SUBORDINATE CLAUSES: NOMINAL AND ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES The Nominal clauses are those which occupy syntactic positions

in the sentence typically taken by nouns. They are the following: Subject(ive) Clauses, Predicative Clauses, Objec(ive) Clauses. SUBJECT CLAUSES These clauses perform within the complex sentence the function of Subject. Compare: That we need more books is obvious. The need for more books is obvious.

Subject clauses are connected with the main clause in the following ways: 1. By means of conjunctions: that, if, whether. Eg. That she is still alive is a consolation. Whether it rains doesnt concern me. It doesnt concern me if it rains. (initial position is not possible, only extraposition is possible) 2. By means of conjunctive pronouns: who, which, what, whatever. Eg. Who steals my purse, steals trash. What was done cannot be undone. Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt. 3. By means of conjunctive adverbs: where, how, why. Eg. How you get there doesnt concrn me. It is a grand thing when you see all that water falling down. (extraposition of subject clause) 4. Asyndetically. Eg. It is a pity her brother should be such a stranger to her. Extraposition of subject clauses: It is improbable that he will refuse. It was evident that he did not understand. It was surprising how little the district had changed. It would be most unfortunate if the Court came to another decision. The clausal subject is placed at the end of the sentence, and the empty subject position is filled by the pronoun it. The pronoun is called in this case the anticipatory subject it, or the introductory subject it. The sentence thus contains two subjects the anticipatory subject, and the postponed subject.

PREDICATIVE CLAUSES Predicative clauses perform within the complex sentence the function of a predicative. If we drop them the sentence will be unfinished because the predicative will be missing. Eg. The assumption is that things will improve. The assumption is Connection with the main clause is achieved in the following ways: 1. By means of conjunctions: that, if, as if, whether. Eg. Our attitude sinply is that facts are facts. I felt as if death had lain a hand on me. The thing to be settled on now is whether anything can be done to save him. 2. Conjunctive pronouns: who, which, what. Eg. Duty is what one expects from others, it is not what one does oneself. 3. Conjunctive adverbs: where, when, how, why. Eg. The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. That was why you were not one bit frightened. 4. Asyndetically. Eg. Another thing was they had nurse Andrews staying on with them that week. The fact is, I hardly know how to begin. The reason was, nobody had expected him so early. The predicative clause together with the link verb form a compound nominal predicate. Sometimes we can have a complex sentence with both a subject and a predicative clause. The only element outside these clauses is the link verb. There is nothing that might be termed a main clause. Eg. What we want to know is what they are going to do. The sentenece is well balanced and only the positional criterion helps us to determine which is the subject clause (the first one) and which is the predicative clause (the final one). OBJECT CLAUSES Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate verb of the main clause. Eg. I knew that he was wrong. An object clause may also refer to a non-finite verb and to an adjective. Eg. I called on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard.

They sent the boy to enquire whether the postman was there. I ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry. I am almost certain that he saw me. Object clauses are connected with the main clause in the following ways: 1. By conjunctions: that, if, whether, lest. Eg. Jane wondered if they were really suited for one another. Time will show whether I am right or wrong. 2. By conjunctive pronouns: who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever. Eg. Ill do just what I say. 3. Conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. Eg. I should like to see where you live. I did not see how this was possible. He wondered why he should look back. He enquired when the concert would begin. 4. Asyndetically. Eg. He said there was nothing much the matter with me. Im afraid I trouble you too much. I see you are an early riser. An object clause may be preceded by a preposition. Such clauses are called Prepositional Object Clauses. Eg. I am readt to listen to whatever you may wish to say. I found it hard to keep my mind on what he was saying. An object clause can be introduced by an introductory object it. Eg. I insist upon it that you tell me exactly what you mean. You may rely on it that I shall give you a full account. Depend upon it that there is some mistake. INDIRECT OBJECT CLAUSE These are object clauses after verbs which take indirect objects. Eg. She gave whoever came into the room a cup of coffee. OBJECT COMPLEMENT CLAUSES These clauses qualify the direct object of the main clause. They are introduced by what or as.

Eg. He has made the company what it is today. Call it what you will. I found him as I had left him. ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES Attributive clauses perform in the complex sentence the function of an attribute. According to their meaning and the way in which they are connected with the main clause attributive clauses are divided into RELATIVE and APPOSITIVE ones. Attributive relative clauses can be RESTRICTIVE and NON-RESTRICTIVE. Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent (the noun to which they refer) and attributive appositive clauses disclose (reveal) the meaning of the antecedent. RELATIVE RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES Relative restrictive (aka defining, or identifying) restrict the meaning of the antecedent. They single out a thing from a whole class of similar things. Such clauses cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They are NOT separated from the antecedent by a comma. Eg. This is the house that Jack built. The clause serves as an attribute to the noun house. This noun is called an antecedent. The relative clause restricts the reference of the antecedent house to a particular house, namely the house which was built by Jack. Restrictive relative clauses are introduced by: 1. Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that, as. Eg. He was a man who took delight in simple things. He met at the station the man who(m) he had given a dollar (to). I was taken to the house whose roof was damaged. Please, pay attention to the fact that whose can be used both with nouns denoting animate and inanimate entities!!! She sat at the bureau which filled one corner. The boy that is playing the piano is John. He was such a listener as most musicians would be glad to welcome. as here means 2. Relative adverbs: where, when. Eg. I was out of town the day when it happened. - This is a relative clause because it refers to the noun the day. If it refers to the predicate verb, it is an adverbial clause: She arrived when it happened. He remembers the house where he was born. 3. Asyndetically.

Eg. My father is the best friend I have ever had. When we have a personal antecedent the relative pronoun can show a distiction between who and whom. If it is a subject of the relative clause, who is used. Eg. The girl who spoke to him was Jane. Please, note also that in these cases the pronoun cannot be omitted. When the relative pronoun is an object of the relative clause, there is some choice between who and whom. Eg. The girl whom he met was Jane. (formal register, written English) The girl who he met was Jane. (informal register, conversational English) The girl he met was Jane. The relative pronoun can also be an object of a preposition. If the preposition precedes the relative pronoun, the inflected form whom is obligatory. Eg. The girl to whom he spoke was Jane. If the preposition does not precede the relative pronoun, there is again some choice between who and whom . Eg. The girl who(m) he spoke to. NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLUSES These clauses do not restrict the meaning of the antecedent. They just give some additonal information about it. They can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They are separated from the antecedent by commas. These clauses are introduced by means of: 1. Relative pronouns: which, who Eg. Here is a letter from John, who wants a job in London. We got lost in the mountain, which was enveloped in fog. Here is a letter from John, whom youve met, of course. Asyndetic joining is not used with non-restrictive relative clauses. We cannot use the relative pronoun that with non-restrictive relative clauses, either. 2. The relative adverbs where, and when, can also introduce non-restrictive relative clauses. Eg. In 1960 he came to London, where he has lived eversince. He came in 1960, when there was a strike. NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH SENTENTIAL ANTECEDENT

This clause is a variant of the attributive relative non-restrictive clause. Its antecedent is not one word but a whole sentence. Eg. Mr. Smith was not indoors, which was a relief to her. These claauses are always separated from the main clause by a comma. The connection between these clauses and the main clause is so loose that they may be considered a borderline case between subordination and coordination. Sentential relative clauses are introduced by the relative pronoun which, the phrase which fact and as. Eg. After that things improved, which surprised me. He admires her, which fact surprises me. He saw the girl, as he hoped he would. ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSES Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent. The antecedent itself is expressed by an abstact noun. These clauses are not separated by commas. Appositive clauses are introduced by: 1. Conjunctions: that and whether. Eg. I have a presentiment that he is bringing trouble. 2. Adverbs: how and why. Eg. There was no reason why she should not read the book. Appositive clauses are not joined asyndetically. When introduced by that, this subordinator (that) is a conjunction. When that introduces a relative clause, it is a relative pronoun. In the first case it is not a part of the clause. In the second case it is a part of the clause. The translation of it in Bulgarian is different in the two cases: Eg. The statement (that he made) produced quite a stir in the courtroom. , , . The statement that (he is innocent) produced quite a stir in the courtroom. , , . THE CLEFT SENTENCE Cleft () sentences are sentences of the type: It was John who gave me the book yesterday. It was me that John gave the book to yesterday. It was the book that John gave me yesterady. It was yesterday that John gave me the book.

In these sentences the subordinates clause is attributive in form but it does not ualify the antecedent. In meaning such sentences are simple in spite of their composite structure. They are used to give prominence (focus) on different words in the sentence.