International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 575586

International Journalof Fatigue

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Analysis of the eect of cold-working of rivet holes on the fatigue life of an aluminum alloy
P.F.P. de Matos
a

a,*

, A.J. McEvily b, P.M.G.P. Moreira a, P.M.S.T. de Castro

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Management, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal b Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA Received 19 February 2005; received in revised form 27 January 2006; accepted 3 April 2006 Available online 3 July 2006

Abstract An experimental and analytical program was carried out to assess the eect of cold-working by hole expansion on the fatigue life of Alclad 2024-T3 aluminium alloy. The magnitude of the residual stresses introduced into the specimens due to cold expansion was evaluated by an X-ray diraction procedure. Specimens containing non-cold-worked and cold-worked holes were tested under cyclic loading at an R-ratio of 0.1. The rates of fatigue crack propagation were determined by measurement of striation spacing. A main outcome of the present work was the determination of the crack-opening stress intensity as a function of the range of the stress intensity factor. For the cold-worked specimens an inverse methodology was adopted to estimate the crack-opening stress intensity as inuenced by the residual stress eld. Finally, a crack growth model was used to provide a correlation with the experimental fatigue lifetimes. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fatigue striation spacing; Cold working; Scanning electron microscopy

1. Introduction Structural integrity engineering has two important aims. One is to improve the fatigue life through process control, and the other is to develop a means for the reliable prediction of the fatigue lifetime of structures. One of the means for improving the fatigue life of structures is by the cold-working of fastener holes, a technique which has been used in the aeronautical industry for the past 30 years. McNeil and Heston [1] reported that depending upon the fatigue stress level [2,3], the process can result in an improvement in fatigue life by a factor of 310. The main objective of the present study was to contribute to the further understanding of the eect of residual stresses due to the cold working of holes on

Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 22 508 1716; fax: +351 22 508 1445. E-mail address: pfpmatos@fe.up.pt (P.F.P. de Matos).

the fatigue life of structural engineering components. In this study, the compressive circumferential residual stress eld around the hole was created by hole-expansion. Fatigue crack growth rates were determined from the spacing of fatigue striations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Over the past decade, studies of short-crack growth behavior in metallic materials have led to the realization that fatigue life of many materials is primarily comprised of crack growth from microstructural features such as inclusions, voids or slip-bands to nal failure. For the purpose of lifetime prediction therefore, a model based upon fatigue crack growth is appropriate, and such a model [4,5] has been chosen for use in the present study. This model, which is based on a modied LEFM approach, is applicable in both the short crack and long crack ranges. The results presented in this paper quantify the eect of residual stress on fatigue lifetimes and on the fatigue striation spacing.

0142-1123/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2006.04.004

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Nomenclature crack length, m modied crack length, m crack growth material constant, (MPa)2 crack growth rate, m/cycle fatigue test frequency, Hz, cycles/sec elasto-plastic correction factor, p rmax F 1 2 sec 2 rY 1 LEFM linear elastic fracture p p mechanics M is equal to 2pre F Y paF Dr 1 ekk K op max K min DK effth ; MEPP material elastic perfectly plastic k a material constant, m1 K stress intensity factor (SIF), MPa m0.5 Kop opening stress intensity factor Kopmax maximum value of the opening stress intensity factor Kopmax value of the opening stress intensity factor at a crack length of 0.5 mm Kmin minimum value of the stress intensity factor Kmax maximum value of the stress intensity factor KT stress concentration factor a amod A da/dN f F R re s SEM Y W DK DKeth DKop DrEL DKth k q qe rm rmax ry U stress ratio R = rmin/rmax or radius of the hole eective length, a material constant fatigue striation spacing scanning electron microscopy stress intensity factor correction width of the plate stress intensity factor range eective range of the stress intensity factor at threshold opening stress intensity factor range fatigue strength range corresponding to a fatigue life of 107 cycles range of the stress intensity factor at threshold length of actual crack, m tip radius of the stress concentrator material constant maximum stress at the tip of a stress concentrator maximum applied stress yield strength stress intensity factor correction

2. Material and tests 2.1. Material The aluminium alloy used in this work was Alclad 2024T3. The mechanical properties of the alloy are given in Table 1. 2.2. Specimens and fatigue tests Fig. 1(a) shows the specimen conguration of the holecontaining, 2 mm thick at sheets. The holes were reamed after drilling and were subsequently expanded using a mandrel. Fig. 1(b) illustrates the nature of the expansion process used to introduce the residual stress eld. In prior studies [6,7], the residual stresses resulting from hole expansion were determined to within 25 MPa by X-ray diraction. The results of these measurements are summarized in Fig. 2. In addition, a FEM analysis of the
Table 1 Mechanical properties Al 2024-T3 Yield stress (MPa) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Poissons ratio (m) Youngs modulus (GPa) Drend, fatigue limit, R = 0.1, (MPa) DKeth (MPa m1/2) re (lm) 312.00 440.00 0.33 78.00 219.00 1.40 2.83

Fig. 1. (a) Specimen geometry and dimensions. AA is the line along which residual stress determinations were made; (b) schematic of hole expansion process.

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residual stresses was carried out using an elastic, perfectlyplastic (MEPP) material model. The results of this analysis are also shown in Fig. 2 and are in general agreement with the experimental results except in the region close to the hole where, because of the steep stress gradient, it was not possible to determine precisely the stress at a point since the experimental measurements were averaged over a 1 mm 1 mm area. In the fatigue test program a total of 45 open hole specimens (24 with and 21 without residual stresses) were tested (see Table 2). The fatigue tests were carried out at an R ratio of 0.1 in air at room temperature and at a frequency of 10 Hz. In the fatigue test program constant maximum stress levels of 120, 140, 160, 180 and 200 MPa were used (see Fig. 3). The fracture surfaces of 10 of the tested specimens (ve normal and ve with cold-worked holes) were examined by SEM. The fractographic measurements were carried out at the Materials Centre of the University of Porto (CEMUP). A SEM equipped with a eld emission gun (FEG) was used to measure the fatigue striation spacings. Five measurements of the striation spacings were made in each SEM screen (see Fig. 5) and the average value was used in plotting the results. The average value of the spacing between fatigue striations was assumed to represent the amount of

Table 2 Number of specimens tested at each stress level rmax (MPa) 120 140 160 180 200 R = rmin/rmax = 0.1. Normal hole 5 5 5 5 4 Cold-worked hole 4 5 4 4 4

Fig. 3. A schematic drawing of the crack front. Striation measurements were made in the shaded thickness and long transverse areas shown.

crack growth per cycle, da/dN. No direct measurements of the fatigue crack length as a function of the number of cycles were made. 3. Results 3.1. Fatigue tests In these tests Mode I fatigue cracks were initiated on each side of the hole and then grew symmetrically. The

Fig. 2. Residual stress eld along the line AA in Fig. 1; (a) radial stresses; (b) circumferential stresses.

Fig. 4. S/N data for normal and cold-worked hole specimens.

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fatigue tests results for both types of specimens are presented in Fig. 4, and the fatigue life improvement due to the cold-working process is clearly seen. For example, specimens with residual stress tested at rmax = 120 MPa and 200 MPa had fatigue lives 6.6 and 1.2 times larger than normal hole specimens, respectively. It is noted that during the fatigue tests two specimens one tested at rmax = 120 MPa and another at rmax = 140 MPa broke in a remote cross-section and not at the hole diameter plane, a further demonstration of the benecial eect of coldwork. It is also noted that a larger scatter in fatigue lifetimes was found for the cold-worked hole specimens in comparison with the normal open hole specimens. This suggests that some small variation in the level of cold work

(or hole quality) may have been present from specimen to specimen. 3.2. Fatigue striation spacing In all cases the fatigue striations were approximately normal to the overall direction of crack growth. Fig. 5 shows SEM images of fatigue striations which were created at maximum stress levels of 140 and 200 MPa at a crack length of approximately 1.3 mm in both types of specimen. Fig. 6 shows the fatigue striation spacing as determined for specimens tested at dierent stress levels. Because of some damage to the fracture surface of the cold-worked specimen tested at rmax = 120 MPa

Fig. 5. Fatigue striations: (a) normal hole specimens cyclically loaded at rmax = 140 MPa, crack length a = 1.35 mm (30,000); (b) cold-worked specimen fatigue tested at rmax = 140 MPa, crack length a = 1.32 mm (40,000); (c) normal hole specimen fatigue tested at rmax = 200 MPa, crack length a = 1.22 mm (40,000); (d) cold-worked specimen fatigue tested at rmax = 200 MPa, crack length a = 1.28 mm (30,000).

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and the normal specimen tested at rmax = 160 MPa, the results for these cases are not as reliable as for the other cases and therefore were not included in the analysis to follow. In general, for comparable peak stresses and crack lengths, the striation spacings in the cold-worked specimens were smaller than in the non-cold worked specimens due to the benecial eects of the compressive residual stress. Fig. 6 also indicates that at the lower stress ranges the benecial eects of cold work extended beyond the limits of the range of the residual stress (approximately 3 mm) shown in Fig. 2b. The reason for this behavior has not been established, but may be due to the eects of crack closure in

the region of residual stress, which has a greater inuence on specimens tested at low stress level as compared to those at the higher stress levels. A similar type of behavior has been observed at times in the case of an overload applied during fatigue crack growth [8] where crack retardation extended beyond the overload plastic zone size. 3.3. Fatigue crack growth rates Fig. 7 shows the fatigue crack growth rates based upon the striation spacings in specimens containing either normal or cold-worked holes as a function of the applied

Fig. 6. Fatigue striation spacing along the crack surface in both normal and cold-worked hole specimens. (a) rmax = 120 MPa; (b) rmax = 140 MPa; (c) rmax = 160 MPa; (d) rmax = 180 MPa; (e) rmax = 200 MPa.

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3. In the very short crack range the rate of crack growth is determined by the range of cyclic stress rather than the range of the stress intensity factor (Kitagawa eect [10]). 4.1.1. The modied LEFM approach, method of analysis The modied LEFM approach is based upon the following constitutive law: da 2 ADK eff DK effth dN 1

where A is a material constant, DKe is the range of the eective stress intensity factor, DKe and DKeth is dened as Kmax, the maximum stress intensity factor in a loading cycle, minus Kop, where Kop is the stress intensity factor at the crack-opening level. 4.1.2. Elasticplastic behaviour Irwin [12] proposed that the linear-elastic approach could be extended to include elasticplastic behaviour, i.e., those cases where the crack-tip plastic zone size is large with respect to the crack length, by increasing the actual crack length, a, by one-half of the plastic zone size. If the plastic zone size is taken to be that as dened by Dugdale [13], then the modied crack growth length, amod, is given as:   1 p rmax sec amod a 1 aaF 2 2 2 rY where rmax is the maximum stress in a loading cycle, ry is the yield strength, and F, the elasticplastic correction facrmax tor, is given by F 1 sec p 1 . 2 2 rY 4.1.3. Transient crack closure The level of crack closure developed in the wake of a crack varies from zero for a newly formed crack up to Kopmax for a macroscopic crack. The following expression has been proposed [14] to describe this transient in crack closure behavior: DK op 1 ekk K op max K min 3

Fig. 7. da/dN vs. DK plot for normal and cold-worked hole specimens.

DK. The expression that was used for DK is given by Eq. (13) below. It is noted that for an aluminum alloy for the range of crack growth rates shown in Fig. 7 Nix and Flower [9] found agreement between the fatigue crack growth rate based upon the spacing of striations and that based upon direct measurements of the fatigue crack length as a function of the number of cycles. Fig. 7 indicates that, similar to the case of the fatigue lifetimes, the benecial eects of the residual stresses introduced by cold-working are more pronounced at lower values DK. At the highest DK (approximately 40 MPa m0.5) level in these tests the benecial eect is minimal. 4. Analysis and discussion 4.1. Methodology A modied LEFM, continuum model was used for determining the rate of fatigue crack growth for both short and long cracks [4,5]. The model considers elasticplastic eects, crack closure and the Kitagawa eect [10]. The model will be briey described, and although the crack lengths in this study for the most part are out of the short crack growth regime, the model will be used in the calculation of fatigue lifetimes. According to the model [11] short fatigue cracks dier from large cracks in the following three aspects: 1. Crack growth can be elasticplastic in nature rather than linear-elastic because of a high ratio of the fatigue strength to the yield strength and the consequent large ratio of the plastic zone size to the crack length. 2. Crack closure is a function of the crack length. In the wake of a crack of some microns in length the crack closure level is zero, but as the crack grows to a length of a millimeter or so the crack closure level rises to that of a large crack.

where DKop is the value of Kop Kmin in the transient range, k is a material constant (units m1) which determines the rate of crack closure development, k is the length of the newly formed crack (units m), and Kopmax is the magnitude of the crack opening level associated with completion of the transient period of growth. The value of k at the end of the transient period is generally less than a millimeter. 4.1.4. Fatigue strengththreshold relationship In order to achieve a smooth transition from DK control of the rate of fatigue crack growth for cracks of macroscopic size to Dr control for cracks of microscopic size, (the Kitagawa eect [10]), El Haddad, Topper and Smith [15] added a constant a0 to the actual crack length. When a crack was large with respect to a0, a0 could be neglected. When a crack was short with respect to a0, then a0 became the controlling parameter determining the stress intensity

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factor. In the limit, as zero crack length is approached, the p stress intensity factor becomes Dr pa0 . The constant a0 was evaluated by equating this quantity to DKth, with Dr set equal to the range of stress at the endurance limit. A procedure somewhat similar to that of El Haddad and Toppers will be used in this analysis to deal with the Kitagawa transition [4]. Irwin [12] has shown that the stress intensity factor, K, is related to the stress concentration factor, KT, by the following equation: r r pq pq K lim rm lim K T r 4 q!0 q!0 4 4 where q is the tip radius of the stress concentrator, rm is the maximum stress at the tip of the stress concentrator, and r is the remote stress. In order to achieve the desired transition between the threshold level for fatigue crack growth and the fatigue strength, Eq. (4) is modied as follows: r pq 5 K lim K T r q!qe 4 where qe is a material constant. In the case of a panel containing a central crack under  q a Mode I loading, KT is equal to K T 1 2 q , and Eq. (5) becomes, r  pqe p K pa r 6 4 The material constant qe can be converted to an eective length dimension, re, by equating the following relations for the stress intensity factor r p pqe rmax 7 ryy 2pre 4 so that re is equal to qe/8 in magnitude. p Eq. (7) is obtained pqe to the LEFM by equating the stress intensity factor r 4 p stress intensity factor, r 2pr. Therefore, re is the distance ahead of the crack tip where thep LEFM value of the stress qe . In this modied apintensity factor is equal to rmax p4 proach re is considered to be the eective length of an inherent aw. In this interpretation of re, a newly formed crack is only signicant when its length exceeds re, since for crack lengths less than re, the stress intensity factor associated with re will be larger. It is pointed out that there is no relationship between re and an actual defect. It is merely an adjustable parameter introduced, as in El Haddad, Topper and Smiths case [15], in order to deal with the Kitagawa eect in a quantitative manner. 4.1.5. A generalized expression for the rate of fatigue crack growth The driving force for fatigue crack growth, DK, is now generalized to take into account in geometries other than just the centre-cracked panel as p p DK 2pre F Y paF Dr 8

where the value of Y depends upon the crack shape. It is assumed that the initial crack shape in an unnotched specimen is semi-circular, then the value of Y is 0.73 [16]. The magnitude of re is of the order of one micron. Its value is determined by setting a equal to re, DK equal to the eective range of the stress intensity factor at the threshold level, DKeth (da/dN) = 1011 m/cycle, and Dr equal to the stress range at the fatigue strength level, DrEL (107 cycles), i.e.,  2 1 DK effth re 9 4:5pF DrEL For a value for DKeth of 1.4 MPa m0.5 [17], and for a DrEL of 220 MPa at R = 0.1 [18], the value of re is 2.8 lm. Table 3 lists the values of the constants used in this study. The value of F, the elasticplastic correction factor, is dependent on the maximum applied stress, and is also given in Table 3 for each of the experimental stress levels. Upon taking into account elasticplastic behavior, crack closure and the Kitagawa eect, Eq. (1) becomes: p p da A 2pre F Y paF Dr dN 2 1 ekk K op max K min DK effth

10

The use of Eq. (9) requires that the following independent material constants be known or estimated: A, rY, k, Kopmax and DKeth. Eq. (10) can be expressed in a more compact form as da AM 2 dN 11

where M, the net driving force for fatigue crack propagation, is the quantity in brackets in Eq. (10). 4.1.6. The Mode I stress intensity factor The Mode I stress intensity factor (SIF), KI, for a through-crack growing from a central hole in a plate was obtained from Refs. [16,19]. This SIF was modied to account for the nite width of the specimen so that the form for the SIF becomes: s   p a R p paF 12 DK Dr U sec W
a where U, a function of a , is a factor which accounts for R the increase in stress near the hole due to the presence of the hole (note that in this case a is measured from the edge of the hole), R is the radius of the hole, and W is the width of the specimen. The rst term in Eq. (8) has been neglected

Table 3 Parameter F for each maximum stress level rmax F 120 MPa 1.108 140 MPa 1.156 160 MPa 1.222 180 MPa 1.311 200 MPa 1.436

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since the crack lengths in this part of the study are out of the short crack range. For this geometry, Eq. (10) can be re-written as s   da pa R p 2 AU sec paF rmax K op DK effth dN W
a aR

The variation with

13 r   paR of U sec , and DK (for a Dr W

of 120 MPa) is shown in Fig. 8. 4.2. Crack closure analysis 4.2.1. Crack closure in the long-crack range The experiments carried out did not include crack closure measurements. Since crack closure is an important parameter in the present crack growth model the closure data obtained by Bao [17] in the long-crack range were used as a basis for estimating the long-crack crack closure levels in the present study. Bao determined the crack opening behavior and the rate of crack growth for the aluminum alloy 2024-T351 (bare) in the near threshold region at an R of 0.1, using CT specimens of two dierent thicknesses (B = 6.35 mm and B = 0.3 mm). His Kop vs. DK results are presented in Fig. 9. It is assumed that these results are appropriate for use in the present analysis for normal holes. In studies with steels, e.g., [17], it was found that roughness-induced closure was dominant and that the macroscopic closure level was independent of the DK level. In contrast, in Fig. 10 it is seen that Kop increases with DK, an indication that plasticity-induced closure rather than roughness-induced closure is the dominant type of closure in this aluminum alloy in the longcrack region. Two dierent methodologies were used for taking into account the crack closure eect in the present work:

Fig. 9. Kop vs. DK plot for Al 2024 aluminum alloy for two specimens thicknesses, after [17].

Fig. 10. Kop vs. DK plot for normal and cold-worked hole specimens.

(1) Kop determination for normal hole specimens: Since Kop was not determined experimentally in this study the following procedure was used to determine Kop. As shown in Fig. 9, the value of Kop as a function of DK has been determined for 2024-T351 at R = 0.1 [17]. It was assumed that the same relationship holds for Alclad 2024-T3. However, since the DK levels were higher in the present study than in [17], in order to estimate Kop, the linear relation obtained by Bao was extrapolated as shown in Fig. 10. The equation for Kop as a function of DK (the dashed line in Fig. 10) is K op 1:35 0:27 DK
q R and the stress intensity factor, DK Fig. 8. The variation of U sec pa W (for Dr = 120 MPa), as a function of a/a + R.

14

where DK is dened as in Eq. (13). These Kop values were subsequently used in the determination of DKe.

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(2) Kop determination for cold-worked specimens: In this case a dierent procedure was necessary since no Kop data were available for cold-worked specimens. It was assumed that the rate of fatigue crack growth, da/dN, for the specimens containing cold-worked holes had the same dependence on DKe as did the specimens containing the normal holes. A similar situation exists in the case of an overload where it was shown that even where the crack was propagating in a region of high residual compressive stress and high closure, the rate of fatigue crack growth was solely dependent on DKe [20]. Since in the present case the rate of crack growth was known from the striation measurements, Kop could be calculated on the basis that Kop = Kmax Ke. The resultant Kop values for cold-worked holes are shown in Fig. 11, where the Kop values for the normal hole are also shown for comparison (The non-linear behavior at low DK values is discussed below). The equation for Kop for the straight line portion of Fig. 11 is, CW hole : K op 2:2 0:35 DK 15 Kop values for the dierent test conditions both types of hole are shown in Fig. 11 as a function of crack length. An explanation for the higher Kop values in the cold-worked specimens follows. Consider a plastic zone at the tip of a fatigue crack which is growing in the x-direction. Upon unloading from the maximum to the minimum load in the loading cycle a state of residual compressive stress will be induced in the plastic zone which acts in the y-direction. Next imagine that an extremely thin cut halfway through the plastic zone is made from the crack tip in the x-direction. As Prof. T.H. Topper of Waterloo University has pointed out in a private communication, the state of residual compressive stress

existing after the cut was made is the same as it was before the cut was made, i.e., crack closure has developed. This is the basis for the plasticity-induced closure. Plasticityinduced closure is important not only in the case of the specimens with cold-worked holes, but also in the case of an overload as well. For example, Welsch [21] determined the residual stresses in the region of the crack tip in a low carbon steel under constant amplitude conditions and also after applying 10 overload cycles at an overload ratio of 3. He found that in both cases the point of peak compressive residual stress was located close to the crack tip. As a result of the overload sequence the peak residual stress increased by a factor of three, and there was a corresponding increase in the size of the region within which residual compressive stresses existed. Therefore, the total clamping force behind the tip of a crack which has penetrated into a zone of pre-existing residual compressive stress, as in the case of the cold worked specimens, would increase with increase in the level and extent of compressive residual stress. Since the closure force increases with increase in plastic zone size, we can expect that for specimens tested under constant stress range conditions Kop will increase with increase in crack length, as reected in Eqs. (14) and (15). 4.2.2. Crack closure in the short-crack range In Fig. 11 it is seen that in the short-crack range, i.e., for crack lengths less than 0.5 mm, a deviation occurs from the linear Kop behavior observed in the long crack range, i.e., for crack lengths greater than 0.5 mm, because for a crack which has just formed there is no crack wake and the initial Kop value must be zero. In the transitional, short-crack range crack closure can be due to either roughness or plasticity. In ferritic steels, closure is due to roughness, as evidenced by the fact that once the macroscopic Kop level has been reached Kop remains at ap constant level, at least up to a DK of the order of 20 MPa m [17]. In the present case however, the strong dependency of the opening level on DK in the long crack range as indicated by Eqs. (12) and (13), indicates that plasticity induced crack closure is the dominant long-crack closure mechanism. In order to use Eq. (3) to determine Kop in the short crack region, values must be assigned to the material constant k and to Kopmax. The value of k for Alclad 2024-T3 was not known a priori, but can be determined either experimentally [22], or more simply by treating k as an adjustable parameter in analyzing fatigue crack growth rate data or fatigue lifetimes. In a previous study involving a cast aluminium alloy, W319-T7 [23], the latter procedure was used and the value of k was determined to be 13,000 m1. In comparison, for steels, a value for k of 6000 m1 has been found to be appropriate [5]. The smaller value of k for steel indicates that transient crack closure in steels develops with crack advance at a slower rate than in aluminum alloys. In the present study, a value for k of 13,000 m1 will be assumed. It is also assumed that the following equation for Kop, based upon Eq. (3), is applicable:

Fig. 11. Kop as a function of the crack length for normal and cold-worked hole specimens.

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K op 1 e13;000k K op max0:5 mm

16

where Kopmax(0.5 mm) is the crack opening level in Fig. 11 at a crack length of 0.5 mm (At this length the value of the quantity in parentheses in Eq. (16) is 0.998). It is noted that the value of Kopmax(0.5 mm) is strongly dependent on the stress range, as can be seen in Fig. 11. The fact that Kop0.5 increases with stress range is direct indication that plasticity-induced closure plays an important role in the transient region as well as in the long-crack region. 4.3. Fatigue crack growth rates The rate of fatigue crack growth as a function of DKe DKeth for the present results together with Baos are shown in Fig. 12, with DKeth taken as 1.4 MPa m0.5 [17]. Bao expressed the rate of fatigue crack growth as da 1:8 109 M 2 ; dN m=cycle 17

It is also noted that in Fig. 7, the dierence in fatigue crack growth rates between the normal and cold-worked specimens decreases with increase in DK despite the more rapid rate of closure development in the cold-worked specimens. This trend is consistent with the predictions of Eq. (13). For example, the ratio of the calculated growth rate in a normal specimen to that in a cold-worked specimen p at DK values of 10, 20 and 40 MPa m is 3.2, 2.5 and 1.3, respectively. 4.4. Fatigue lifetimes For purposes of illustration, the fatigue lifetime will be calculated based upon the integration of Eq. (10). However, it is pointed out that these calculations are approximations because the peak stresses at the holes exceeds the yield stress of the material, a circumstance not dealt with in deriving Eq. (10). To deal with this circumstance we assume that the alloy cyclically strain hardens enough to be considered elastic. Because of this assumed increase in

where M is dened as the quantity in brackets in Eq. (13). The results for both types of specimen are consistent with Eq. (1). In the case of normal holes the results indicate that: i. the present results for da/dN as a function of DKe DKeth (Fig. 12) which were based upon striation measurements are consistent with Baos results which were based upon optical measurements. ii. the constant A is the same for both Baos 2024-T351 and the present Alclad 2024-T3. iii. although cycled at a higher DK level than in Baos experiments, the alloy behaved in a manner which was consistent with the results obtained by Bao despite the large dierence in specimen congurations.

Fig. 12. da/dN vs. DKe DKeth plot for normal and cold-worked hole specimens.

Fig. 13. A comparison between the experimental and calculated fatigue lifetimes. (a) Normal holes, and (b) cold-worked holes.

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the yield stress, the ratio of rmax to rY decreases, and as a result the value of F will also decrease from the values of F given in Table 3. As a simplication it will assumed that the value of F in the calculations is 1.0. As a further simplication, it will be assumed that the fatigue cracks form at midthickness of the specimens and grow in semi-circular shape, as has been observed by Newman [24]. Recent research has shown that in the long fatigue life regime micro-cracks form in less than 10% of the lifetime, e.g., [25]. Therefore, in making the calculations it was assumed that all of the lifetime is spent in growing a crack from size re to a length of 0.5 mm, i.e., the number of cycles spent in nucleating a crack was negligible. Further, because of the stress concentration at the hole, the applied stress range is increased by a factor of approximately 3.0. The value of Kopmax was obtained from Fig. 12 as the value of Kop at a crack length of 0.5 mm, Kopmax(0.5 mm), and the value of k was taken to be 13,000 m1 as discussed above. The other constants used in the calculations are given in Table 1. Fig. 13 provides a comparison between the calculated and experimental fatigue lifetimes. In view of the approximations made it is considered that the agreement is reasonable.

cepts and Maintenance by Integrated Risk Evaluation (ADMIRE). P.F.P de Matos, P.M.G.P Moreira and P.M.S.T de Castro acknowledge the ADMIRE project (contract G4RDCT-2000-0396) of the European Union. Specimens were provided by DASA-Hamburg. The SEM work of Ms Daniela Silva (CEMUP) is also acknowledged. References
[1] McNeill WA, Heston AW. Coldworking fastener holes theoretical analysis, methods of coldworking, experimental results. In: ASM conference on residual stresses in design, process and materials selection. Cincinnati, OH, USA; 1987. [2] Phillips JL. Sleeve coldworking fastener holes. Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base; 1974. [3] Ozedemir AT, Cook R, Edwards L. Residual stress distributions around cold expanded holes. In: Eighteenth ICAF symposium on estimation, enhancement and control of aircraft fatigue performance. Stockholm; 1995. [4] McEvily AJ, Eier D, Macherauch E. An analysis of the growth of short fatigue cracks. Eng Fract Mech 1991;40(3):57184. [5] McEvily AJ, Endo M, Murakami Y. On the square root area relationship and the short fatigue crack threshold. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 2003;26(3):26978. [6] de Matos PFP. The inuence of residual stresses on the fatigue behaviour of 2024-T3 Al specimens. In: Faculdade de Engenharia, nica e Gesta Departamento de Engenharia Meca o Industrial. Porto: Universidade do Porto; 2004. p. 281. [7] de Matos PFP et al. Residual stress eect on fatigue striation spacing in a cold-worked rivet hole. Theor Appl Fract Mech 2004; 42:13948. [8] Fleck NA, Smith IFC, Smith RA. Closure behavior of surface cracks. Fatigue Eng Mater Struct 1983;6(3):22539. [9] Nix KJ, Flower HM. In Advances in Fracture Research. In: Proceedings of ICF-5. Cannes; 1981. [10] Kitagawa H, Takahashi S. In: Proceedings of second international conference on mechanical behavior of materials. Boston (MA): ASM; 1976. [11] McEvily AJ. A method for the analysis of the growth of short fatigue cracks. In: Pokluda J, editor. Materials structure and micromechanics of fracture. Switzerland: Trans Tech Publications; 2005. p. 310, Also, Mater Sci Forum, 482(2005):310. [12] Irwin GR. Fracture. In: Handbuch der Physik VI. Heidelberg: Springer; 1958. [13] Dugdale DS. Yielding of steel sheets containing slits. J Mech Phys Solids 1960;8(2):1004. [14] McEvily AJ, Minakawa K, Nakamura N. Fracture mechanics, microstructure, and the growth of long and short fatigue cracks. In: Fracture. Warrendale (PA): Metal. Society AIME; 1984. [15] Haddad MHE, Topper TH, Smith KN. Prediction of non-propagating cracks. Eng Fract Mech 1979;11:57384. [16] Murakami Y. Stress intensity factors handbook. 1st ed. Oxford: Pergamon; 1987. [17] Bao H. Thickness eects on fatigue crack growth. PhD Thesis, University of Connecticut; 1994. [18] Liebowitz H, editor. Fracture mechanics of aircraft structures. 1974, AGARD AG 176. [19] Tada H, Paris PC, Irwin GR. The stress analysis of cracks handbook. 3rd ed. New York: ASME Press; 2000. [20] McEvily AJ, Ishihara S. On the development of crack closure at high R levels after an overload. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 2002;25: 9938. [21] Welsch E. Der Einu reispitzennaher Eigenspannungen auf die Ausbreiting von Ermu t dungsrissen, Doktor-Ingenieurs. Universita Karlsruhe (TH); 1985.

5. Conclusions As a result of this investigation it is concluded that: 1. The benecial eect of the cold work introduced by the hole-expansion process on fatigue life is due an increase in the value of Kop relative that of non-cold worked specimens. The increase in crack closure results in a reduction in crack growth rate and an increase in fatigue life. 2. The fatigue lives of specimens tested with and without cold-worked holes can be determined on the basis of a model that assumes that the fatigue lifetime consists of fatigue crack growth from microscopic size to nal failure. 3. The rates of fatigue crack growth based upon striation measurements as well as by those obtained by optical measurements, although in dierent ranges of DK, 9 da were both consistent with the relation d 1: 8 M 2 , N where M is the net driving force for fatigue crack propagation. 4. In the aluminum alloy Alclad 2024-T3, plasticityinduced closure is the dominant crack closure mechanism in the long crack range.

Acknowledgements This work is a part of the IDMEC (Instituto de Enge nica Porto, Portugal) contribution to the nharia Meca European Union research project Advanced Design Con-

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P.F.P. de Matos et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 575586 [24] Newman Jr., JC, Edwards PR. Short-crack growth behavior in an aluminum alloy an AGARD cooperative test programme. 1988. [25] Ishihara S, McEvily AJ, Shiozawa K. A fatigue crack growth based analysis of two step corrosion fatigue tests. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 1995;10:131121.

[22] McEvily AJ, Minakawa K. Crack closure and the growth of short and long fatigue cracks. Scripta Metall 1984;18(1): 716. [23] Ishihara S, McEvily AJ. Analysis of short fatigue crack growth in aluminum alloys. Int J Fatigue 2002;24:116974.