CHAPTEN2

Steam Power Plants

The Rankine CYcle

generation' Figure.2 1 The Rankine cycle is the most widely used cycle for electricpower b shows the ideal 2'2a, Figure cycie. illustrates a simplified flow diagram of a Rankine Rankine cycle is a saturated 1'-2-3-4-B-I cycle Rankine cycle on P-o and T-s diagrams. cycie' Rankine a superheated is i'-2'-3-4-B-f Cycle (saturated vapor enters the turbine). and turbine the through processes The reversible. The cycles shown are internaily pressure no are prr*p ur" udiabatic reversible. Hence, r,erticai on the T-s diagram. There

iorru,

line' ir-t the piping. Line 4-B-1-f is a constant-pressure The reversible Rankine cycle has the following processes:

ttLrbine ' The exhaust Line 1,2 or 1',2',. Adiabatic reversible expansion through the vapor at point 2 or point 2'is usually in the two-phase region' Line 2-3 or 2,-3. Constant-temperature and, being a two-phase mixture ProceSS/ constant-pressure heat reiection in the condenser'

generator Pressure' condenser pressure, point 3, to subcooled liqr-rid at the steam the iiquid is because r-t diagrams ut-ta P-a the point 4. Line 3-4 is vertical on both reversible' adiabatic is pump essentially incompressible and the generator, Line 4-B-1 1, Line 4-1 or 4.1,. Constant-pressure heat ad.dition inthe steam bringing the represents 4-B is a constant-pressure line'on both diagrams. Portlon in the steam 4-B Section B. at point subcooled tiqlia, point 4, to saturated liquid liquid the saturated heating ."p."i"t-tts generator is culle.l ar', economizer. Portion Bl1 mixture)' a two-phase temperature and fteing to saturated vapor at constant pressure eaaporator' Portion 1-1" and section B-1 in the steam generator is called tineboiler or at point 1 to point 1'' vaPor saturated the heating in the superheat cyc1e, repreints Section 1-f in the steam generator is called a superheater'
a unit mass of vapor in the cvcle: Following is the thermodynamic anaiysis based on

Line3.4.Adiabaticreversiblecompressionbytlrepumpofsaturatedliquidatthe

Heat added
t1,,=

hr-h,
- 7r,

Btu/Ib,,, (or l/kg)

(21)

Turbine work
7L).,.

= h,

Btu/1b,,, (or J/kg)

(2.2)

1q

16

Chap

Iw

f^,*. Z.f

Schematic flow diagram

of a Rankine cYcle.

(b) saturated I-s diagrants' Line t-ZS-q-e4 =

ib) 2'2 ldeal Rantilne CP = critical point' cvcle superrreated [uli". t'iti t''-r34-BL' =
Frcune

Heat rejected

lqol =h,Pump work

h.

Btu/1b,, (or J/kg)

(23)
(2,4)

\tu,,\

=ltrh.)

h.

Net work
Aronn,

= (h\

h2)

(hn-

Btu/1b,,, (or J/kg)

(2.5)

Thermal efficiencY
rlu' =

A&/,,",

lo

(h, hr\-i!;l'J -'_1t1- n.l

hn

(2.6)

For small units where

Pn

P" is not much larger than

h'=

\2.7)

Steam Power Plants

work, the thermal efficiency The pump work is negligible compared vrith the turbine (with little error) is
Ilu, =

ll

It.

t,

4rd

(2.8)

P4 is 1000 psi (70 bar) This assumption is not true for modern Power plants, where the pump work may be o-btained or higher, rvhile P. is about 1 psi (0.07 bar').In this caie, tables' One can uy riiang lr' as the saturatei enthalpl' of liquid at P' from the'steam T' that = T') find hnfr-', in" subcooled liquid tables-at T., and P, (assuming in flow work: the change from for the pr,'.,p,uu.k may be obiained

Ai appr.ximati'.

(2e)

Reheat

illustrate the flor.t' and T-s diaReheat improves the cycle efficic-nc1'. Figures 2 3 and 2.4 grams

the turbine an internalty reversibie tiu,-tt]." cycle (i.e., the process through cycle) The the in drop and pump is adiabatic and reversible; alsc'r, there is no pressure point 1 is at cycle reheat cycle superheats and reheats the vaPor. The vapor in the expanded in the high-pressule turbine to point 2' steam generator (the .l/ofe: Line nh-represer]ts the primary coolant in a counterflow furnace)' generator steam the primarV heat source is the combustion gases from at constant presreheated is it where The r.apor is retumed back to the stearn generator enters the now steam reheated The 1' point sure (ideallV) to a temperature near thaiat condenser the to Pressure' low-pressuie turbine'"vhere it exparrds from point 2 -to In a reheat cycle, i-reat is aclied h,r,ice: from point 6 to point I and 7 to point 3 close to the point 3. It keeps ih" boil"r-rrperheat-reheat p.rtion from point primary fluid line ac. Tl-ris increases the cycle efficienry (poi.t 4 instead of point 4')' Reheat also produces drier steam at tire turbine exhaust

.f

Modernfossil'fueledpowerplantslraveatleastonestageofreheat.Ifmorethantwo and the improvement in efficiency stages of reheat or" .r."d, cycie complication occurs doJs not justify the increase in capital cost'

High-pressure tu rbi ne
Su

Per-

heater

Boiler

Economizer

Ftcunr 2.3

ffith

superheat and reheat'

18

Chapter

Two

F"r* 2.4 Is diagram or

Rankine cYcle of F\9.2.3

the of the steam at loint 1 is used to reheat seDarate heat exchang er rehenter. A portion reheat water heaters. The .o,,,d",.,ses u,-,d is sent to the feed :,:#::;#;ffi;;i1oterms' (Refer to Fig' 2'4') addition heat two and cycle involves two turbine work terms lV, = (lr,

lnsomeplants,thesteamisnotreheatedintheSteamgeneraior,Itisreheatedina

hr) +

(\-

h')

(210)
(2.11)

lW,,l = ho- h,
AW"", = (h, clo=
tt,n = hr)
/in)

+ (/r. +

hr)

(ho- hr)

(2.12)
(2.13)

(hr-,1

th.-

hr)

AW^''
,

(2.14)

The reheat Pressure P, affects !h9 cycl9 rartio of in cycle efficiency us a frictlon of the
p, :2500 psia, T, = i000:;*""^i. pressure, the increase ,r., .y.r"

t'

and 25 p"i._":: "11""0.T,[tff"ff:iil?iii""., ',,eachedwhen p,/p, isbetw"".":o decrease agarn to efficiency ih" Lowering the reheat;;;;;;;' i',,f":th"l:u"s"t r"*.. :i o'o:::"T:':lili':Jr:3iill;l'i,,r.,heat-reheat power prant is desis-

"iii.tency

to initial pressure PrlP,' is too close to the initial = iooo'l rr tr-r" **r"ui pressure portion of heat is minimul becarse only a small

variation efficiency Figure 2'5 illustrates the

l"n"lt pirr.,r"

i:)i1,';"i 1p, ffi p.' i' ooo' ::.,i :l i1?;"1 l, ff TXi1n'[ffii:: :T: :Jl i'l elttctency ou ".,5 five plants. Nc'te thc increase in
Ufr.i"".u
caused by using nonideal fluids'

'

'

Steam Power

Plants
I

l9

000

800

600

;
x 700

.:
o
d

()

lda I.C

tr

l: l.E
lf lj
0J 0.6
07
.0 P2/P1 Reheat pressure/initial pressure'

IF

t6

o o F

IF

high-pressur 2.5 Effect ot r"n"Zfi6frtfiiE;Ite rat'o on efficiency' *'tn temperature, and row-preslri" i'j'ni'! "'; c;91t1.gliiiX'"?.'l?3t i',q"3it 1000 1000/ 500/ 2 F !"i$"l,lll 15 iffiO:F, ;;.,eam ren eat to 1ooo"
Frcune
(

initial steam at

:--*--- ' -'

in19_
Superheat
Data
i

2500 25O0/1OOO : saturated

r pressure,, Psia Turbine lnlet Pressure, p*s]u

Turbine inlet temperature,

'F l-OO0 ,

2500 I i*??oo

,;

zs-oo 6-6,?:11

Exhaust steam

enthalPY' : 852'52 i 688 36

,

Btu/lbTurbine work,
Pump work,

Btu,zlb.

604:98
7.46

Btu/lb.

Net work, Btu/lb-

397.48
101-6.11

Exhaust steam quality cvcte eriiciencY, "z

0 5971

39.r2

ffiormancecomParison

20

Chap

Tw

Froune

2.6

Exlernal irreversibillty

with Ranklne cycle.

Regeneration

prlmary tetnpef ature differences between the Externql irrtruersiltilittl is caused by the Temperature fl-uid' working the coolant) and heat source (combustion gases or Prlmary sink fluid (condenser cooland fiuid ovorki'tj condensing ll:.lt"t differences between external irreversibllity' ir-tg *'ut", or cooling air) also cause Line a b nt'; (line 4-B-1-2-:-+) in a Rankine cYcle' th" ill;;;;^;;t 2 6 'otki'-'g Figure represents ' steam generator, and line c_d represents tlre prilnarv coolant in a counterflor,r, Ifiine n-b is too ciose to line 4-B-1' o*.hor-rger' the heat sink fluid in a counterflo* tgoian| and the working fluid would '-r"oi the temperat."u tiiii"t"ttes betn'een th; ;;;"t; by heat loss from the primary coolant) be small. Therefore, the irreversibilities tJaused rvould be large and costly' are small, but the steam generator between 4-B-1 (signlficant temperature differences line than If line n-b i, *.,.n nigter and smali be would fluid),1he steam generator the primary .."i;i or,,i ,h" worklng would be inexpensi'e, btrt the overall temperature

iiff"."r-t.", Jnd irreversibilities

reduced' lu.gi. H"r'r.e, the plant efficiency r"'ouid be p.or a great deal of irreversibilities occur ihat ie'eals 2.6 Eig .* An examina-tiior-, the where generator ecor,omizer lection of the steam to the point of boiling (i.e., in the the during a1l of fr-n u"a tine 4-B are the grea[est temperature .fifi"."n'."-, between iir-,o entire heat addition Process)' Thethermaleffi.cienciesofalltypesofpowerpiantssu'.ferfromthisirreversibility, at point B instead is adied to the steam generator which can be eliminated if the liquid heat between exchanging iy tf-tts objective of point 4. f f-," pro."r, of rege,teraiior, ^.ni"t"t addition' heat before o,-ra ,r']. -"-rp.es.ed fluid the expanding tj;iJi;lh"iurbine

Feedwater Heating
the Feedwaterheatingisaccomplishedb-vheatingthecompressedliquidatpoint4ina by steam that is bled from five between number of finite steps in heat exchanglrr'i;*En""aers") use plants 2.b.1 Modertl steam power turbine at selected stages. (see Fig. heating, feedwater withbut built ;." N;;; and eig}rt {""d;;;", h;ating Stages.

Steam Power

Plants n
B

the steam generator at a point below poini In a regenerative cycle, the liquid enters

(Fig.2.6).Ar-re.o'-'o*i"ersection(thisisthepartofti-e-steamgeneratorthatheatsthe than is stilineeded. Howei'ei, it is much smaller incoming fluid between points 4 and B) cycles. The efficiency of a weli-designed the one that is needed for n.nregen"rulJ"
of a Carnot cycle' Rankine cycle is the closest to the efficiency The three types of feedwater heaters include:

l.

OPen or direct-cont'rct tYPe

2. Closed type with drains cascaded backward 3. Closed type with drains pumped forward

The lnternally lrreversible Rankine Cycle

Internalirreaersibilityisprimarilytheresuitoffluidfriction,tlrrottling,andmixing.The in turbines and purnps' and pressure most important irrl'ersibilities in a cycle occur turbines and pumps/ pipes, bends, r,alves, and so on. In losses occur ir., rr"ui mass is negligible)' unit per "*.r1ungers, (the heat iosses the assumption oi adiabatic"flow is still

'alid tlowever,theflowisnotreversibie.Theentropyinbothp.o."rt"tincreases'Thisisiilus-

tt"t"firl,li?;lu7
given bY

rs atrinbntic or isentropic efficienul) potyrrnpn et't'iciettcyr, (sometimes cated

It n,=,' tlt -

lt"
tr2,

(2.15)

efficiencies- They- are Well-designea tr,.Uir-r", ho,r" hlgh polytropic. in the steam rednces q.. o.a". oi go pe"rcent. The presence of-moisture

efficiency' Nofe; t1, is different from the cycle thermal

usually in the

Process2-3(Fig'2.7)lnthecorrdenseroccursatconstatrtpressureandconstarrt
temperature(atwo-phasecondensationprocess)-TlrepumpProcessisalsoadiabatic

F*,*Za

A T-s diagram of an internally irreversible superheat Rankine cYcle.

22

C h a p

Tw

It is a liquid (single-phase) and irre'u,ersible. The entropy in this Process increases' (3-4) increases more than the process (3-4). The iemp"'uit"" 1ld. :"-tn"fpy Process in an more absorbs pump the "vork adiabatic u,-,a ."u".Jii f.o..r, (3-a.). Therei.ie,
irreversible Process.
The punry potytropic efficiency efficiency) is lu (sometimes called adiabntic or isentroStic

given by

l, n '' where

(ideal work) Ir, -lt. :{acr"ol *"*) lr- -1.

(2.

i 6)

is the rever>e of q,' Th" actrral punrp rr ork is gir en by

(2.17)
,1, np

than the turbine inlet (due to fricThe liquid ieaving the pump is at a higher Pressure the steam generator at point 5 enters the tion throughout tie systern)l tne steam"leav'ing betweenpoinis 5 and 1 is the result turbine at point 1. (see Fig.2.7.)The pressureirop Point 5' represents the frictional losie,' of the combined effects of friction and heat turbine, including the turbine and generator effects in the pipe connecting the steam the entropy to 1' throttle valve. Heat losses frJm that pipe reduce

0pen or Direct'Gontact Feedwater Heaters

extraction steam Pressure'

the incoming subcooled feedwater in the The extraction steam is mixed directly with mixture beiomes saturated water at the open or direct-contact feedwater heaier. The

Figure2,sn,bshowstheflowdiagramandcorrespondingT-sdiagramforaRankine feedwater heater and the other cycle using two feedwater heaters-one a low-pressure ahigh-presstrrefeedwaterheater'(Thelow-pressure.feedwaterheaterisupstreamof use one openmodern power plants the high-prerr.t." f""d*ater heater') Normilly'
other heaters'

typ" f""d*oter heater and betu'een four and seven Atypicalopen-typecleaeratingfeedwaterheaterisshowninFig.2.g.Theconden,,saturatua at point 5 (see^Fig' 2'8)' It is. pumped to
sate

*utli"

leaves the-condenser

poirrt6tothesamePlessureasextractionsteamatpoint3..Thesubcooledwaterat low-pressure feedwater heater to produce point 6 ur-ra *.,;i"ui1-ui poi.t 3 mix in the
saturated water at Point 7'

tion steam at poini 3 were l{ (where nri i1-9 t mixture that wouid be difficult to pump.g.
steam at poini higher than the "*iru.tio. at turbine the Point 3' wluld enter g, which cooled condition at point steam at point 10 enters the steam

Theamountnqlssufficienttosaturatethesub^coolellll".atpoint6.Iftheextracat point 7 would be a two-phase

> ri7),the flow

6-7 (constant) cannot be water Otherouise, reverse flow of condensate

r.rr.r." uif11"

AsecondpumpisneededtopressurizethesaturatedwaterfrompointTtoasub' 2' The ir ,l;;.;;;"re of extraction steam at point

added

to the open-typ;

g""";;;t; ";t pt"::lll.1-leaerator is usualiy the surface area and il;;;";-heateis. The mixing Process increases

Steam Power Plants

23

2.8 (a) Schematic flow and (b) I-s diagrams of a nonideal superheat Rankine cycle with two open-type feedwater heaters'
FrcunE

o' and Co"). These gur:r,.u^ be vented to riberates noncondensable gases (".g., N' heaters or DA' Hence, the ariangem"it it iun"a deaeratittg ",*"rffl".". The mass balance is as follows:
Mass flow between Points 1 and 2 = 1' Mass flow between Points 2 and9 = mz' mr' Mass flow between points 2 and 3 =1' mz' and7 = Mass flow between points 3 7 and 3 -- L - mr- ritt' points between Mass flow
Mass flow between points 7 and9

=1-

i1z'

1' Mass flow between Points 9 and 1 =

Theenergybalancesforthehigh-arrdlow-pressurefeedrt,aterheaters,respectir'elv,
are as follows

n5ft,-hr) = (1- t4) (hr- hs) fr\(h,- hr) = (1 - nt- n\) (h" -

(2.18)
h6)

(2.7e)

24

Chapter

Two
Spray nozzle detail B

Tray detail A

Spray nozzles see delail B Distributing pans

Condensate inlel
Sprav hood

Atmospherlc venls
Stearn batfle Bleed steam inlet

Deaerating tray banks see detail A Relief valve

Tray loading door

High pressure heater drains inlet

Equalizer

Manhole Level gauge

FreunE

2.9

atei heater' \CourtesY of Chicago

Heater, lnc.)

Heat added
q

(ht

Turbine work
u., =

^=

h'o)

(2.20)

(lr,-

lr,) +

(1- nt) (h?- \)

+ (1

- nt-

ry1

(h.-

hr)

(2.21.)

Pump work
I

(h8- h?) lru, I = Q - ri5- n\) (hu- ft.) + (1 - ry)

+

(r,J_

h") = (1

- ttr'1) +f
.Pr\ r
u"(P,o
1,,/

-\r (l

m) 'It|t

ur(Pu

Po)

e.2Zl

l, /

ft ' lb,/Btu' where 1,, is the pump efficiency and I =778'16

Steam Power

Plants

25

Heat rejected
lq,.

| = (1 -

,t-

r\) (h^-

ho)

(2.23)

Net cycle work

Aun"t =

tur- lu,,l

(2.21\

Cycle thermal efficiencY

Iltr. =

-. .t A

L.tu nPt

t) )\\

Work ratict
WR

20.",
711t.

(2.26)

work of reduced turbine mass-flolv rate after bieeding. The pump

increased.

mass.flort' rate because Note that tire turbine rt,ork has decreased for the same has also

efficiency' r,r,ork. This results in signifi.cant improvement in cycle The maximum number of heaters' feedwater of t-tur,.ber tne *,iti increases efficiency little increase in efficauses eight feedwater heaters used is eight. Any increase beyond

Notealsothedecreaseinheataddedwhichmakesupmorethanthelossonnet in The improvement

ciencv and adds complications to the system.

ihu ir-t.."ur" in capitai

cost woLlid not

justify the increase in efficiency'

Backward closed-Type Feedwater Heater with Drains cascaded plants' It rs a.shellpower in heaters This is the most cornmonly used type of feedwater tlre slrell side, the on tubes, The feedrt,ater pu,,"' through the and-tube lreat exchanger. ""tl".gy to the feedwater as it c-onclenses. Feedwater heaters are bled steam trunftrs
ver,v similar to condensers, but they operate at higher Pressures'

diagram of a nonideal superheat the flon' diagram and' the to""'po'-'Ji'-tg f-s

A boiter

f"";;;;tir

2'10 illustrates usually pliced after iire deaerater. Figure

o""{i:".;lii"Lo.

t'"o feedwater heaters.of lht'y.ry next lorverheater' Then' it is fed back to the bled steam condenses in each feedwater heaters)' l.wer-pressurer to from higher-prrssur{-r pressure f""d*;;;;;aier (it cascades. subcoolecl high-pressure to transfers its energy Wet steam u, p,rir-r, : o admitted and

?ilv,:fi.fii:;;*:f*;1"

wateratpoint6.ure.lengthdiagramofthisheater.Thetemperaat point 3 the inret ur"a ,t""* t"*f;;;;"."

,',.J:?T""1:l:T:1TT:j'l::ilff[:*

26

Chap

Tw

ie
\ \ \

t2

Frcune

2.1O l") S"h"m"b" fl"- and (b) T-s diagrams of a nonideal backward' closed-tyPe feedwater heaters with drains cascaded

superheat Rankine cycle with tvvo

A difference called the terminal temperature defined for all closed feedwater heaters as

difference (TTD, sometimes

simply TD) is

TTD = saturation temperature of bled steam

exit water

temperature (227)

(5'F)' Usuaily, the TTD is in the order of 2'78'C Aclosedfeedwaterheaterthatfeceivessaturatedorwetsteamcanhaveadraincooler

Thus,itiscomposedofacondensingsectionandadraincoolersection(Fig.2.11).

Steam Power Plants

27

F-c--{
-' '/
(a)

/-"-1

trt)
(c)

(b)

of (a' b) low-pressure-and (c) high-pressure

feedwaterheatersofFrs'2.10.c=con"denser,DC=draincooler,DS=desuperheater,TTD=
terminal temPerature dif ference

Cycle

Particulars
No suPerheat; no

lAw*,

qa

fwh+

1473,72

rr20.19
1!32
9?_

s
p E F
G
H

,Sgogrheatlno
I
,

guqerh?at;

fw-h one oPen fwfr

,?7?,n .519,3

1203.95
L2L2.C4
',

Superheat; one closed fwh, drains I 520 31 cascaded: DC{' Superheat; one closed fwh; drains 529'85

1245.63

,42.54
l

i Pumpedi

DC

Superheat: one closed fwh: drains 520 59

1-447

143.0L

:44 1351.0
I

;44.33
;

AF 4

fwh; drains cascaded

Supercritical; double reheat; no I t,vtr ; SSOO/r OOO / IO25 / 1'O5O

aa1 a')

47.O5

*DC = drain cooler, flvh = feedwatcr heater

ffi

lations for ldeal Rankine CYcles

for ideal Rankine cycles' By Tabie 2.2 shorvs the results of example calculations of work but the improvement of r1tl' ilr comparing cycles C and B, note the reduction comparison between the Various cycles cycle C due to zu"arrntlr"n"uii^g. r. general, one of superheat, reheat, a'd the use of sh.rt,s large ir-rcreas", ,r-.' "fi.i"r-rJi", ur"u result feedwater heater. with superheat'
actual 5l2-MW power plant Figure 2.12 shows a flow diagram of an reheat, and sel'en feedwater heaters'

3,41 3,6 t 9#

o o o
'o
30s.0t2#
"n

L
6 o

4
! a6

1309.6h

I o

! 'I !

,l

1438.8h

!L
:O

39'73#

io 5PJ
194,160#

258.1 P

6uX a i.L
JO

r65.9

_ l 387.9h

t l59,l03# .J 1289.4h
a 6

ilJ a

3'782#
1388h

o o a

ir

TI

-r

203.8h

t2.l6P

"n
q
CJ

%,609#
1159.?h

62.9P

!r
v

22.8P
r

io )g

70.535 #

5.76 P

-r o

?6.609#

:F: @

^
:;

t t 19.6h

6c b i
7*> N!
@ 5

a:

.)
D

6 6

28

b
C
(g

a
.9
c,)

E.
0)

0) (o 0)

IE tc

IB

t;
l-

ls

l; IE

lo lo
0)

o = o
(6

c) s LL

l"L

b o o J
LL

--i o c
E

a \-1
-l

b o O
-l
.!p

f =
co
q,)

oi
i!L o
bb

o-

o c

0)

L:
u^t o C!

o_

li t>
IK

o d

= rJ 6
-c
o-

$-lo =a) Em-o

s-o'fl o\
6 0 9

"

c)

9-3;
o08

lil a lar

.9

o o
c q)

lE.Io

lI,o
t;
(o

.9

ocoRoY.;_tn i=Cv--:

P F 6

H.g ob: EN8

b> F;

FoR U

o
brl
c)

le

c.)

(o (o

ls E lbn

lo b!

l: lo

,g

_o (o

=PaEfo: o o O - O > Cr :: n*n.Q) o- o 6 -: 0) .9R5o-d:9:--ciQil

c

4aff=fi4
COqJOau!v/

eE6'oFoo\L!6:.cgF:6d

c':O,X;!cstd_o '=-C9;i:!u--

Rb9953i:

9R;dFX";

P-iEPg;:
oh

6 n
.o

lE E

E a

6c6o;6o.roooqot69a e c o-E c; c o o o. q: o ioYkxq:al666P=t=

(o

6 P

l* .g ld

{ o
d
29

l"i c o :6 le le Ir!!b ,C

+.. btsdd.co-xaaaat-)+

^ q

Eo-6

Fs

-b* Eb{HboE*

30

Chapter

Two

Etficiency and Heat Rate

because The actual thermal efficiency of por,,r,er plants is less than those computed earlier

the varithe analvsis did not include the various auxiliaries used in a Po\\'er plant and ous irreversibilities associated with thern' This is The gross efficiency is calculated using the gross Powel of the lurbine generator' equipment intemal the powlr [in megawatts (MW)] that is produced before supplying the etc.). of the po*"l. ptant (e.g., pumps, compressors, fuel-handling equipment, computers, (the gross the plant Power Tie net ,fiirirnrylt iaiculated based on the net power of minus the power needed for the- internal equipment of the plant)'

Supercritical Plants

Figure 2.13 illustrates the T-s diagram of an ideal supercritical, double-reheat effi3560 psi/1000'F/r02s'F/ 1050'F power plant. The-v usualll' ha'e higher ihermal
and pressure for long periods of time'

due to ciencies than subcritical plants. Their capital cost is higher than subcritical plants temperature high withstand that can the need for suitable maleria] and sealing devices

Co-generation

piant. Co-generation is recommencied for industries and municipaiities because it can

Co generation is the simultaneous generation of electricity and stean-r (or heat) in a po\ver

2.13 I-s diagram of an ideal supercritical, double-reheat 3500,/ ]-.OOO / tO25 / 1050 steam cYcle.
Frcunr

025" F

Steam Power

Plants

31

than a utility. Also, it proproduce electricity more cheaply and/or more conveniently or.municipality' industry for the electricity) and vldes the total energy needs theat separate genelacompared_w.ith when energy it saves if Co-generation i.-s beneficial 11." is given by efficiency plant co-flneration The (or heat). tion of iectricity and steam n-s ',rt,
E+

LH

(2.28)

eo

where

E = electric energy generated AH. = heat energy, or heat energy in process steam ' (enthalpy"of steam entering the process) (enthaipy of process condensate =

returning to Plant)
Q, -

heat added to plant (in coal, nuclear fuel, etc')

of total For separate generation of electricity and steam, the heat added per unit
energy output is

n.
where
e

c , (l-e)
l',

(2.2e)

= electrical fraction of total energy output = [E/(E+AH")J l. = electric Plant efficiencY lr, = steam (or heat) generator efficiency

The contbined fficiency Tl,for separnte generation is, therefore, given by

n - ;7n 1-1,1 ,7n,1

(2.30)

(2'28)] is Co-generation is beneficial if the efficiency of the co-generation plant [Eq' greater ihan that of separate generation tEq. (Z'30)l' Types of Go-generation (2) the bottoming The tr,vo main categories of co-generation are (1) the topping cycle and
cycle.
The Topping Clcle

elecIn tirisiycle, the primary heat source is used to generate high-enthalpy steam and is taken enthalpy low at steam tricity. Depending or'r p.o.uss requirements, Process from any of the following:

. .

heating)' Extracted from the turbine at an intermediate stage (like feedn'ater back-pressure a is calied Taken from the turbine exhaust. The turbine in this case turbine.

0'5 and 40 bar' Process steam requirements vary widely' between

The Bottomin$ Glcle directly for process requirements In this cycle, the prrmary heat (high enthalpy) is used The low-enthalpy waste heat is kiln^(iurnace)]' [e.g., for a high-temp"iut.t.e tui".'t inJr'r .tt"a to generate electricity at low efficiency'

32

Chap

Tw

Thiscyclehaslowercombinedefficiencythanthetoppingcycle.Thus,itisnotrlery common.onlythetoppingcyclecanpror'idetruesavingsirrprimaryenergy.
Arrangements of Co-generation Plants
as follows: The various arrangements for co-generatitln in a topping cycle are

. . . .

Steam-electric power plant r'r'ith a back-pressure turbine'

turbine Steam-electric power plant r,r,ith steam extraction from a condensing (Fig.2.1a). gas turbine Gas turbine power plant with a heat recovery boiler (using the exhaust to generate steam). turbine is either of Combined steam-6;as-turbine cycle po\ /er plant. The steam type' extraction-condensing the the back-pressure tyPe or of

utility' If a utility Co-generation is recommended if the cost of electricity is less than the e-conomics' of regardless is nit available, co-generation becomes necessary, costs' The two types if Power plant costs are (1) capital costs and.(2) production kilorvatt-net' per dollars costs.in unit capital as or Capital costs aie givenln total dollars it is able to Capital costs def,rmine if a plant is good enough to obtain financing. Thus, costs' capital pay the fixed charges against per kilowatt Productiott cosfs are"calculatld amruallv and they are given in mills cost of power the of measllre real tl-re are costs Production (a is U.S. lull/ hour $0.001).
generated. They are composed of the follolving:

Economics of Co'$eneration

. . .

Fixed charges against the capital costs Fuel costs OPeration and maintenance costs

Dearat lng

feedwater heater

Closed

feedwater heater

xtraction-condensing turbine

spe

SteamPowerPlants

33

are given by Al1 the costs are in mills per kilowatt hour' They

prod uction costs ;rs

t"t"l

(,, + b

r b)$

l0'e Period

Q.31\

where the period is usually taken as 1 yea1, The plant-operating factor (POF) is defined for all plants

as

aO, -

total net enerE), generated by Plant 9u{ing

,ut"d

period of time I the same Period

Q32\