Chapter 5

Chapter 1
Chemist and Chemistry

What Is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter and energy and changes that matter undergoes.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Energy is the ability to do work.

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Experiment and Explanation

Experiment and explanation are the heart of chemical research.
An experiment is an observation of natural phenomena carried out in a controlled manner so that the results can be duplicated and rational conclusions obtained. After a series of experiments, a researcher may See some relationship or regularity in the results.

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Experiment and Explanation

If the regularity or relationship is fundamental and we can state it simply, we call it a law.
A law is a concise statement or mathematical equation about a fundamental relationship or regularity of nature. An example is the law of conservation of mass, which says that mass, or quantity of matter, remains constant during any chemical change.

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Experiment and Explanation

Explanations help us organize knowledge and predict future events.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of some regularity of nature. If a hypothesis successfully passes many tests, it becomes known as a theory. A theory is a tested explanation of basic natural phenomena.

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Experiment and Explanation

The general process of advancing scientific knowledge through observation, laws, hypotheses, or theories is called the scientific method. (See Figure 1.7)

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Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution

There are two principal ways of classifying matter:
By its physical state as a solid, liquid, or gas. By its chemical constitution as an element, compound, or mixture.

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Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Solid: the form of matter characterized by rigidity; a solid is relatively incompressible and has a fixed shape and volume. (See Figure 1.11a) Liquid: the form of matter that is a relatively incompressible fluid; liquid has a fixed volume but no fixed shape. (See Figure 1.11b) Gas: the form of matter that is an easily compressible fluid; a given quantity of gas will fit into a container of almost any size in shape. (See Figure 1.11c)

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Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

To understand how matter is classified by its chemical constitution we must first look at physical and chemical changes.
A physical change is a change in the form of matter but not in its chemical identity. Physical changes are usually reversible. No new compounds are formed during a physical change. Melting ice is an example of a physical change.

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Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures (contd)

A chemical change, or chemical reaction, is a change in which one or more kinds of matter are transformed into a new kind of matter or several new kinds of matter.
Chemical changes are usually irreversible. New compounds are formed during a chemical change. The rusting of iron is an example of a chemical change.

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Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures (contd)

A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed for material without changing its chemical identity. Examples are physical state (solid, liquid,or gas), melting point, and color. A chemical property is a characteristic of a material involving its chemical change.
A chemical property of iron is its ability to react with oxygen to produce rust.

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Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures (contd)

Millions of substances have been characterized by chemists. Of these, a very small number are known as elements, from which all other substances are made.
An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction into simpler substances. (See Figure 1.14) The smallest unit of an element is the atom.

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Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures (contd)

Most substances are compounds.
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined. The smallest unit of a compound is the molecule. The law of definite proportions states that a pure compound, whatever its source, always contains definite or constant proportions of the elements by mass.

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Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures (contd)

Most of the materials we See around us are mixtures.
A mixture is a material that can be separated by physical means into two or more substances. (See Figure 1.12 and Figure 1.19) Unlike a pure compound, a mixture has variable composition. Mixtures are classified as heterogeneous if they consist of physically distinct parts or homogeneous when the properties are uniform throughout. (See Figure 1.15a , Figure 1.15b)

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Measurement and Significant Figures

Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity to be measured with a unit of measurement -- that is, with a fixed standard of measurement.
The term precision refers to the closeness of the set of values obtained from identical measurements of a quantity. Accuracy is a related term; it refers to the closeness of a single measurements to its true value.

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Measurement and Significant Figures (contd)

To indicate the precision of a measured number (or result of calculations on measured numbers), we often use the concept of significant figures.
Significant figures are those digits in a measured number (or result of the calculation with a measured number) that include all certain digits plus a final one having some uncertainty.

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Measurement and Significant Figures (contd)

To count the number of significant figures in a measurement, observe the following rules:
All nonzero digits are significant. Zeros between significant figures are significant. Zeros preceding the first nonzero digit are not significant. Zeros to the right of the decimal after a nonzero digit are significant. Zeros at the end of a nondecimal number may or may not be significant. (Use scientific notation.)

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Measurement and Significant Figures (contd)

Number of significant figures refers to the number of digits reported for the value of a measured or calculated quantity, indicating the precision of the value.
When multiplying and dividing measured quantities, give as many significant figures as the least found in the measurements used. When adding or subtracting measured quantities, give the same number of decimals as the least found in the measurements used.

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Measurement and Significant Figures (contd)

14.0 g /102.4 mL = 0.137 g/mL

only three significant figures

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Significant Figures
Count from left from first non-zero digit. Significant Number Figures 6.29 g 3 0.00348 g 3 2 9.0 2 1.0 10-8 various = 3.14159 Adding and subtracting. Use the number of decimal places in the number with the fewest decimal places. 1.14 0.6 11.676 13.416 13.4

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Significant figures
Multiplying and dividing. Use the fewest significant figures. Rounding Off 3rd digit is increased if 4th digit 5 Report to 3 significant figures. .

0.01208 0.236 = 0.512 = 5.12 10-3 10.235 12.4590 19.75 15.651 10.2 12.5 19.8 15.7
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Measurement and Significant Figures (contd)

An exact number is a number that arises when you count items or when you define a unit.
For example, when you say you have nine coins in a bottle, you mean exactly nine. When you say there are twelve inches in a foot, you mean exactly twelve. Note that exact numbers have no effect on significant figures in a calculation.

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SI Units and SI Prefixes

In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures adopted the International System of units (or SI), which is a particular choice of metric units.
This system has seven SI base units, the SI units from which all others can be derived.

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Table 1.2
Quantity Length Mass Time Temperature Amount of substance Electric current Luminous intensity

SI Base Units
Unit Meter Kilogram Second Kelvin Mole Ampere Candela Symbol m Kg S K mol A cd

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SI Units and SI Prefixes

The advantage of the metric system is that it is a decimal system.
A larger or smaller unit is indicated by a SI prefix -that is, a prefix used in the International System to indicate a power of 10. Table 1.3 lists the SI prefixes. The next slide shows those most commonly used.

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Table 1.3
Multiple 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Prefix mega kilo deci centi milli micro nano pico

SI Prefixes
Symbol M k D C m n p
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Temperature
The Celsius scale (formerly the Centigrade scale) is the temperature scale in general scientific use.
However, the SI base unit of temperature is the kelvin (K), a unit based on the absolute temperature scale. The conversion from Celsius to Kelvin is simple since the two scales are simply offset by 273.15o.

K = oC + 273.15
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Temperature
The Fahrenheit scale is at present the common temperature scale in the United States.
The conversion of Fahrenheit to Celsius, and vice versa, can be accomplished with the following formulas (See Figure 1.23).

o o

C=

F 32 1.8

F = 1.8 (o C) + 32
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Derived Units
The SI unit for speed is meters per second, or m/s.
This is an example of an SI derived unit, created by combining SI base units. Volume is defined as length cubed and has an SI unit of cubic meters (m3). Traditionally, chemists have used the liter (L), which is a unit of volume equal to one cubic decimeter.

1 L = 1 dm 3 and 1 mL = 1 cm 3
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Derived Units
The density of an object is its mass per unit volume, m

d=

where d is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. (See Figure 1.25) Generally the unit of mass is the gram. The unit of volume is the mL for liquids; cm3 for solids; and L for gases.

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A Density Example
A sample of the mineral galena (lead sulfide) weighs 12.4 g and has a volume of 1.64 cm3. What is the density of galena? mass 12.4 g = volume 1.64 cm3

Density =

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A Density Example
A sample of the mineral galena (lead sulfide) weighs 12.4 g and has a volume of 1.64 cm3. What is the density of galena?

Density =

mass 12.4 g = = 7.5609 = 7.56 g/cm3 volume 1.64 cm3

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Units: Dimensional Analysis

In performing numerical calculations, it is good practice to associate units with each quantity.
The advantage of this approach is that the units for the answer will come out of the calculation. And, if you make an error in arranging factors in the calculation, it will be apparent because the final units will be nonsense.

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Units: Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis (or the factor-label method) is the method of calculation in which one carries along the units for quantities.
Suppose you simply wish to convert 20 yards to feet.

20 yards

3 feet = 60 feet 1 yard

Note that the units have cancelled properly to give the final unit of feet.
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Units: Dimensional Analysis

The ratio (3 feet/1 yard) is called a conversion factor.
The conversion-factor method may be used to convert any unit to another, provided a conversion equation exists. Relationships between certain U.S. units and metric units are given in Table 1.5.

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Table 1.5 Relationships of Some U.S. and Metric Units

Length 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 mi = 1.609 km 1 mi = 5280 ft

Mass 1 lb = 0.4536 kg 1 lb = 16 oz 1 oz = 28.35 g

Volume 1 qt = 0.9464 L 4 qt = 1 gal

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Unit Conversion
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) reacts with acidic materials such as vinegar to release carbon dioxide gas. Given an experiment calling for 0.348 kg of sodium hydrogen carbonate, express this mass in milligrams.
0.348 kg x 103 g 1 kg x 103 mg 1g = 3.48 x 105 mg

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Unit Conversion
Suppose you wish to convert 0.547 lb to grams.
From Table 1.5, note that 1 lb = 453.6 g, so the conversion factor from pounds to grams is 453.6 g/1 lb. Therefore,

0.547 lb

453.6 g = 248 g 1 lb
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Operational Skills
Using the law of conservation of mass. Using significant figures in calculations. Converting from one temperature scale to another. Calculating the density of a substance. Converting units.

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Figure 1.7: A representation of the scientific method.

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Figure 1.11a: Molecular representation of a solid.

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Figure 1.11b: Molecular representation of a solid.

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Figure 1.11c: Molecular representation of a solid.

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Figure 1.12: Separation by distillation.

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Figure 1.14: Elements: sulfur, arsenic, iodine, magnesium, bismuth, mercury.

Photo courtesy of American Color.

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Figure 1.15: A mixture of potassium dichromate and iron fillings. Photo courtesy of James Scherer.

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Figure 1.15: A magnet separates the iron filling from the mixture.
Photo courtesy of James Scherer.

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Figure 1.19: Gas chromatography

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Figure 1.23: Comparison of temperature scales.

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Figure 1.25: The relative densities of copper and mercury.

Photo courtesy of James Scherer.

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