a.

i*i

330

Optoelectronics In a phototransistor the base is not connected. Instead, it is exposed to the input light, 'uvhich creates the carriers providing the base current. The base current is then amplified in the usual manner. Perhaps I should add that amplification is a good thing but not the only thing to consider. Under certain conditions noise performance may be a
important criterion when choosing a particular detector.
more

in a p-n junction simply by short-circuiting it via a microammeter of very lou'resistance, which serves as the load. The electrons and holes generated by light in the junction will move under the effect of the built-in voltage and drive a current through the ammeter. The measured current turns out to be proportional to the input light intensity. This arrangement is usually referred to as the photovoltaic operation of the junction.
A photo-voltaic cell energized by the sun becomes a solar battery. when we used to lr'orry about the 'energy crisis' it was hoped that acres of solar cells ri'ould replace nastv. dirty power stations. This has not quite corne off. mainly lor cconomic reasons. A simple calculation shows that. even with a generous estirrratc fbr the lifetime of a solar cell, the total energy it will generate is less than that required to purify and fabricate the single crystai slice ffom u'hich it is made. So single crysrals are definitely out. except for applications rvhen monev is no object--as in space vehicles. Amorphous materials, hoi.vever, which r',,e briefly discussed in Section 8.9. can be used. as the economics are more favourable. The amorphous semiconductor \\'ith the most advanced technologf is silicon. It is possible to process it in a u'ide'u'arietv of u,avs. so that its texrure absorbs light lvell. and the acrual absorption edge can be shifted to give a bettcr rnatch to the sun's output than is obtained bv the much more clearlv defined single crystal. Amorphous silicon is usually deposited in a vacuum or reduced gas pressure as a thin film. This makes it possible to optimize the fllm thicknessthick enough to absorb light, but not so massive that the rnuch shorter carrier lifetimes and diffusion lengths lead to loss of carriers before thev participate in useful current. A typical solar cell would consist of successive n- and p-lavers sputtered on a metallized substrate and superposed by a transparent metal top electrode. There are many varieties and, in fact. the variables are so numerous that solar cells have made many PhD theses but have not vet solved the energy problem. Horvever, one commercial realization, now commonpiace. is the solar battery driven calculator. other materials that have seemed promising include cdTe and CurnSe2 as components in multistage solar converters which absorb some of the light photovoltaically and reflect or transmit other wavelengths to different energy gap devices. One advantage of working as a photovoltaic engineer is that you have tw-o levels of costing and seeking efficiency. On the one hand, there is the space vehicle market rvhere photovoltaics are looked upon as essential but relativelii cheap accessories to a vehicle whose cost is astronomical. so a bit more efTlciency is worth paying for. on the other hand there is the porver stari()n replacement rnarket where you need acres of photo cells and vour competitor is coal which comes out of the ground with low cost. Figure 13.3 is a schematic drawing of a four level solar cell. It uses a thin rop layer of GalnP with an energy gap of I .85 eV, then successive layers of rnaterials

All the photodetectors mentioned so far needed an appiied voltage. It should be noted, however, that it is not necessary in this case. Light may be detected

First junction GalnP absorbs light E > 1.85 eV tunnel junction

second Junction

GaAs absorbs lighr

85eV>E>l.4eV
tunnel iunction third junction GaInAs absorbs light

l.4eV>E> leV
tunnel junction fourth junction Ge absorbs light leV > E > 0.67eV GaAs or Ge
substrate

Fig. 13.3
Schematic drawing of proposed 4 junction solar cell, parts of which
have been made and tested.