Aircraft Sizing
The design methods may be divided in different levels: The simplest ones use historical data: for instance the initial weight estimation value may be assumed equal to the weight of the aircraft to be replaced by the present design; The more elaborate ones use all types of software as well as correlations with wind tunnel testing results, etc; Between these lower and higher levels there several other methods for the most part of the design process subtasks as an introduction, an expedite method will be presented to determine the maximum take off weight from an initial sketch. sketch
Take Off Weight g
Take off weight might be divided in several components - crew, payload, fuel and empty weight:
W0 = Wcrew+Wpayload+Wfuel+Wempty W0 take off weight; Wcrew crew weight; i ht Wpayload payload; Wfuel fuel weight; Wempty empty weight;
Wfuel and Wempty may be considered fractions of W0:
W0 = Wcrew+Wpayload+(Wf/W0).W0+(We/W0).W0
Or:
W0-(Wf/W0).W0-(We/W0).W0 = Wcrew+Wpayload
Solving in order to obtain W0:
W0 = ( (Wcrew+Wpayload) )/[1-(W [ ( f/W0) )-(W ( e/W0)]
Empty p y Weight g Estimation
A statistical estimation is used from historical data, , using g the tendency values for the empty weight fraction for different aircraft types; Exponential E ti l representation: t ti
We/W0 = K.A.W0C K = 0,95 composite; K = 1,00 others.
Aircraft Types S il l Sailplane unpowered d Sailplane powered Homebuilt metal/wood Homebuilt composite g engine g General aviation single General aviation twin engine Agricultural aircraft Twin turboprop Flying boat Jet trainer Jet fighter Military cargo/bomber Jet transport A 0 83 0,83 0,88 1,11 1,07 2,05 , 1,40 0,72 0,92 1,05 1 47 1,47 2,11 0,88 0,97 C -0,05 0 05 -0,05 -0,09 -0,09 -0,18 , -0,10 -0,03 -0,05 -0,05 -0,10 0 10 -0,13 -0,07 -0,06
Empty Weight Estimation
Figura 1
Voltar
Mission Scenarios
Fuel Fraction Estimation
Fuel fractions correspondent p to the different mission segments: g
Segment 1. Starting (taxi) and take off 2. Climb 3. Cruise (range) 4. Hold (endurance) 5 Descent 5. D t (may ( be b included i l d d in i 3 or 4) 6. Landing Wi/Wi-1 0,970 0,985 EXP{-R.C.g/[V.(L/D)]} EXP[-E.C.g/(L/D)] 1 000 1,000 0,995
R range [m] C specific p fuel consumption p [kg/Ns] g V velocity [m/s] L/D gliding ratio E endurance or holding time [s]
Fuel Fraction Estimation
Specific Fuel Consumption (cruise at typical altitudes for each engine type):
Consumos especficos a altitudes de cruzeiro tpicas
Fuel Fraction Estimation
Specific p Fuel Consumption p (cont.): ( )
C [mg/Ns] Turbojet Turbofan low bypass Turbofan high bypass Cruise 25,5 22,7 14,1 Hold 22,7 19,8 11,3
For propeller aircrafts the equivalent specific fuel consumption is:
C = Cpower.V/ V/P V velocity [m/s]; P propeller thrust efficiency:
0 0,8 8 for constant speed propellers or fixed pitch in cruise; 0,7 for constant pitch propellers in hold.
Cpower [mg/Ws] Conventional fixed pitch prop Conventional fixed velocity prop Turboprop Cruise 0,068 0,068 0,085 Hold 0,085 0,085 0,101
Fuel Fraction Estimation
Gliding g Ratio estimation:
L/D depends of:
Induced Drag span (b) and aspect ratio (A = b2/S); Parasite Drag wetted area Swet; Wetted aspect ratio b2/Swet = A/(Swet/S); Thus, L/D max strongly depends on the aircraft configuration;
L/D also depends on the mission phase:
L/D Jet Prop Cruise 0,866(L/D)max (L/D)max Hold (L/D)max 0,866(L/D)max
Fuel Fraction Estimation
Figura 2
Voltar
Fuel Fraction Estimation
Voltar
Fuel Fraction Estimation Fuel Fraction estimation:
The total fuel fraction is:
Wf/W0 = 1,06(1-W 1 06(1-WN/W0) The 1,06 coefficient is a correction to account for reserve and residual fuel fractions; WN/W0 = Wn/Wn-1*...Wi/Wi-1*...W1/W0; N is the number of mission phases.
Take Off Weight Calculation
Alternative Method to obtain Wf
Consider Wf independent of W0; Use the mission and a well known engine to determine Wf; The Th take k off ff weight i h may be b estimated i d by: b
W0 = (Wcrew+Wpayload+Wfuel)/[1-(We/W0)]
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Requirements:
Crew 2 (86 kg each); Payload ay oad 50 kg g (ca (camera e a equipment equ p e t and a d parachute); pa ac ute); Cruise speed 180 km/h; Composite structure; Mission:
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Sketches:
Example: p surveillance aircraft
L/D estimation:
AR = 8; Swet/S = 4 (figure 2); Awet = A/(Swet/S) = 8/4 = 2; (L/D)max = 12,5 (figure 3).
Dimensioning:
Taxi and Take Off:
W1/W0 = 0,970;
Climb:
W2/W1 = 0,985;
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Dimensioning g( (cont.): )
Cruise:
R = 300 km = 0,3x106 m; -9 kg/Ws; Cpower = 0,068 , mg/Ws g = 68,0x10 , g ; V = 180 km/h = 50 m/s; P = 0,8; C = Cpower.V/P = 68,0x10-9*50/0,8 = 4,25x10-6 kg/Ns; L/D = (L/D)max = 12,5; W3/W2 = EXP{-RCg/[V(L/D)]}; W3/W2 = EXP[-0,3x106* 4,25x10-6*9,81/(50*12,5)] = EXP(-0,02);
W3/W2 = 0,980; 0 980;
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Dimensioning g( (cont.): )
Surveillance:
E = 2 h = 7200 s; -9 kg/Ws; Cpower = 0,085 , mg/Ws g = 85,0x10 , g ; V = 130 km/h = 36 m/s; P = 0,7; C = Cpower.V/P = 85,0x10-9*36/0,7 = 4,37x10-6 kg/Ns; L/D = 0,866(L/D)max = 0,866*12,5 = 10,825; W4/W3 = EXP[-ECg/ (L/D)]; W4/W3 = EXP(-7200* 4,37x10-6*9,81/10,825) = EXP(-0,0285);
W4/W3 = 0,972; 0 972;
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Dimensioning g( (cont.): )
Cruise (equal to previous cruise phase):
W5/W4 = 0,980;
Hold:
E = 10 min = 600 s; C = 4,37x10-6 kg/Ns; L/D = 10,825; , ; W6/W5 = EXP[-ECg/(L/D)]; W6/W5 = EXP(-600* 4,37x10-6*9,81/10,825) = EXP(-0,0024);
W6/W5 = 0,998;
Descent:
W7/W6 = 1,000;
Landing: g
W8/W7 = 0,995.
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Dimensioning g( (cont.): )
Total:
W8/W0 = W1/W0.W2/W1.W3/W2.W4/W3.W5/W4.W6/W5.W7/W6.W8/W7; W8/W0 = 0,970*0,985*0,980*0,972*0,980*0,998*1,000*0,995; , , , , , , , , ;
W8/W0 = 0,886;
Fuel weight fraction:
Wf/W0 = 1,06(1-W , ( , ( , ); 8/W0) = 1,06*(1-0,886);
Wf/W0 = 0,121;
Empty weight fraction:
We/W0 = 0,95 0 95*2 2,05 05*W W0-0,18 = 1,95W 1 95W0-0,18 (figure 1). 1)
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Dimensioning g( (cont.): )
Take Off weight:
W0 = (Wcrew+Wpayload)/[1-(Wf/W0)-(We/W0)]; -0,18]; W0 = ( (2*86+50)/[1-0,121)[ , 1,95W , 0
W0 = 222/[1-0,121- 1,95W0-0,18]; Take Off weight may be obtained by solving this equation iteratively.
W0 initial [kgf] 600 800 780 765 768
We/W0 0,617 0,585 0,588 0,590 0,590
W0 final [kgf] 847 755 763 768 768
Wcrew = 172 kgf Wp = 50 kgf payload y Wfuel = 93 kgf We = 453 kgf W0 = 768 kgf
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Parametric Studies:
To better understand the effect of chosen parameters on the Take Off weight, parametric studies may be developed; Surveillance time influence:
E = 1 h = 3600 s; W4/W3 = EXP(-3600* 4,37x10-6*9,81/10,825) = EXP(-0,0143); W8/W0 = 0,886*0,986/0,972 = 0,899; Wf/W0 = 1,06*(1-0,899) = 0,107; W0 = 222/[1-0,107- 1,95W0-0,18].
We/W0 0,593 W0 final [kgf] 742 Wcrew = 172 kgf Wpayload = 50 kgf Wfuel = 80 kgf We = 440 kgf W0 = 742 kgf
W0 initial [kgf] 742
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Parametric Studies (cont.): ( )
Surveillance time influence:
E = 3 h = 10800 s;
6*9,81/10,825) W4/W / 3 = EXP(-10800* ( * 4,37x10-6 * / ) = EXP(-0,0428); ( ) W8/W0 = 0,886*0,958/0,972 = 0,873; Wf/W0 = 1,06*(1-0,873) = 0,135; 0 18]. W0 = 222/[1-0,135- 1,95W0-0,18
W0 initial [kgf] 794
We/W0 0,586
W0 final [kgf] 794 Wcrew = 172 kgf Wpayload l d = 50 kgf Wfuel = 107 kgf We = 405 kgf W0 = 794 kgf
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Parametric Studies (cont.): ( )
Cruise distance influence; The following graph shows the influence of the Range and Endurance on the Take Off weight:
900 850 800 W 0 [kgf] 750 700 650 600 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Surveillance Time [h] 100 km 300 km 500 km
Example: p surveillance aircraft
Parametric Studies (cont.): ( )
The influence of other parameters may also be analysed:
Payload Wpayload; Aspect Ratio A; Configuration Swet/S; Etc.. 900
W0 [kgf] 850 500 km
800
300 km
750 3h 700 1h 650 2h
100 km
