Brief History of DNA 1928 Frederick Griffith fins a substance in heat-killed bacteria that transforms living bacteria.

1944 Oswald Avery, Colin Macleod, and Maclyn McCarty chemically identify Griffiths transforming principle as DNA. 1947 Erwin Chargaff analyzed the composition of DNA and found A~T C~G 1952 Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase demonstrate that DNA, not protein, is involved in viral reproduction. 1952 Rosalind Franklin produces x-ray diffraction image of DNA. 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick propose a model of the structure of DNA. Pyrimidines (T C U) a 6-sided ring. Purines (A G) double ringed structures: 5-sided ring fused to a pyrimidine-type ring.

Photosynthesis Stage 1: Light reactions Conversion of solar E to chemical E This process occurs in the thylakoid membranes Light E is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments This E ultimately drives the production of ATP from ADP and NADPH (an e- carrier like NADH) from NADP+ These products, along with H+ are released into the stroma Involves Photosystem(s), ETCs and Chemiosmosis O2 is given off as a by-product No CO2 used and no sugar produced yet

Stage 2: Calvin cycle Sugar production: This process occurs in the stoma Carbon fixation: C from CO2 gets fixed onto organic molecules already present in the chloroplast Fixed carbons are reduced to form a carbohydrate by the addition of e- through the oxidation of NADPH; ATP is required to convert CO2 to carbohydrate

This cycle is also called dark reaction or light-independent reaction, even though most plants can only go through the Calvin cycle during daylight Since light E is required for the production of the NADPH and ATP, which are required by the Calvin cycle

For every G3P produced 9 ATP spent 6 in Phase 1; 3 in Phase 3

6 NADPH comsumed All in Phase 1

G3P is then used to make glucose and other organic molecules Similar to CAC in that the starting material is regenerated after molecules enter and leave the cycle RuBP in CC is what oxaloacetate is to CAC

Anabolic process spends ATP and consumes NADPH

C enters as CO2 and leaves as a sugar 3 CO2 to produce 1 sugar (G3P) 3 phases to the cycle 1. C fixation (catalyzed by enzyme rubisco) 2. Reduction 3. Regeneration of RuBP

Only 1 of the 6 G3P leave the cycle for every 3 CO2 entering The 5 remaining G3P are recycled into 3 RuBP

C4 PLANTS These plants use a CO2-concentrating pump powered by ATP to assure efficient use of the CC 1st: diffusing CO2 taken up and fixed by mesophyll cells through PEP carboxylase enzyme - has higher affinity for CO2 then rubisco and low affinity for O2 - adds a C to PEP (3C) to form oxaloacetate (4C) 2nd: Malate (4C) diffuses into tightly packed bundle-sheath cells 3rd: CO2 released from malate and enters CC with rubisco to form sugars

Cyclic electron flow through PSI is used to generate this extra ATP needed to reconvert pyruvate to PEP - No PSII in bundle-

sheath cells CAM VS C4 C4 pathway: C fixation and CC steps are spatially separated b/c they occur in different cells CAM pathway: these two steps are temporally separated b/c C fixation occurs at night and CC during the day (in same cells) In CAM plants: - Compounds with fixed C produced at night are stored in vacuoles until morning - ATP & NADPH produced during the day through light rxs power the CC (sugar production)

Metabolic pathways Catabolic pathways: release E by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones Exergonic rxs Ex: polysaccharides monosaccharides

Anabolic pathways: consume E to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones Endergonic rxs Ex: a.a. proteins

Glycolysis Catabolic pathway (exergonic rx) Occurs in the cytosol of cells 2 phases to glycolysis E investment + E payoff phases

10 steps to that stage of cellular respiration Each step catalysed by a different enzyme Overall, 1 glucose gets oxidized to 2 pyruvate molecules

No O2 required But O2 required for the next 2 stages of aerobic cellular respiration

No CO2 produced

Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA Pyruvate is 1st converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) to enter the CAC

1. COO- (fully oxidized and little E) is release as CO2 2. remaining 2-C molecule is oxidized to acetate and NAD+ is reduced 3. CoA (S-containing compound derived from a B vitamin) is attached to acetate (now acetyl CoA) making the latter very unstable, thus reactive (high potential E) Citric Acid Cycle Oxidation of acetyl CoA 1 ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation Most chemical E is transferred to co-enzymes (e- carriers with high E level) through redox rxs Reduction of 3 NAD+ to NADH (accepted 1 e- + 1 full H) Reduction of 1 FAD to FADH2 (accepted 2 full H atoms)

Each cycle releases 2 CO2

Note: in many animal cells, it is a GTP that is produced instead of an ATP; GTP can be used directly to power cellular work or used to make an ATP Note: the products above are for 1 cycle, so twice as many products are produced per glucose molecule

Oxidative Phosphorylation Electron Transport Chain Collection of molecules embedded in inner membrane of the mitochondrion of eukaryotic cells (in plasma membrane for prokaryotes) 4 multiprotein complexes (I to IV) with prosthetic groups + 1 hydrophobic molecule (CoQ)

e- from NADH and FADH2 (produced in glycolysis and CAC) are transferred from one e- carrier to another releasing E each time Each e- carrier 1st gets reduced and then oxidized

e- carriers are placed in order of increasing electrogenativity (favors transfer of e-) ; the final eacceptor is oxygen

Result: E is released step by step in small amounts, but no ATP is directly produced Chemiosmosis ATP synthase populating the inner membrane of the mitochondrion uses the E of the existing H+ ion gradient (or pH gradient) to power the regeneration of ATP the proton-motive force Chemiosmosis here means flow of H+ across membrane

ATP synthase is a multisubunit complex with 4 main parts H+ ions move one by one into binding sites on the rotor causing the latter to spin and catalyse oxidative phosphorylation of ADP to ATP