C u c k o o and Culture: In the Castle of M y S k i n

EDWARD BAUGH
T h e f u r t h e r we move f r o m home, the more s t r o n g l y rooted the p a r t i c u l a r becomes, the m o r e distinctive a n d describable those things that are true to their time a n d place, whether they are the indigenous components of a novel, a p l a y o r a recipe. D e r e k W a l c o t t , Sunday Guardian, 8 N o v . 1964

Coo-coo, couscous. A s t a n d a r d dish. H e r e is the recipe for c o r n m e a l coo-coo f r o m W. I. Cookery: E. Phyllis Clark: "Wash a n d slice ochroes [sic], add salt, a n d boil t h e m i n h a l f the liquid. W h e n the ochroes are soft enough to be swizzled, m i x the cornm e a l w i t h the rest of the liquid. S t i r this paste into the boiling l i q u i d a n d continue to cook, s t i r r i n g a l l the t i m e u n t i l the m i x t u r e is t h i c k a n d smooth. T u r n out into well-buttered m o u l d or b a s i n . " Coo-coo is also made f r o m I n d i a n corn, g u i n e a c o r n , breadfruit, bananas, yams, potatoes, etc., etc. F r a n k C o l l y m o r e , Glossary of Barbadian Dialect

E O R G E L a m m i n g ' s In the Castle of My Skin ends w i t h t h e protagonist, G., l e a v i n g h i s island, Barbados, for the first t i m e to t a k e a job i n T r i n i d a d , a n d so begin his adult a n d perhaps lonely j o u r n e y t h r o u g h the world. H i s decision to leave is a deliberate b u t painful choice. H i s g o i n g m a r k s not o n l y a momentous t u r n i n g point i n h i s own life, a c u l m i n a t i o n of the process of personal g r o w t h w h i c h the novel traces, b u t also a n epochal point i n the h i s t o r y of the island, a n d m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y the c o m m u n i t y of w h i c h he has been a part. T h e momentousness of the departure a n d the ominousness a n d u n c e r t a i n t y w i t h w h i c h i t is invested are emphasized b y the fact t h a t the last p i c t u r e we get of G . is of h i m w a l k i n g alone into t h e night, the darkness suggesting a l l t h e danger and u n c e r t a i n t y ahead, the beckoning t e r r o r of the u n k n o w n , as w e l l as t h e darkness of h i s ignorance w h i c h he must seek to enlighten: " T h e e a r t h w h e r e I w a l k e d was a

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m a r v e l of blackness and I k n e w i n a sense more deep t h a n simple departure I h a d s a i d farewell, farewell to the l a n d . "
1

The last scenes of the novel are carefully placed to complement one another i n developing the m e a n i n g of G.'s departure and i n deepening the emotional resonance of the novel's close. T h e v e r y last scene, that i n w h i c h G . bids goodbye to the old m a n , P a , is the one w h i c h conveys the most s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d pathos and poignancy, and the most direct sense of a n ending. P a , the last relic and repository of the old w a y s of the village, is himself about to go on a journey, to the almshouse, to a w a i t the f i n a l darkness. T h e farewell blessing w h i c h he bestows on G . neatly conveys the idea of a n o l d order c h a n g i n g , y i e l d i n g place to the new, as w e l l as the idea of the passing down of comm u n i t y traditions f r o m one generation to the next, even though not a l l of the traditions are admirable and G.'s departure also signifies, to a c e r t a i n extent, the break-up of the c o m m u n i t y and of its traditions. J u s t before the scene w i t h P a there is G.'s conversation w i t h T r u m p e r , G.'s f o r m e r schoolmate, w h o h a d emigrated to the U n i t e d States. H i s r e t u r n to B a r b a d o s on a v i s i t , just w h e n G . is about to leave, and h i s assertion of a newfound sense of purpose as a result of his A m e r i c a n experience, serve as r e a s s u r i n g auguries for G.'s departure. B u t there is something g l i b a n d possibly naive about the new T r u m p e r , w h i c h h i g h l i g h t s b y contrast the greater comp l e x i t y of G.'s personal quest and anguish. M o r e elaborate and complex t h a n either the scene w i t h P a o r the one w i t h T r u m p e r is the l o n g scene between G . and his mother. I n terms of the story of G.'s development, this passage is the emotional c l i m a x of the novel. R i c h i n nuance, i t provides us w i t h our most extended v i e w of the deep and i n t r i c a t e relationship between G . a n d his mother, a relationship w h i c h is central to the novel, and w h i c h is a m i c r o c o s m of h i s relationship w i t h the comm u n i t y o r the island as a whole.

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T h e occasion of t h i s f i n a l scene between G . a n d h i s mother is a meal, the last she prepares f o r h i m . T h e dish she serves is a B a r b a d i a n specialty, f l y i n g f i s h and cuckoo, and there i s one section of the n a r r a t i v e w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r i g u i n g a n d w h i c h I s h a l l focus o n i n this paper. T h i s is the detailed account of the mother's preparation of the meal, especially t h e cuckoo. Its v e r y presence i n the novel m i g h t seem odd. It is as though L a m m i n g has interrupted the n a r r a t i v e , a n d h i s p o r t r a y a l of the relationship between b o y a n d mother, i n t e r r u p t e d i t f o r the space of three long paragraphs, to describe i n detail h o w the m o t h e r made the cuckoo to give, i n short, the recipe for cuckoo. W a s this m e r e l y a piece of exotica, a dash of tropical colour f o r the E n g l i s h m a r k e t i n w h i c h the book was to be published? T h i s v i e w m i g h t be encouraged b y two details w h i c h show L a m m i n g c a t e r i n g to a n o n B a r b a d i a n audience. H a v i n g mentioned cornflour, he glosses t h i s b y saying, " I t w a s a yellow powder almost as fine as d u s t " (p. 2 7 4 ) . Indeed, to use the t e r m " c o r n f l o u r " was probably a compromise w i t h the foreign audience, since the n o r m a l t e r m is " c o r n m e a l . " L a t e r , r e f e r r i n g to the stick used to s t i r the cornmeal as i t cooks, he says, she " h a d p u t the slab of w o o d which we called the cuckoo stick to soak i n a b o w l of w a t e r " (p. 2 7 4 ) . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , w a s L a m m i n g p r i m a r i l y i n d u l g i n g h i s nostalgia f o r f l y i n g f i s h and cuckoo? W h a t I should l i k e t o show i s t h a t this account of the p r e p a r a t i o n of the meal i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of L a m m i n g ' s a r t i s t i c control of the n a r r a t i v e , a n d t h a t i t embodies a n d brings into sharp focus c e r t a i n v i t a l concerns of the novel. It symbolizes c e r t a i n values a n d signifies t h e l a c k of t h e m or the possibility of t h e m i n the k i n d of society w h i c h the novel depicts, as w e l l as the importance of t h e m i n h u m a n life generally: values a t t a c h i n g to the concepts of tradition, c o m m u n i t y , self-respect, c r e a t i v i t y and w o r k . I t symbolizes, i n effect, a v i s i o n of life a n d society, a n d , consequently, criticizes a c t u a l conditions of life a n d society depicted i n the novel.

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L o u i s J a m e s has called attention, but only fleetingly, to this passage. W r i t i n g o n the childhood theme i n West I n d i a n literature, he says, i n a n aside:
T h e l o v i n g l y exact account of the p r e p a r a t i o n of cuckoo a n d f l y i n g fish for the m e a l G's m o t h e r prepares for h i m before he leaves the i s l a n d a last supper i n m o r e senses t h a n one exemplifies the anthropologist L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s insights as to the social i m p o r t a n c e of c o o k i n g .
2

James leaves the m a t t e r there, it not being w i t h i n the scope of his paper to show just h o w the account exemplifies L e v i Strauss's insights. N o r shall I attempt any such exercise i n anthropology, using the passage as a case study. W h a t I a m more concerned w i t h is seeing how the passage functions as p a r t of a l i t e r a r y artifact. T o do this one need not go to a n anthropologist, o r into the subtleties of Lvi-Strauss for precedent or sanction. T h e r e is precedent i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . F o r example, there is B a r b a r a H a r d y ' s essay on " F o o d and C e r e m o n y i n Great Expectations," w h i c h argues that " e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g are valued b y [Dickens] as proofs of sociability and gusto, but more i m p o r t a n t s t i l l , as ceremonies of l o v e . " She shows that, i n D i c k e n s , " m o r a l values are attached to meals to the g i v i n g , receiving, eating and s e r v i n g of f o o d , " and that
3 4

food is used to define v a r i o u s aspects of love, pride, social a m b i t i o n and gratitude, and the meals are often c a r e f u l l y placed i n order to u n d e r l i n e and e x p l a i n m o t i v a t i o n and development.
5

T h e meal w h i c h G.'s m o t h e r prepares for h i m is also, clearly, a ceremony of love, one w h i c h shows forth the deep and sustaining bond between them. A n d L a m m i n g ' s awareness of the social and c u l t u r a l significance of food is expressed not only i n w h a t t h e reader can see underneath the account of the meal, but also i n the mother's own observations on t h i s topic, as w e l l as i n comments b y other characters elsewhere i n the novel. F o r instance, there is the episode i n w h i c h T r u m p e r tells the other boys t h a t he is t h i n k i n g of going a w a y to A m e r i c a . B o y B l u e says that he has heard t h a t there is "food i n g a l o r e " i n A m e r i c a ,

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" a n ' t h e y says y o u d o n ' have to cook i t yuhself." T h e n he explains about automats:
'I ain't l i k e the sound o' that m u c h , ' said T r u m p e r . " T i s true this business of c o o k i n g w i t h w o o d g i v e y o u a lot o' trouble, 'cause y o u got to keep b l o w i n g the blasted fire a n ' the smoke get in y u h eyes a l l the time, but w h e n a l l said a n ' done I l i k e the look o' a pot o n the fire, a n ' I l i k e to hear a pot b o i l i n g 'cause it m a k e y o u feel s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n i n ' ; a n ' i f there's one t h i n g I like, too, 'tis to see the w a y m y m o t h e r t u r n food out f r o m the pot to the plate. It give y o u a k i n d a good b i g feelin' i n the b o t t o m o' y u h stomach a n ' y u h m o u t h start to w a t e r a n ' m o v e without y u h permission. Seems to m e a l l these little things m a k e food w h a t it is. S o m e t h i n g to m a k e a b i g fuss 'bout, a n ' that's w h a t m y m o t h e r a l w a y s say.' (p. 168)

T r u m p e r is perhaps most t a k e n w i t h food as food, w i t h the m o u t h - w a t e r i n g aspects of i t , but he also shows an awareness of values other t h a n the p u r e l y sensual attachment to food and eating, a n d these values are l a r g e l y social ones. G.'s m o t h e r is conscious, m o r e so t h a n T r u m p e r , of the potential of meals as ceremonies of love and social comm u n i o n . W h i l e she and G . are eating, she voices the fear that G o d alone k n o w s w h e n n e x t G . w i l l get a meal l i k e the one w h i c h she has p r e p a r e d :
'I t h i n k they cook i n T r i n i d a d , ' I said. I was u n c e r t a i n of the result, but the s t r a i n between us h a d passed a n d I took the r i s k of s p e a k i n g f r a n k l y . ' T h e y cook a l l over the w o r l d , ' she said, 'but 'tis h o w a n ' w h a t they cook. If y o u t h i n k c o o k i n ' is p u t t i n g a pot o n the fire a n ' l e a v i n ' it t i l l it tell y o u to come, y o u m a k e a sad mistake. T h e r e be people who eat a l l sort o' j u m b l e up mess a n d they c a l l it c o o k i n ' too. A n ' once t h e y got a hole i n their face to stuff, they couldn't care less w h a t a n ' w h a t they stuff it w i t h . B u t i f y o u t h i n k that's c o o k i n ' y o u m a k e a sad mistake.' (pp. 268-69)

She claims, moreover, t h a t T r i n i d a d i a n s , u n l i k e B a r b a d i a n s , " d o n ' t k n o w w h a t a n ' w h a t a home m e a n . " T h e y never invite strangers home f o r a meal w h i c h t h e i r m o t h e r s o r wives have prepared. H e r i n s u l a r i t y a n d ignorance aside, here we have a w o m a n f r o m the most deprived class of her society, a class t r a d i t i o n a l l y supposed to be w i t h o u t , a n d w i t h o u t care for,

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w h a t is termed " t h e finer things of l i f e , " w i t h o u t " c u l t u r e , " expressing, t h r o u g h a sophisticated understanding of the social significance of food, of c o o k i n g and eating, a concern for t h e q u a l i t y of l i v i n g , a sense of style and decorum, of life as a n art. A n d the c o n v i c t i o n w i t h w h i c h she can express these values, i n c l u d i n g the m a g n a n i m i t y and g r a ciousness of h o s p i t a l i t y to strangers, arises i n p a r t f r o m her pride i n belonging to a c o m m u n i t y w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l l y has shared these values, her pride i n belonging to a " w e " who, no m a t t e r how m a t e r i a l l y deprived, are, o r m a y be ennobled b y t h e i r m o r a l values. Moreover, w h e n we remember t h a t this is a w o m a n whose f a m i l y consists of one illegitimate son, and whose home is a chattel house, s y m b o l of impermanence, and w h e n we remember how h a r d i t is for her to m a k e ends meet, the ease and a u t h o r i t y w i t h w h i c h she can advance the virtues of f a m i l y life, of " w h a t a home m e a n , " are a l l the more r e m a r k a b l e witnesses to the m o r a l strength of her c h a r a c t e r and the c h a r a c t e r of her k i n d . T h e mother's sense of values a n d of style are embodied i n action i n the account of her p r e p a r i n g the cuckoo. H e r pride i n her s k i l l at " t u r n i n g " cuckoo is a sign of the value w h i c h she attaches to local o r native traditions and skills and, consequently, a sign of the importance w h i c h L a m m i n g attaches to the idea of c o m m u n i t y or social rootedness. She grants t h a t T r i n i d a d i a n s m a y be able to m a k e ice c r e a m w e l l enough, " b u t , " she says, "I don't t h i n k they c a n t u r n cuckoo down there. I don't t h i n k so at a l l at a l l " (p. 275). A n d i t w o u l d seem t h a t G . enjoys e a t i n g the ice c r e a m best of a l l , b u t it is the cuckoo t h a t is most i m p o r t a n t to t h e n a r r a t i v e . I n his exact and delighted r e c a l l of the process of m a k i n g cuckoo, G . is himself enacting the preservation and i m p o r t ance of the " t r u e " t r a d i t i o n s of the c o m m u n i t y a n d the values w h i c h those t r a d i t i o n s represent. H i s careful preserv a t i o n of the m e m o r y is also the preservation of his love for his m o t h e r and the c o m m u n i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , analysis

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of the w a y i n w h i c h he recounts the process also reveals other social and m o r a l significances w h i c h he uses the process to symbolize. I n t h i s regard we m a y consider first w h a t the account of the preparation of the cuckoo does to the reader's image of the mother. N o w h e r e else i n the novel does her a u t h o r i t y assert itself so n a t u r a l l y , so unforcedly. Interestingly enough, at t h i s moment she herself is not being described, only the a c t i v i t y i n w h i c h she is engaged. B u t w h a t the description of the a c t i v i t y impresses upon us is the c o m m a n d i n g presence of the doer and shaper of that activity. T h e account is charged w i t h a sense of the w o r k e r i n the w o r k , the harmonious integration of the two, and of the value of w o r k motivated b y love and b y joy. F r o m the earlier sections of the novel we k n o w t h a t the m o t h e r is a c o m m a n d i n g figure, a figure of a u t h o r i t y not only for G . but for her immediate comm u n i t y ; we k n o w that she deserves love, respect and adm i r a t i o n ; but we p r i m a r i l y "know these things, i n our minds, r a t h e r t h a n feel t h e m i n o u r senses. W h a t impresses itself more on o u r senses, generally speaking, is a feeling of the s t r a i n w h i c h characterizes her life and of w h i c h G . is very conscious i n his relationship w i t h her, a sense of her as being harrassed, pained and quarrelsome. B u t here, as she turns the cuckoo, she achieves a quiet a u t h o r i t y w h i c h becomes for the reader a l i v e d experience. I n these three paragraphs, life for the moment ceases to be her adversary, and she becomes, as i t were, a comely vessel into w h i c h , or out of w h i c h , i t flows serenely. A n d as her hands silently express her personal pride i n craftsmanship and achievement (we remember, incidentally, that G . feels most at ease w i t h her w h e n she is not t a l k i n g at h i m ) , we do not forget t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l achievement is p a r t of a c o m m u n i a i continuity. H e r pride exists p a r t l y i n her awareness of herself as c o n t i n u i n g a t r a d i t i o n . A t this moment, her i n d i v i d u a l i t y is i n h a r m o n y w i t h the general w i l l . She is o n l y one of countless numbers of B a r b a d i a n women w h o have engaged o r w i l l engage i n the

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routine task of t u r n i n g cuckoo, but for w h o m , each time a n y one of them strives to t u r n the best cuckoo that has ever been turned, routine becomes r i t u a l . T h a t L a m m i n g is concerned not so m u c h w i t h food as biological necessity or sensual delight as w i t h symbolic and m o r a l values is clear f r o m the fact that he pays no attention to the eating or the taste of the food, apart f r o m G.'s obvious pleasure i n the eating of the ice c r e a m and his brief compliment to his mother, " [ T h e meal] was v e r y good." Of course, G . does get special enjoyment f r o m eati n g flying f i s h and cuckoo. N o r do I mean to belittle the value of food for the gustatory pleasure w h i c h it offers, o r to rule out the possibility that there m i g h t even be a m o r a l dimension to this. Some fine things have been w r i t t e n about the pleasure of eating; for example, L a m b ' s rhapsody on the delights of c r a c k l i n g i n his celebrated " D i s s e r t a t i o n U p o n R o a s t P i g . " A comparison between his account and L a m m i n g ' s w o u l d be i n s t r u c t i v e b y v i r t u e of the differences of intention. A s we read L a m m i n g ' s account, we almost forget that the cuckoo is something to be eaten. Instead, we are i n vited to concentrate, i n the f i r s t place, on aesthetic aspects of it. T h e aspects of colour, shape and h a r m o n y o r composition are h i g h l i g h t e d :
T h e c a l a b a s h h a d g i v e n it a smooth even c u r v e a l l round. It was like a v i s i t o r w a i t i n g to be shown i n . . . T h e ochroe seeds were a d u l l pink a n d a l l over the surface of this curve y o u could see t h e m p u s h i n g up like dots that decorated the m i x t u r e . H e r e and there were the bits of green that edged the slices of ochroe. W h e t h e r or not you liked to eat cuckoo it was s o m e t h i n g y o u could look at and feel quiet satisfaction f r o m . T h e colours were s h a r p i n contrast. Y e l l o w and pink and the green of the sliced ochroes. (p. 275)

W e experience the finished product as we w o u l d experience a p a i n t i n g . W e experience the process as we w o u l d experience an artist-craftsman's f a s h i o n i n g of a beautiful object. U l t i m a t e l y , w h a t we are experiencing is the creation of order out of disorder, and beauty out of ugliness. A n d these ideas merge into the ideas of social grace and com-

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m u n i t y i n the l i k e n i n g of the cuckoo after i t has been turned out of the calabash to " a v i s i t o r w a i t i n g to be shown i n . " L a m m i n g h i g h l i g h t s the aesthetic q u a l i t y of the finished product b y stressing the o r i g i n a l muddle a n d even u n pleasantness of t h e ingredients. I n i t s unsifted state, the cornmeal is fouled b y " l u m p s a n d bits of extraneous stuff," and the sifting seems to G . " a v e r y tedious u n d e r t a k i n g . " " T h e p r i c k l y s u r f a c e " of the o k r a s i r r i t a t e s the s k i n when they are being sliced, " a n d t h e slices [fall] off o n the h a n d i n a s l i m y mess." T h i s sliminess i s insisted upon. W h e n the o k r a s are t h r o w n into the pot, the water becomes " a t h i c k b o i l i n g s l i m e . " It is i n keeping w i t h this pointed contrast between t h e formlessness and unattractiveness of t h e cuckoo i n i t s e a r l y stages, a n d t h e s y m m e t r y and beauty of the finished object, t h a t meals w h i c h are badly prepared, w i t h o u t love o r due r e g a r d f o r ceremony, are described p r i m a r i l y i n terms of repulsive disorder. T h e m o t h e r speaks contemptuously of "people w h o eat all sort o' jumble up mess a n d . . . c a l l i t c o o k i n ' . . . " A n d the only T r i n i d a d i a n d i s h w h i c h G . h a d h e a r d of was, as he i m a g i n e d it, "a vegetable muddle called c a l l a l l o o " ( m y i t a l i c s ) . T h e m a k i n g of cuckoo represents the creative process itself, a n d i t s function i n revealing t h e order i n , or i m p o s i n g order upon, the chaos of events and c i r c u m stances, and b r i n g i n g unpleasant actualities into harmonious relationship. T h e attractive a n d delectable cuckoo not only includes but also depends on slime. T h e slime i n t h e cuckoo also brings to m i n d a major character i n t h e novel, M r . Slime, the schoolmaster turned c o r r u p t p o l i t i c i a n , w h o inspires the people to break out of t h e i r meek acceptance of t h e i r position of subservience, and then betrays t h e m i n order to satisfy h i s personal greed. T h e slime i n the cuckoo is a comment on M r . Slime, whether we see t h e t w o as s i m i l a r o r contrasting. T h e slime i n t h e cuckoo u l t i m a t e l y exists i n h a r m o n y w i t h e v e r y t h i n g else i n i t s w o r l d , whereas M r . S l i m e is u l t i m a t e l y a t odds w i t h

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his c o m m u n i t y , a n exploiter and divider, preventing h a r mony. However, i f we consider t h a t the people needed someone to awaken t h e m to a new consciousness as M r . S l i m e d i d , then we m a y see h i m as being essential to the process of change a n d development w h i c h the c o m m u n i t y had to undergo, just as the s l i m y o k r a s are essential to the cuckoo. T h e comparison of M r . S l i m e w i t h the slime i n the cuckoo is one i n d i c a t o r of ways i n w h i c h the account of the p r e p a r a t i o n of the cuckoo stands i n essential relationship to the novel as a whole. B u t we m a y describe t h a t relationship more generally a n d comprehensively. A l l those values w h i c h we have seen as the deeper concerns of the description of the cuckoo i n preparation, are w h a t the novel is, inter alia, about: t r a d i t i o n and ceremony, social rootedness and the sense of belonging, c r e a t i v i t y and a sense of style and beauty, the purposeful d i r e c t i o n of energy towards the creation of a n order inspired b y love and feelings of h u m a n i t y , an order i n w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l , i n satisfying his o w n best instincts, finds at the same time a f u l f i l l i n g relationship to society. T h e description of G.'s m o t h e r m a k i n g the cuckoo is a symbolic expression of the fusion of all these i n action, as process. In the Castle of My Skin depicts a society that is welln i g h feudal i n its o r d e r ; but i t is a somewhat uneasy and mechanical order, p a r t l y imposed, m a i n t a i n e d b y ignorance, fear and the unhappy a u t h o r i t y of the overseer, l a c k e y of the " m a s s a , " distrusted and hated b y his o w n people. I t is a society i n w h i c h concepts of t r a d i t i o n and ceremony are vaunted, but the t r a d i t i o n s a n d ceremonies w h i c h are publicly promoted are imposed f r o m w i t h o u t , alien to the m a j o r i t y of the people. T h e y m e r e l y ape those traditions w i t h ignorant awe, t h o u g h sometimes the c h i l d r e n m i m i c t h e m w i t h deliberate irreverence. T h e novel also depicts a process b y w h i c h , beginning w i t h the questioning of the boys, the society revolts against the old order, i n a n attempt to f i n d a new order, one t h a t is more genuine, true

GEORGE

LAMMING

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to the t i m e a n d the place. T h e novel leaves us i n some doubt as to w h e t h e r that o r d e r a n d a t r u l y homogeneous society w i l l ever be achieved. B u t the account of G.'s m o t h e r p r e p a r i n g the cuckoo is a c r y s t a l l i z i n g image of t h e deep and secret m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l strength of t h e people, of t h e i r creative potential, a n d a s y m b o l i c v i s i o n of w h a t the new order m i g h t be.
NOTES T h i s paper was read at the U n i v e r s i t y of G u e l p h i n October 1975. ' G e o r g e L a m m i n g , In The Castle of My Skin (1953; L o n d o n : L o n g m a n C a r i b b e a n , 1970), p. 303. A l l subsequent references cite this edition. L o u i s J a m e s , " T h e S a d Initiation of L a m m i n g ' s ' G ' a n d other G r e e n C a r i b b e a n T a l e s , " i n Common Wealth, ed. A n n a R u t h e r f o r d ( A a r h u s : A a r h u s U n i v e r s i t y , 1971), p. 141.
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B a r b a r a H a r d y , " F o o d a n d C e r e m o n y i n Great Expectations," in Charles Dickens, ed. Stephen W a l l ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n , 1970), p. 478. *Ibid., p. 478. =/bid., p. 479.
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