly of methane and some nitrogen after the expansion valve produces a final MCR temperature of about - 275 F. This liquid is sprayed over the 'E' MCR vapour bundle and feed gas bundle to give an 'E' bundle outlet temperature of - 262 F. The LNG leaving the 'E' bundle at - 262 F and reduced pressure, passes through a TCV which, due to its throttling action, will decrease the pressure further before the LNG finally enters the rundown line to the LNG storage tanks. The tanks' pressure is maintained at 0.5 psi (just above atmospheric pressure). From storage the LNG is pumped into special cryogenic tankers for shipment abroad. Provision is made to send off-spec LNG to burn-pit during start-up and shut-down operations.

Figure: 17