Elementary saturated dicarboxylic acids[1] Common IUPAC name Chemical formula name Oxalic acid ethanedioic acid Malonic

acid Succinic acid Glutaric acid propanedioic acid HOOC-COOH HOOC-(CH2)-COOH

Structural formula

pKa1 pKa2 1.27 4.27 2.85 5.70 4.21 5.41 4.34 5.41

butanedioic acid

HOOC-(CH2)2-COOH HOOC-(CH2)3-COOH

pentanedioic acid

Adipic acid hexanedioic acid

HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH

4.41 5.41

Pimelic acid heptanedioic acid

HOOC-(CH2)5-COOH

4.50 5.43

Suberic acid octanedioic acid

HOOC-(CH2)6-COOH

4.62 5.41

Azelaic acid nonanedioic acid

HOOC-(CH2)7-COOH

4.54 5.41

Sebacic acid decanedioic acid

HOOC-(CH2)8-COOH HOOC-(CH2)9-COOH HOOC-(CH2)10-COOH

undecanedioic acid dodecanedioic acid

Oxalic acid

H2C2O4 Applications About 25% of produced oxalic acid is used as a mordant in dyeing processes. It is used in bleaches, especially for pulpwood. It is also used in baking powder.[4] Cleaning Oxalic acid's main applications include cleaning or bleaching, especially for the removal of rust (iron complexing agent), e.g. Bar Keepers Friend is an example of a household cleaner containing oxalic acid. Its utility in rust removal agents is due to its forming a stable, water soluble salt with ferric iron, ferrioxalate ion. Extractive metallurgy Oxalic acid is an important reagent in lanthanide chemistry. Hydrated lanthanide oxalates form readily in strongly acidic solutions in a densely crystalline, easily filtered form, largely free of contamination by nonlanthanide elements. Thermal decomposition of these oxalate gives the oxides, which is the most commonly marketed form of these elements.

Niche uses Vaporized oxalic acid, or a 3.2% solution of oxalic acid in sugar syrup, is used by some beekeepers as a miticide against the parasitic varroa mite. Oxalic acid is rubbed onto completed marble sculptures to seal the surface and introduce a shine. Jump to: navigation, search Malonic acid

Malonic acid (IUPAC systematic name: propanedioic acid) is a dicarboxylic acid with structure CH2(COOH)2. Biochemistry The calcium salt of malonic acid occurs in high concentrations in beetroot. It exists in its normal state as white crystals. Malonic acid is the classic example of a competitive inhibitor: It acts against succinate dehydrogenase (complex II) in the respiratory electron transport chain. Organic reactions In a well-known reaction, malonic acid condenses with urea to form barbituric acid. Malonic acid is also frequently used as an enolate in Knoevenagel condensations or condensed with acetone to form Meldrum's acid. The esters of malonic acid are also used as a -CH2COOH synthon in the malonic ester synthesis. Succinic acid (pron.: /sksnk/; IUPAC systematic name: butanedioic acid; historically known as spirit of amber) is a dicarboxylic acid, and is therefore also a diprotic acid. Succinic acid is a white, odorless solid. Succinate plays a role in the citric acid cycle, an energy-yielding process. The name derives from Latin

succinum, meaning amber, from which the acid may be obtained. Applications Succinic acid is a precursor to some specialized polyesters. It is also a component of some alkyd resins. Succinic acid is used in the food and beverage industry, primarily as an acidity regulator.[4] Global production is estimated at 16,000 to 30,000 tonnes a year, with an annual growth rate of 10%.[5] In nutraceutical form as a food additive and dietary supplement, is safe and approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[6] As an excipient in pharmaceutical products it is used to control acidity[7] and, more rarely, in effervescent tablets.[8] Glutaric acid is the organic compound with the formula C3H6(COOH)2 . Although the related "linear" dicarboxylic acids adipic and succinic acids are watersoluble only to a few percent at room temperature, the water-solubility of glutaric acid is over 50%.Glutaric acid is the organic compound with the formula

C3H6(COOH)2 . Although the related "linear" dicarboxylic acids adipic and succinic acids are water-soluble only to a few percent at room temperature, the water-solubility of glutaric acid is over 50%.Uses 1,5-Pentanediol, a common plasticizer and precursor to polyesters is manufactured by hydrogenation of glutaric acid and its derivatives.[2] Glutaric acid itself has been used in the production of polymers such as polyester polyols, polyamides. The odd number of carbon atoms (i.e. 5) is useful in decreasing polymer elasticity. Adipic acid is the organic compound with the formula (CH2)4(COOH)2. From the industrial perspective, it is the most important dicarboxylic acid: About 2.5 billion kilograms of this white crystalline powder are produced annually, mainly as a precursor for the production of nylon. Adipic acid otherwise rarely occurs in nature.[3]

Uses The great majority of the 2.5 billion kg of adipic acid produced annually is used as monomer for the production of nylon by a polycondensation reaction with hexamethylene diamine forming 6,6-nylon. Other major applications also involve polymers: it is a monomer for production of Polyurethane and its esters are plasticizers, especially in PVC. In medicine Adipic acid has been incorporated into controlled-release formulation matrix tablets to obtain pH-independent release for both weakly basic and weakly acidic drugs. It has also been incorporated into the polymeric coating of hydrophilic monolithic systems to modulate the intragel pH, resulting in zero-order release of a hydrophilic drug. The disintegration at intestinal pH of the enteric polymer shellac has been reported to improve when adipic acid was used as a pore-forming agent without affecting release in the acidic media. Other controlled-release formulations have included adipic acid with the intention of obtaining a late-burst release profile.[9] In foods Small but significant amounts of adipic acid are used as a food ingredient as a flavorant and gelling aid.[10] It is used in some calcium carbonate antacids to make them tart. Safety Adipic acid, like most carboxylic acids, is a mild skin irritant. It is mildly toxic, with an LD50 of 3600 mg/kg for oral ingestion by rats.[3]

Pimelic acid is the organic compound with the formula HO2C(CH2)5CO2H. Derivatives of pimelic acid are involved in the biosynthesis of the amino acid called lysine. Pimelic acid is one CH2 unit longer than a related dicarboxylic acid, adipic acid, a precursor to many polyesters and polyamides. It is the final member of the mnemonic used to aid recollection of the order of the first six dicarboxylic acids using their common (not IUPAC) nomenclature: Dicarboxylic acid Pimelic acid has been synthesized from cyclohexanone and from salicylic acid.[1] In the former route, the additional carbon is supplied by dimethyloxalate, which reacts with the enolate.

Uses of soda ash Uses The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate. Sodium carbonate acts as a flux for silica, lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials. This "soda glass" is mildly water soluble, so somecalcium carbonate is added to the pre-melt mixture to make the glass produced insoluble. This type of glass is known as soda lime glass: "soda" for the sodium carbonate and "lime" for the calcium carbonate. Soda lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries. Sodium carbonate is also used as a relatively strong base in various settings. For example, sodium carbonate is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of photographic film developing agents. It is a common additive in municipal pools used to neutralize the acidic effects of chlorineand raise pH. In cooking, it is sometimes used in place of sodium hydroxide for lyeing, especially withGerman pretzels and lye rolls. These dishes are treated with a solution of an alkaline substance to change the pH of the surface of the food and improve browning. In taxidermy, sodium carbonate added to boiling water will remove flesh from the skull or bones of trophies to create the "European skull mount" or for educational display in biological and historical studies. In chemistry, it is often used as an electrolyte. This is because electrolytes are usually salt-based, and sodium carbonate acts as a very good conductor in the process of electrolysis. In addition, unlike chloride ions, which form chlorine gas, carbonate ions are not corrosive to the anodes. It is also used as a primary standard for acid-base titrationsbecause it is solid and air-stable, making it easy to weigh accurately. [edit]Domestic use In domestic use, it is used as a water softener in laundering. It competes with the magnesium and calcium ions in hard water and prevents them from bonding with the detergent being used. Sodium carbonate can be used to remove grease, oil and wine stains. It is sold as washing soda, soda crystals, or sal soda. Sodium carbonate is also used as a descaling agent in boilers such as those found in coffee pots and espresso machine. In dyeing with fiber-reactive dyes, sodium carbonate (often under a name such as soda ash fixative or soda ash activator) is used to ensure proper chemical bonding of the dye with cellulose (plant) fibers, typically before dyeing (for tie dyes), mixed with the dye (for dye painting), or after dyeing (for immersion dyeing).

The NaOH will react with the ground glass of a normal laboratory reagent bottle. If NaOH is kept in such a bottle the ground area between the stopper and the bottle will "dissolve" in the presense of the strong alkali and fuse together making it impossible to remove the ground glass stopper. So a rubber stopper, which does not react with the NaOH is used. NaOH (sodium hydroxide) is kept in rubber "stoppered" bottles for a number of reasons. But first a little background about it (and then you'll be able to justify why it is kept in bottles in the first place). Here goes... Sodium hydroxide is a base. It is a caustic substance (that means it might burn through your skin) and it should be avoided at all costs. That's probably one of the reasons why its kept in a stoppered bottle. It absorbs water from air when it is exposed to air. That's another reason it is kept air-tight in a bottle (so that NaOH doesn't turn into anything). There's three reasons already. All you have to do is more research on it and you might get more interesting ones. Thanks for asking the question, though. Have fun! Bye! Solid NaOH is hygroscopic, it will easily absorb water, making its weight uncertain. And even if you keep it in a dessicated environment, once made up, the solution will absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. That decreases the alkalinity, introducing another source of error.

b. Analytical balances, also located in the room adjacent to the laboratory. These will weigh to an accuracy of 0.1 mg and must be used whenever you desire four or more significant figure accuracy. This will be the case when you weigh out samples of an unknown, primary standards or when taking crucibles to constant weight. Directions for the use of these balances are posted in the balance room.

VARIOUS TYPES OF WEIGHING: 2. When mass amounts are specified in chemical procedures the following terms are commonly used: a. "Weigh out about 2 g of ...... " This statement means that you are required to weigh an amount of approximately two grams. The accuracy to which this mass amount needs to known is not high and the top-loading balance will suffice. b. "Accurately weigh out about 0.2 g of ...." This statement means that you should, with the aid of the analytical balance, weigh out an amount that is close to 0.2 g, but you must know the exact amount to an accuracy of 0.1 mg. Note that this does not mean that you must weigh out exactly 0.2000 g. An amount between 0.1900 g and 0.2100 g is perfectly acceptable. However, you must know the exact amount to the nearest tenth of a milligram. When weighing out triplicate samples it is not necessary that all three weights be exactly the same, indeed, it is poor procedure to attempt to do so.

RULES FOR ANALYTICAL BALANCES:

The following rules summarize those procedures which must be followed in order to obtain accurate and reliable mass measurements with a single-pan analytical balance. Adherence to these rules will, at the same time, prevent damage to the balance. 1. Close the balance door, while weighing an object, in order to prevent air currents from disturbing the reading. When finished, the operator should close the balance door to prevent dust and dirt from entering the balance. 2. Only glass, ceramic, metal or plastic objects and containers should be placed in direct contact with the balance pan. 3. Do not handle objects to be weighed with bare hands. Moisture, grease and dirt on you fingers will affect the weight of the objects. 4. To be weighed accurately, all objects must be at room temperature. A warm object sets up convection currents inside the balance enclosure, which will make an object appear lighter than it really is. Also, warm air inside the enclosure is less dense than the air that it displaces and this also leads to a negative determinate error. 5. Never weigh chemicals directly in contact with the balance pan. Use containers such as beakers, flasks and weighing bottles. 6. All objects and materials that have recently been removed from a desiccator will absorb moisture and thereby gain weight. It is therefore good practice to record weights after identical time intervals. For example if you are taking crucibles to constant weight. Always record the weight of the crucible exactly 5 seconds after having placed the crucible on the balance pan. Using this technique it is possible to minimize the effect of moisture absorption. 7. The use of weighing paper must be strictly avoided when using an analytical balance. 8. Do not spill chemicals inside the balance enclosure. If a spill occurs, clean it up immediately.
When you need exact weight measurements, then you need a precision balance scale. Let us see the steps in using a precision balance scale in a laboratory setting. 1. Before you weigh anything on an analytical balance, it has to be tared or recalibrated to read 0.0000 g. Press and release the Tare button to recalibrate. 2. Make sure that you do not bump the balance once you have done your recalibration. 3. Chemicals and other substances to be weighed should be placed on paper or dishes.
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4. 5. 6. 7.

Use tongs, tweezers and gloves to avoid adding fingerprints. Allow hot substances to completely cool before you take measurements. You will use an analytical balance if you need high degree accuracy and precision when you measure mass as the scale is not affected by gravity. The weighing pan used in high precision balance should be at least .01 mg. It is located in an enclosure that is transparent and has doors to prevent dust from collecting inside as well as to block the air currents inside the laboratory (from air conditioning) from affecting its operation. 8. If you are using a direct method to measure weight, the substance should be added to the tared container that will hold it and not directly on the pan. 9. The temperature of the samples you are going to weigh should equal room temperature so that a natural convection that can form air currents within the enclosure that can affect the process of weighing. 10. Maintain constant load in the balance beam. You can do this by subtracting mass on the side of the beam where sample has been added. Do not subtract fixed weights; rather, you should use a small spring force. There are many types of precision balance scale available today, with different price ranges. There are micro balances and ultra-micro balances that are used to weigh the smallest of samples. There are also electronic precision scales available today that provide ease of operation and accurate readings with a turn of a dial or the push of a button but these types can still be susceptible to the environment where it is used. As with other precision instruments, handle it with extreme care to ensure long years of use.

Analytical Balance - FAQs

A more precise measuring tool required for scientific and medical purposes may call for the use of analytical balances. When dealing with potentially dangerous and life threatening situations common in these fields, precise measurements can mean the difference between a resounding success and catastrophic failure, both within the laboratory or operating room. This is amplified even more so when a lab experiment or medical operation is put to the test in an everyday environment. An analytical balance can have its share of trials and uses, such as in the scientific and medical fields mentioned above, in addition to other fields of study such as culinary science or industrial work. Any form of work which requires the precise measurement of different kinds of chemicals, materials, substances and other sensitive items may require the use of analytical balances, along with the necessary maintenance and care of any precision machine. Using an Analytical Balance

Analytical balances are used on different laboratory substances to help determine the mass with great precision and accuracy. Analytical balances are also capable of weighing lab samples all the way down to micro quantities. These lab samples contained within the analytical balance are enclosed in a transparent weighing chamber, which also protects the substance from tampering when placed on the scale, as well as preventing air currents in the room from affect the operation of the balance. Precise readings are achieved through the maintenance of a constant load on the balance beam, where the mass is subtracted on the same side of the beam on which the sample substance is added. The final balance measurement is achieved through the use of a small spring force instead of the subtracted fixed masses. A sample to be weighed inside any analytical balances should be handled with great care at all times. Room temperature should be maintained with both the balance and the sample before the weighing process begins. A deviation from room temperature may cause the formation of air currents to disrupt the sample inside the analytical balance. Differences in temperature can also decrease the precision and accuracy of the analytical balance. As a precision instrument, an analytical balance needs to be calibrated every time before a sample is weighed. Newer analytical balances may have an auto calibration feature which only requires a short cooldown time in order to acclimatize to the environmental conditions present in the current lab setting when switched on. An analytical balance may have standard masses used in the automatic calibration process. Once the analytical balance is calibrated, do not place additional weight or object on the same lab table on which the analytical balance itself resides. This may also cause ill effects to the accuracy of the weighing process. The scale should also be operated at a comfortable distance. Take special care not to accidentally bump or tamper with the scale during weighing, as you will have to repeat the entire weighing process from the beginning. Depending on the samples which are to be weighed. Powders, granules and liquids should not be transferred directly onto the weighing pan; granular or powder like materials must be placed on the scale using a piece of paper. Liquids may have to be transferred onto the weighing platform through the use of a spatula which pours the substance into the analytical scale. Hygroscopic substances which absorb moisture the moment they are exposed to air must be weighed quickly as possible for accurate and precise results. It also goes without saying that toxic or flammable substances need to be handled very carefully when placed into the scale. A substance weighed on analytical balances of any kind may have to be tared after being weighed on the scale in order to disregard the added weight of the container or vessel which the substance is contained in. Some analytical scales may simply have a tare button on the balance itself, while others may not, requiring the use of manual calculation. This option present on some analytical balances allows the balance to negate the extra weight of the container or vessel counted in during the weighing process. The tare process requires that the doors of the weighing chamber are closed in order for correct and precise data. Maintenance of an Analytical Balance Every precision instrument needs periodical maintenance to operate at peak performance and efficiency. Analytical balances are no different from this rule. Be sure to exercise proper care and maintenance on analytical balances to ensure a high degree of accuracy during every weighing session. The weighing chamber must be free of dust particles at all times, even when not in use. The slightest hint of dirt may set your weighing results off by small quantities, as most analytical balances are particularly sensitive instruments. Be sure to always keep the doors of the weighing chamber closed at all times, so that dust and other particles may not enter the weighing chamber. Take special care to clean the weighing pan or platform regularly in order to ensure accurate measurement results which are not affected by dust and dirt particles. Also be sure not to touch the weighing platform without sterilized gloves in order not to leave fingerprints or grime accumulated on your fingers. These seemingly insignificant particles may also set the course of the weighing process off by more than you would be comfortable with. A soft cloth or a sterilized brush can be used to clean typical analytical balances.