1.2 Microcomputer Parts All microcomputers, regardless of the brand, share a common overall design.

This design is illustrated in Figure 1.5. The CPU, shown in the middle of the diagram, is the brain of the computer. CPU stands for central processing unit and it is the chip that contains all the circuitry for performing arithmetic and logic operations and directing data to and from memory. In a microcomputer, the CPU is contained on a single chip. Minicomputers and mainframe computers have CPUs that occupy several chips. The speed of a microcomputer can be further accelerated by the addition of a math-coprocessor chip. This is a chip designed for the sole purpose of performing mathematical operations. The addition of a math coprocessor can accelerate math-intensive programs by a factor of 10 or more. The CPU of a microcomputer cannot do anything until it has data with which to work. All data that enters the CPU for processing

FIGURE 1.5 RELATIONSHIP OF CPU TO MEMORY AND 1/0 DEVICES originally comes from devices located outside the box that houses the CPU. These devices are called input devices because their function is to get data into the computer. Input devices can consist of such things as the keyboard, a floppy or hard disk, a mouse, another computer, or a laboratory instrument. Figure 1.5 illustrates some common input devices that will be discussed more fully in Section 1.3. To know what the CPU is doing, we must be able to view its operation. To do this, data must be sent out of the CPU to output devices, which may consist of printers, plotters, and video monitors. Output can also be stored for later viewing by saving it on floppy or hard disks. Output devices will be discussed in Section 1.4 and disk storage will be covered in Section 1.6. Input and output is collectively known in computer jargon as 1/0. Data that is entered into the computer must be stored while it awaits processing by the CPU. It must also have someplace to go after it has been processed. The area of the computer that holds this data is the memory. The different types of computer memory will be discussed in Sections 1.5 and 1.6. All of the electronic and mechanical components of a microcomputer system are collectively known as the hardware. In summary, a microcomputer consists of a central processing unit that accepts data from an input device, processes the data, and then sends it to an output device. During the processing, data is

FIGURE 1.6 TYPICAL MICROCOMPUTER HARDWARE stored in the computer's memory. A typical microcomputer configuration is shown in Figure 1.6. 1.3 Input Devices When a microcomputer is first turned on, its memory is empty. Before it can begin processing any data, the data must somehow get into the memory of the microcomputer. The four most common methods of entering data into a computer are shown below. 1. Information is typed in from the keyboard. 2. Data are read in from secondary storage devices like floppy disks, hard disks, or tape drives. 3. Data are collected and entered into the computer from interface devices such as analog to digital converters. 4. Information is entered into the computer from drawing devices such as a digitizer (a type of drawing pad), a mouse, or a light pen. Most information that is processed by a computer originally gets into the computer by being typed in from a keyboard. Therefore, most of this section will be devoted to describing the standard IBM PC keyboard, illustrated in Figure 1.7.

FIGURE 1.7 STANDARD IBM PC KEYBOARD The keyboard is divided into three sections. The middle section, which is the largest, looks much like a standard typewriter keyboard. It contains all the letters of the alphabet, standard punctuation symbols, the numbers 0 through 9, and several special purpose keys. The arrangement of the keys in this section is referred to as a QWERTY format, which comes from the order of the first six keys in the second row. Most data enters a computer from this middle section of the keyboard. The two rows of keys on the left are called special function keys (or just function keys). On some keyboards, the function keys are located across the top, just above the number keys of the middle section. Unlike the keys from the middle section, what happens when you press a function key depends on what software you are running. Software consists of the programs that control the operation of the microcomputer. The operation of the function keys differs from one program to the next. On the night side of the keyboard is the numeric keypad. The keys in this section are arranged like those on a calculator and are designed to speed the entry of numeric data. The NUM LOCK (number lock) key, when pressed, toggles the numeric keypad between the number mode and the cursor control arrow mode. The operation of the special purpose keys (Ins, Del, Ctrl, and so on) will be discussed later. If data have previously been saved on a secondary storage device such as a floppy disk, then this data can serve as input to the computer. Secondary storage devices are covered more fully in Section 1.6. 1.4 Output Devices For the user to view the results of the microcomputer's work, data must be sent from the microcomputer to an output device. Typical output devices are video monitors, printers, plotters, and secondary storage devices that can hold the data for future viewing. The output device found on nearly all microcomputers is the video monitor or just monitor. For the the video monitor to operate, a video display adapter card must be installed in the computer. There are two primary types of monitors available for use with microcomputers. They are television style cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors and the liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors.

FIGURE 1.8 DOT MATRIX DISPLAY 5 x 7 Matrix The second most common output device is the printer. Despite their many differences, printers can be placed in one of two categories. 1. Dot matrix printers These printers produce images by printing small dots in matrix patterns. Figure 1.8 shows what a typical set of 5 X 7 matrix characters would look like if they were magnified. The greater the potential number of dots In the matrix, the better the printed copy will look. Therefore, printed copy from a 5 X 7 dot matrix printer will not took as good as that from a 7 X 9 dot matrix printer. Dot matrix printers will also produce high resolution graphics. Dot matrix printers differ in the technology used to

produce the dots. Printers that are traditionally called dot matrix produce their dots by fining small pins against the ribbon and paper. These printers are capable of printing at over 3.00 characters per second (cps). Inkjet printers produce their dots by spraying ink on the paper. Different colored inks can be used to produce color images. Thermal printers produce their dots by either burning holes in specially sensitized paper or by melting the ribbon onto the paper. These printers are capable of speeds up to 80 cps. Even laser printers are dot matrix printers. They use a laser to create the dot pattern on the paper which then picks up toner to produce the final image. Laser printers are capable of printing up to 15 pages per minute. 2. Fully formed character printers in this category produce their images by striking wheels, balls, or thimbles which contain the complete character against the ribbon and paper. (For this reason they are sometimes called impact printers.) This is the same way a standard typewriter produces its images. A common example of a fully formed character printer is the daisywheel printer. In this type of printer, spokes containing characters are struck by a hammer forcing the spoke against the ribbon and paper. This type of printer is also referred to as a letter quality printer because the output looks just like it was produced by a standard typewriter.

FIGURE 1.9 FLATBED PLOTTER The drawbacks to these printers are they are slow (less than 60 cps), noisy, and are usually incapable of producing graphics. Output from a microcomputer can also be sent to a plotter, which creates its image by drawing on paper with a felt tip pen. Some plotters will automatically change pens to produce multicolored drawings. Plotters are primarily used for creating graphs, charts, and diagrams. They are far too slow for producing a full page of text. A plotter is illustrated in Figure 1.9. Another type of computer output is sound. Primary Memory A microcomputer would be incapable of performing even the simplest task if it did not contain some type of memory. Consider an example in which you want the microcomputer to add the numbers 2 and 2. When you type the first 2 in from the keyboard the CPU does not yet know what you intend to do with it so it has to store the number. When you enter the plus sign it now knows you intend to do some arithmetic but it still needs another number. Finally, you enter the second 2 and the CPU performs the calculation and stores the result in memory. A microcomputer uses memory to store the programs that

control its operation, to store data waiting for processing, and to store the results of operations performed by the CPU.

Primary memory, or storage, is electronic memory that is directly addressable by the CPU. This memory is contained in integrated circuits called memory chips. Each memory location is assigned a number called an address. The CPU uses these addresses to keep track of information stored in memory. Since primary memory is completely electronic, transfer of data to and from it is extremely fast. A microcomputer contains several types of primary memory. RAM (Random Access Memory) is used for storing information that changes. This is the memory in a computer that is accessible to the user. RAM is used to store user programs that control what the CPU does. It stores the data used by these programs and the results of operations performed by these programs. How much RAM a computer has determines the size and sophistication of the tasks a microcomputer can perform. RAM is an example of volatile memory. This means that everything stored in RAM is lost when the power is turned off, even for an instant. Another type of memory found in all microcomputers is ROM (Read Only Memory). ROM can be read by the user but cannot be altered. ROM is nonvolatile, retaining the information stored in it even when the power is turned off. ROM is used primarily to store the instructions a microcomputer needs to get itself started after you turn on the power. This start up process is called booting or bootstrapping and figuratively means that the computer pulls itself up by its own bootstraps. The boot instructions are placed in ROM by the computer manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user. ROM can be used to store other programs supplied by the manufacturer. Programs stored in ROM are sometimes referred to as firmware. Examples of other kinds of memory chips include PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) is a type of ROM that can be programmed by the user. However, once it is programmed, the contents cannot be changed. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is a type of PROM chip that can be erased and reprogrammed. EPROMs are erased by shining ultraviolet light on them. An example of an EPROM chip is shown in Figure 1. 10. EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is much like EPROM except that EEPROM chips can be erased by an electrical signal instead of ultraviolet light. All data transfer, storage, and processing done by a microcomputer is performed digitally using binary (base two) codes. This

FIGURE 1.10 EPROM CHIP binary system translates every character entered in the computer into a set of I's and O's. For example, the PC represents the capital letter "C" as 10000 11. The advantage of binary coding over other methods is that a sequence of only two possible states is required to represent a character in the electronic circuits of the computer. The binary digit I could be represented by a signal level of + 5 volts and a binary 0 could be represented by a signal of 0 volts. Therefore, the smallest piece of information that needs to be stored In memory is a single binary digit. A single binary digit is called a bit. Different groupings of bits are used to represent different characters. A collection of eight bits is called a byte. One byte can represent any of 256 characters (2 =256). The word "bit" would require a total of three bytes of memory one byte for each character in the word. Since we are primarily concerned with how many characters the memory of a computer can hold, memory size is referred to in units of bytes or kilobytes (kilo = 1000). In binary arithmetic, the power of 2 that is closest to 1000 is 2" (2" = 1024). Therefore, in computer jargon, the prefix kilo stands for 1024. Frequently, the word kilobyte is abbreviated K. A computer having 256K of RAM has the ability to store as many has 262,144 characters in random access memory locations (256 X 1024 = 262,144). The maximum amount of memory the CPU of a computer can directly access is a function of the number of bits the CPU can handle at one time. The number of bits a CPU can process at one time is called its word length. The word length of a CPU also affects how fast the CPU can process data. The Intel 8088 CPU in the

FIGURE 1.11 DISK READ WRITE HEAD

1.6 Secondary Memory Secondary memory (or storage) refers to nonvolatile storage devices that are usually mechanical in nature and therefore. are much slower at transferring data to the CPU." The most common secondary storage device for use with microcomputers is the floppy disk (usually just called disk). Disks come in a variety of sizes including 8 inch, 5.25 inch, and 3.5 inch. The disk is made of a flexible plastic that is coated with a magnetizable substance like oxides of iron or chromium. Signals can be recorded onto the disk in much the same way that signals are recorded on magnetic tape. A diagram of a disk read write head from a disk drive is shown in Figure 1. 11. A current corresponding to the signal sent by the CPU of

the computer passes through a wire coil which surrounds an iron core. This produces a magnetic field which is concentrated in the gap of the iron core. The disk, which rotates beneath the read write head, is magnetized by this field. A series of magnetic pulses corresponding to the original binary data sent out by the CPU is recorded on the disk. Reversing this process allows data already stored on a disk to be read tack into the computer.

FIGURE 1.14 HARD DISK DRIVE Another popular secondary storage device for use with microcomputers is the hard disk. The basic principles of operation for a hard disk are similar to those of the floppy disk. In a hard disk, however, the magnetic medium is coated on a rigid metal platter. This platter rotates ten times faster than that of a floppy disk. Therefore, a hard disk is much faster at transferring data to the CPU of the microcomputer. Another important difference between a hard disk drive and a floppy drive is that the read write heads of the hard disk drive do not touch the surface of the disk the way they do in a floppy drive. Hard disks, like the one shown in Figure 1. 14, hold much more data than a floppy disk. An IBM PC floppy disk can hold approximately 1.44MB of data. Hard disks hold twenty megabytes or more of data. Hard disks are high precision, delicate instruments. They must be handled with care to avoid head crashes, which occur when the read write head of a hard drive comes in contact with the rigid platter. If this happens, all of the data on the disk will probably be lost. In most cases, the platters in a hard drive are not removable. Therefore, the data on a hard disk cannot usually be carried from one computer to another. Most hard disks are designed using what is known as Winchester technology For this reason, hard disks are sometimes called Winchesters. A recent addition to the storage devices of a computer is the CD-ROM (compact disc-read only memory). A CD-ROM is a type of hard disk that uses laser beams rather than magnets to read and write bits of information on the surface of the disk. CD-ROMs, unlike most hard drive platters, are removable. SUMMARY Microcomputers are made possible by advances in electronics that led to the development of large scale integrated circuits. These advances made it possible to place the entire CPU of a computer on a single chip.

All computers share the same basic architecture. The main components are: (1) the central processing unit (CPU), (2) input devices, (3) output devices, and (4) memory. The CPU of a microcomputer performs all the arithmetic, logic, and data handling functions of the microcomputer. The speed at which the CPU can process data is determined by the system clock speed and the word length of the CPU. The most common input device used with microcomputers is the keyboard. The PC keyboard is a QWERTY keyboard with the addition of a numeric keypad and special function keys Other input devices typically used with microcomputers are disk dives and analog to digital interfaces. Output can be directed to a video monitor, printer, or disk drive. Composite monitors are capable of displaying text and low resolution graphics. TTL and RGB monitors can display high resolution graphics. Dot matrix printers produce hardcopy at high speed with varying degrees of resolution, whereas fully formed character printers produce letter quality copy. The basic types of computer memory are RAM and ROM. RAM memory is the workspace used by the CPU for storing data and programs. It is volatile. ROM memory holds instructions supplied by the manufacturer. ROM is nonvolatile. Memory is allocated in eight bit quantities called bytes. One character occupies one byte of memory. Data that must be saved after the computer is turned off are usually stored on a floppy or hard disk, or secondary storage devices magnetically record binary data onto a rotating disk.

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