T I M , n o e t h l C a g rm n e a h G /T ion lar rs t e h o v g i S n r t o y c p C e o r C D i rg y e 7 7 n 9 9 9 9 E 2. r 2.

cal i o r F ct e l E
Courtesy of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Used with permission.

Importance of Heat

Photo from Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org

Vehicle Systems T I M , n o e t h l C a g Mechanical losses 9kJ m r n Exhaust a 10kJ 9kJ he n G T o Driving Gasoline / 6kJ 10kJ i r s a r t 100 kJ l e Gasoline h 6kJ o v g Auxiliary S 30kJ n 35kJ 100kJri10kJ 30kJ t o y 35kJ c p C 10kJ ire o y C D g Parasitic r e Exhaust 7 7 heat n losses Coolant 9 9 Parasitic 9 9 E Exhaust Coolant . . heat losses l 2 r 2 ca i o r t F In US,c transportation uses ~26% of total energy. e l E

Co-Generation in Residential Buildings

T I M , In US, residential n and e o t h commercial buildings l C a consume ~35% energy g m r n e a supply h G /T ion lar rs t e h o v g i S n r t o y c p C Entropy e o r Oil or i y C Thermal Power Heating g D Natl Gas r e 7 7 n 9 9 TE Recovery 9 9 E &
2. r 2. calElectrical PowerRefrigeration Appliances
i o r F ctPV Electricity e l E
Photo by bunchofpants on Flickr.

Image removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see any photo of the Honda freewatt
Micro-CHP system, such as http://www.hondanews. com/thumbnails/2007/4/3/13644_preview.jpg

Photos by arbyreed and toennesen on Flickr.

7 9 9 . 2 r 2. o F e l E

M , n o e t h l C a g m r n e a h G /T ion lar rs t e h o v g tS n i r o y c p ire C o C D rg y 7 ne 9 9 lE a c i r ct

Industrial Waste Heat T I

Fig. ES.1 in Hemrick, James G., et al. "Refractories for Industrial Processing:
Opportunities for Improved Energy Efficiency." DOE-EERE Industrial Technologies Program, January 2005.

Renewable Heat Sources

T I M , n o e t h l C a g rm n e a h G /T ion lar rs t e h o v g i S n r t o y c p C e o r C D i rg y e 7 7 n 9 9 9 9 E 2. r 2. cal i o r F ct e l E

Photos by Jon Sullivan at http://pdphoto.org/ and NASA.

Photos of solar hot water tubes removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see, for example, http://image.made-in-china.com/2f0j00KeoavBGJycbN/ Unpressurized-Solar-Water-Heater-VERIOUS-.jpg

http://ns2.ugurpc.com/productsimages/solarevacuatedtube_202160.jpg

T I M , n o e t h l C a g rm n e a h G /T ion lar rs t e h o v g i S n r t o y c p C e o r C D i rg y e 7 7 n 9 9 9 9 E 2. r 2. cal i o r F ct e l E

Solar Thermal

http://www.treehugger.com/Solar-Thermal-Plant-photo.jpg Images by Sandia National Laboratories and NREL.

http://media.photobucket.com/

http://www.solareis.anl.gov/images/photos/Nrel_flatPV15539.jpg Image by Nadine Y. Barclay, USAF.

T I M , n o e t h l C a g rm n e a h G /T ion lar rs t e Thermoelectrics h o v g i S n r t o y c p C e o r C D i rg y e 7 7 n 9 9 9 9 E 2. r 2. cal i o r F ct e l Photovoltaics E

COLD SIDE HOT SIDE

Direct Energy Conversion

Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see http://web.archive.org/web/20071011185223 /www.eneco.com/images/science-new.jpg

Thermophotovoltaics
http://www.keelynet.com/tpvcell.jpg

Courtesy of John Kassakian. Used with permission.

T I M , 1600 AM1.5 Solar Spectrumn e o t h Energy Usable for Silicon PV Cells l 1400 C a g m r n 1200 e a h n G T o 1000 / i r s a r t l e h o 800
v g i S n r t Bandgap of Silicon o y c p 600 C e (1.1 m) o r i y C D rg 400 e 7 7 n 9 9 9 9 E . l 2. 200 2 a r 0 ric o F 0ct 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 e Wavelength (m) l E
1800 Terrestrial Solar Spectrum (W/m2m)

Solar Spectrum

1.5E4 1.0E4 0.5E4

Solar Thermophotovoltaics T I M , Insolation n o e t h l Optical Concentrator C a g rm n e a Selective Wavelength (m) h n G T o i Absorber r/ s a r t Emitter l Irradiance e h o v From Emitter g i S n r t Selective y TPV Cell o c p C e o r i y C g Wavelength (m) D r e Thermal Management 7 7 n 9 9 Wavelength (m) 9 9 E . . l 2 2 Theoretical maximum efficiency: 85.4%; comparable to that of infinite a r c i o number of multi-junction cells, but with only a single junction PV cell. r t F c Key Challenges: Selective surfaces absorbing solar radiation but ree lonly in a narrow spectrum near the bandgap of photovoltaic emitting E cells, working at high temperatures.
1500 1000

Power (W/m2m)

Solar

500

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Emissivity Absorptance

0 0

1.5 1.0 0.5

Absorber

(a)

Power (W/m2m)

(b)

0 1.5

10

15

(c)

Emitter

1.0 0.5

10

12

(d)

10

12

T I 30.0 M , T =30 C n o e 25.0 t h 700 C l C a 600 C g m 20.0 n er 500 C a h 400 C n G T o 15.0 / i 250 C r s a r t l ve 200 C h o g10.0 t S n i r 150 C o y c p ir5.0 e yC o C D rg e 7 7 0.0 n 9 9 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 9 9 E . . AVERAGE FIGURE OF MERIT ZT 2 r 2 cal Low materials cost and low capital cost, potentially high efficiency. i o r t Develop materials with high thermoelectric figure of F Challenges: Key c e l merit; and E selective surfaces that absorb solar radiation but do not
cold

Solar Thermoelectrics
T -T
hot

cold

EFFICIENCY (%)

(b)

re-radiative heat.

T I M Closed: E2 E1 = Q Environment 12 W12 , n o e t h dE =C Q W l a Q g W m r n dE e System a & W & n =h Q G /T o i r dt s t ola er Boundary h v g t S State i n r Process Properties: o y c p C Dependent Closed System e Process o r Open System C Di rgy Independent Quantities e 7 7 n 9 9 9 9 E . l = KE + PE + U (Internal Energy) + ... 2. E 2 a r ric o t F Specific du c Heat C = [J/K - kg, or J/K - m ] e l E dT
3

1st Law of Thermodynamics

T I Q M , S S = + S (S 0) n o T e t h l Entropy C a Entropy Entropy Change g m r n Transfer Generation State e a h G /T ion Properties lar rsdS = 0 During a cycle: t e h o Heat Reservoir T v g i S n r t Q Q o y c 0 = p C No r entropy generation e o Q T T C D i rg y e 7 7 Maximum Efficiency W Q Q n 9 9 = = 9 9 E (Carnot Efficiency) . . W l Q Q 2 Q 2 a r ric T =223 C, T =23 C, =40% o F ct T =5800 K, T =300 K, =95% e l Heat Reservoir E T
2 1 gen gen boundary
h

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Tc = 1 Th

h h

Thermal power plant ~40%, IC engines ~25%

Microscopic Picture of Entropy

T I M , n o e t h l C a g rm n e a h G /T ion 1 r rs P = la Probability Boltzmann Principle t e h o v g i S n r S = k B ln k =1.38x10 J/K ---Boltzmann constant t o y c p C e o r i y C g D r Constant Temperature Constant Temperature e 7 7 n 9 9 and Closed Systems But Open Systems 9 9 E . . l 2 r 2 ca E /( k T ) ( E ) /(
k T
)
P (E) = Ae i o r P ( E ) = Ae F ct e --- chemical potential (driving force for mass diffusion); l E
For Isolated Systems
Microstate: a quantum mechanically allowed state A total of microstate Principle of equal probability: each microstate is equally possible to be observed
B -23

average energy needed to move a particle in/out off a system

Maxwell distribution

T I ( ) ,M n o e t h l C m(v + va + v ) P( v , v , v ) = A exp g m n er2k T a A box of gas h n G T o / molecules All Probability must normalize to one i r s t ola er h v g m(vt S i n r m

) +v +v o y
c A= A exp 1 = dv dv dv p C e 2k T

o 2k T r i y C D rg e 7 7 m(v + v + v )
n m 9 9 Maxwell 9 9 P( v , vE ,v ) = exp . .
l Distribution 2 r 2 ca k T k T 2 2
i o r F ct e l E
1 2 2 E = m v2 + v + v x y z 2
x y z 2 x 2 y 2 z B
2 x 2 y 2 z x y z B

3/ 2

3/ 2

2 x

2 y

2 z

T I M m(v , + v + v )
1 E = dv dv dv m(v + v + v )A exp n
e o 2 2k t T h l C a g rm 3 n E = k T e a 2 h G /T ion lar term s Equipartition Principle:tevery quardratic in microscopic r e h o energy contributes k T/2. v g i S n r t o y c p C e= 1.38 kir T 10 J/K 300K = 5.14
10
J
How much o y C g Is k T at room D r e 10 J 5.14 7 7 temperature n 9 9 = 26 meV = 9 9 E 2. r 2. cal 1.6 10 J / eV i o r t F 3k T 3 1.38 10 J / K 300 K
c = 220 m/s
v = = Oxygen Atom at 300 K e l m 16 1.67 10 kg
E
x y z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 z B

One molecule

E =

23

-21

- 21

19

23

27

T I From quantum mechanics M , Energy levels are quantized n Energy : E=h = h

e Each quantum state can have o t h l maximum one electron C a Momentum : p = h/ = hk g Planck-Einstein Relation m r n e h = h /( 2 ) a Planck constant h=6.6x10 Js, h G /T ion r with s Consider one quantum state an energy E at constant a r t l e h temperature T. The state cano have zero electron (n=0) or one v g S n ri isc electron (n=1). y What the average number of electrons if t o p observations? C one does many e o r C D i rg y E e 7 7 n 9 9 = A exp 1 = Ae 1 + exp 9 9 E . . k T k T 2 r 2 cal i o r t of electrons in the state Average F number c e l E
-34

Fermi-Dirac Distribution

( E ) /( k BT )

n = 0 ,1

T I M Average number of electrons in the state , n o e t h 1 l Fermi-Dirac = f = nAe C a Distribution E g m r n exp +1 a e h n G k T/T o i r s t ola er h vT=0K, is called g tS n At i r y ec Co Fermi level, E p o C Dir rgy F=1 for E< e 7 7 n 9 9 F=0 for E> 9 9 E . . 2 r 2 cal i o r F ct e l E
( E ) /( k BT ) n = 0 ,1 B
1 FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION 0.8

Fermi-Dirac Distribution

1000 K

0.6

0.4

0.2

100 K 300 K

0 -0.1

-0.05

0 E- (eV)

0.05

0.1

Photons and Phonons

From quantum mechanics EM waves are quantized, basic energy quanta is called a photon Photon has momentum Planck-Einstein Relation Each quantum state of photon (an EM wave mode) can have only integral number of photons

T I M , Energy : E = h =
h n e to h l : p = h/ = hk Momentum

C a g h = 6r.m n 6 10 Js; h = h /(2 ) e a h o n G /TEnergy of a quantum state: i lar rs 1 t h Ee = n + h n = 0,1,2...

o v g i 2 S n r t y ec Co p Zero point energy
Classical Oscillator o r C Di rgy Natural Frequency e 7 7 Spring n 9 9 9 9 E 1
K 2. r 2. cal =
2 M i o r F ctM 1 E = n + e h n = 0,1,2...
Energy of Mode l 2 E
One Photon
34

Basic vibrational energy quanta h is called a phonon

100 K
0 0

T I M state Consider one quantum , n o in thermal equilibrium e t h l ( E ) /( k T ) C a Pg ( En ) =m Ae n er a G /Th ion r rs Distribution laBose-Einstein t e h o v g i S n r Average number of t o y c p C photons/phonons in one e o r C Di rgy mode (quantum state) e 7 7 1 n 9 9 f = 9 9 E . . l E 2 r 2 ca exp 1 i o k T F c tr e l Usually =0 E
n B
5000 K 1000 K 300 K
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 FREQUENCY (X10
14

Bose-Einstein Distribution

BOSE-EINSTEIN DISTRIBUTION

Hz)

T I M Thermal Radiation Convection , Heat Conduction n o e t h l C a T T T g T m r n e a L G /Th ion Fourier Law r law s Newtons of cooling Stefan-Boltzmann a r t l e h o Law for Blackbody dT v g & i S & =thA Q = kA [W] n r ( ) Q T T dx o y & = AT c Q p C e Cross- o r y C Di Convective Stefan-Boltzmann Constant Thermal Sectional g Heat r Conductivity 7 =5.67x10 W/m K Area e Transfer Coefficient 7 n 9 9 [W/m-K] [W/m K] 9 9 E Heat transfer . . Materials Property 2 r 2 cal Flow dependent & = AF (T T ) Q i o r HeatF Flux ct Natural Convection Emissivity of View factor e l dT Forced Convection two surfaces F=1 for two & E
Fluid Ta y

Heat Transfer Modes

hot

cold

uy

ux

Tw

hot

cold

-8

hot

cold

q = k

dx

(= -kT) W/m 2

parallel plates

T I M Heat Conduction , n o e t h l C T T a g rm n L e a h G /T ion 1D, no heat generation lar rs t e h o T T T T v g & = kA i S Q = n r t Ry L o c p C L e o r Thermal Resistance Ri = y C D g kA r e 7 7 & Heat Current Q n 9 9 9 9 E 2. r 2. cal T T i o r R F ct e l Convection E R=1
10
5

Heat Conduction

10

Diamond

hot

cold

Silicon

10

Copper

Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

10

Quartz single crystal (// to c-axis)

hot

cold

hot

cold

10

Stainless steel (type 304)

th

Ice

th

10

Fused quartz

Water (saturated)

Helium (1 atm)

10

-1

Air (1 atm) Steam (saturated) 10

3

hot

th

cold

10

-2

10

10 Temperature (K)

th

hA

Heat Conduction: Kinetic Picture

T I M , n o e t Hot q h Cold l C a g rm n e a h G /T ion lar rs v x t e h o v g i S 1 1 n r t o y ) (nEv c q

= (nEv ) p C 2 ire 2 o y C g D r d(Env ) v dUe dT 7 dx 9 q = -v =7 n 9 3 dT dx dU J 9 9 E . . [ ] = C l 2 2 m K a dT v dT dT r c i = C = k o F 3 dx ctr dx C = c e 1 Specific heat
El
x x

xvx

x+vx

Energy per particle: E [J] Number of particles per unit volume: n [1/m3] Average random velocity of particles v x Average time between collision of two particles ---relaxation time Average distance travelled between collision =v---Mean free path Volumetric specific heat
3

Thermal Conductivity

k = Cv 3

Density

per unit mass

T I M Perfectly Basic Relations , Reflecting Wall n Frequency e o at T t h Angular Frequency =2 l Inside the Cavity C a Wavelength EM Wave In g rm Wavevector magnitude k=2 / n Equilibrium at e a Wavevector k=(k ,k ,k Temperature T k h G /T ) ion s = ck = c k + k + k c = ar r t l ve(k): Dispersion relation (linear) h o g tS n i r o y ec How much energy in the cavity? p C o y C Dir Ur=g 2 hf ( , T ) = e 9 7 97 n L = 9 ,2 ,..., n ,... 9 E dk dk 2.2 2 2r 2. 2 cal 2 (2dk hf ( , T ) L L L / 2 ) ( 2 / 2 ) ( 2 / 2 ) k =n o i r L 2 F ct dk dk dk e = 2 hf ( , T ) l (2 / L ) (2 / L ) (2 / L ) Two E polarization
x y z

Thermal Radiaton: Plancks Law

2 x

2 y

2 z

n x =1 n y =1 n z =1 x

2V U= 3 8
3

T I Energy density per interval M hf ( , T )dk dk dk , n u ( ) = hf ( , T )D( ) o e 2V t h ( ) = f T k dk h , 4 l h C 1 a 8 = Plancks law g c h m r n exp 2V 1 e a k T ( ) = f T d h , 4 n h G 8 c c T o / Intensity: energy flux per unit i r s U a angle r t olsolid = hf ( , T ) d e h V c v g t S dA i n r 1
cu ( ) h o y ( ) = = I c = hf ( , T )D( )d p C e 4 4 c h o r i exp y k T
1
C D rg
e 7 n Solid Angle Per unit wavelength interval = u ( )d9 7 9 9 9 E . . l dA 1
I ( )d 4ch 2 r 2 ca d = I ( ) = = R i d 2hc o D()-density of states per r exp 1 t F whole space c unit volume per unit k T e Plancks law 4 angular frequency El interval
x y z 2

Thermal Radiaton: Plancks Law

2 3

2 3

3 2

p 2

T I & M Q Wiens displacement law , n o e t T = 2898 Kmh l C a g rm n e a h n G T o / Emissive Power i r s t ola er h g t S nv i & ( ) = AI ( ) Q r o y c p C 1o h e r =A i y 4 c C h g r exp 1 D e 7 k T9 7 n 9 9 9 E . . l 2 2 Total a r ric o tT &=F & ( )d = A Q c Q e l E
max

Thermal Radiaton: Plancks Law

10

EMISSIVE POWER (W/cm m)

2

10

10

5600 K

2 2

2800 K

10

1500 K

10

800 K

10

-1

4 6 WAVELENGTH (m)

10

MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu

2.997 Direct Solar/Thermal to Electrical Energy Conversion Technologies

Fall 2009

For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.