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Humanbondingistheprocessofdevelopmentofaclose,interpersonalrela onship.Itmostcommonly takesplacebetweenfamilymembersorfriends,[1]butcanalsodevelopamonggroupssuchasspor ng teamsandwheneverpeoplespend metogether.Bondingisamutual,interac veprocess,andisdierent fromsimpleliking. Bondingtypicallyreferstotheprocessofa achmentthatdevelopsbetweenroman cpartners,close friends,orparentsandchildren.Thisbondischaracterizedbyemo onssuchasaec onandtrust.Any twopeoplewhospend metogethermayformabond.Malebondingreferstotheestablishmentof rela onshipsbetweenmenthroughsharedac vi esthato enexcludefemales.Thetermfemalebonding islessfrequentlyused,butreferstotheforma onofclosepersonalrela onshipsbetweenwomen.[2]

1Etymology 2Earlyviews 3Pairbonding 3.1Limerentbond 4Parentalbonding 4.1A achment 4.2Maternalbonding 4.3Paternalbonding 5Humananimalbonding 6Neurobiology 7Weak es 8Debondingandloss 9Seealso 10References 11Furtherreading 11.1Books 11.2Ar cles 12Externallinks 12.1Rela onships 12.2Babybonding 12.3Adop onbonding 12.4Humananimalbonding

Thetermcomesfromthe12thcentury,MiddleEnglishwordband,whichreferstosomethingthatbinds, es,orrestrains.Inearlyusage,abondman,bondwoman,orbondservantwasafeudalserfthatwas obligatedtoworkforhisorherlordwithoutpay(inmodernusage,abondsmanisapersonwhoprovides bondsorsuretyforsomeone).

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Inthe4thcenturyBC,theGreekphilosopherPlatoarguedthatlovedirectsthebondsofhumansociety.In hisSymposium,Eryximachus,oneofthenarratorsinthedialog,statesthatlovegoesfarbeyondsimple a rac ontohumanbeauty.Hestatesthatitoccursthroughouttheanimalandplantkingdoms,aswell as 16:43 28.05.2013

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Inthe4thcenturyBC,theGreekphilosopherPlato arguedthatlove directsthebondsofhumansociety.In hisSymposium,Eryximachus,oneofthenarratorsinthedialog,statesthatlovegoesfarbeyondsimple a rac ontohumanbeauty.Hestatesthatitoccursthroughouttheanimalandplantkingdoms,aswellas throughouttheuniverse.Lovedirectseverythingthatoccurs,intherealmofthegodsaswellasthatof humans(186ab). Eryximachusreasonsthatwhenvariousopposingelementssuchaswetanddryare"animatedbythe properspeciesofLove,theyareinharmonywithoneanother...ButwhenthesortofLovethatiscrude andimpulsivecontrolstheseasons,hebringsdeathanddestruc on"(188a).Becauseitislovethatguides therela onsbetweenthesesetsofoppositesthroughoutexistence,ineverycaseitisthehigherformof lovethatbringsharmonyandcleavestowardthegood,whereastheimpulsivevulgarlovecreates disharmony. Platoconcludesthatthehighestformofloveisthegreatest.Whenlove"isdirected,intemperanceand jus ce,towardsthegood,whetherinheavenoronearth:happinessandgoodfortune,thebondsof humansociety,concordwiththegodsabovealltheseareamonghisgi s"(188d). Inthe1660s,theDutchphilosopherSpinozawrote,inhisEthicsofHumanBondageortheStrengthofthe Emo ons,thatthetermbondagerelatestothehumaninrmityinmodera ngandcheckingtheemo ons. Thatis,accordingtoSpinoza,"whenamanispreytohisemo ons,heisnothisownmaster,butliesatthe mercyoffortune." In1809JohannWolfgangvonGoethe,inhisclassicnovellaElec veAni es,wroteofthe"marriage e," andbyanalogyshowshowstrongmarriageunionsaresimilarincharactertothatbywhichthepar clesof quicksilverndaunitytogetherthroughtheprocessofchemicalanity.Humansinpassionate rela onships,accordingtoGoethe,areanalogoustoreac vesubstancesinachemicalequa on.

Mainar cle:Pairbond Thetermpairbondoriginatedin1940inreferencetomatedpairsofbirds.Itisagenerictermsignifyinga monogamousorrela velymonogamousrela onshipineitherhumansoranimals.Thetermiscommonly usedinsociobiologyandevolu onarypsychology.[3]Pairbonding,usuallyofafairlyshortdura on,occurs inavarietyofprimatespecies.Somescien stsspeculatethatprolongedbondsdevelopedinhumans alongwithincreasedsharingoffood.[4]

Limerentbond
Mainar cle:Limerence Accordingtolimerencetheory,positedin1979bypsychologistDorothyTennov,acertainpercentageof couplesmaygothroughwhatiscalledalimerentreac on,inwhichoneorbothofthepairmayexperience astateofpassionmixedwithcon nuousintrusivethinking,fearofrejec on,andhope.Hence,withall humanroman crela onships,oneofthreevarie esofbondsmayform,denedoverasetdura onof me,inrela ontotheexperienceornonexperienceoflimerence: 1. Aec onalbond:denerela onshipsinwhichneitherpartnerislimerent. 2. LimerentNonlimerentbond:denerela onshipsinwhichonepartnerislimerent. 3. LimerentLimerentbond:denerela onshipsinwhichbothpartnersarelimerent. Thecons tu onofthesebondsmayvaryoverthecourseoftherela onship,inwaysthatmayeither increaseordecreasetheintensityofthelimerence.Thebasisandinteres ngcharacteris cofthis delinea onmadebyTennov,isthatbasedonherresearchandinterviewswithover500people,allhuman bondedrela onshipscanbedividedintothreevarie esbeingdenedbytheamountoflimerenceor nonlimerenceeachpartnercontributestotherela onship.

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bondedrela onshipscanbedividedintothreevarie esbeingdenedbytheamountoflimerenceor nonlimerenceeachpartnercontributestotherela onship.

A achment
Mainar cles:Aec onalbondandA achmenttheory In1958,Bri shdevelopmentalpsychologistJohnBowlbypublished thegroundbreakingpaper"theNatureoftheChild'sTietohis Mother,"inwhichtheprecursoryconceptsof"a achmenttheory" weredeveloped.Thisincludedthedevelopmentoftheconceptof theaec onalbond,some mesreferredtoastheemo onalbond, whichisbasedontheuniversaltendencyforhumanstoa ach,i.e. toseekclosenesstoanotherpersonandtofeelsecurewhenthat personispresent.A achmenttheoryhassomeofitsoriginsinthe observa onofandexperimentswithanimals,butisalsobasedon observa onsofchildrenwhohadmissedtypicalexperiencesof adultcare.Muchoftheearlyresearchona achmentinhumans wasdonebyJohnBowlbyandhisassociates.Bowlbyproposedthat babieshaveaninbuiltneedfrombirthtomakeemo onal a achments,i.e.bonds,becausethisincreasesthechancesof Amotherbreastfeedingaprocess survivalbyensuringthattheyreceivethecaretheyneed.[5][6][7] thatfacilitatesmotherinfant Bowlbydidnotdescribemutualityina achment.Hestatedthat bonding. a achmentbymotherwasapathologicalinversionanddescribed onlybehaviorsoftheinfant.Manydevelopmentalspecialists elaboratedBowlby'sethologicalobserva ons.However,neitherBowlby'sproximityseeking(notpossible forhumaninfantspriortowalking)norsubsequentdescrip onsofcaregiverinfantmutualitywith emo onalavailabilityandsynchronywithemo onalmodula onincludetheenduringmo va onof a achmentintoadultlife.Theenduringmo va onisthedesiretocontrolapleasantlysurprising transforma onthatistherouteofbeliefineec venessbyhumans.[cita onneeded]Thismo va on accountsforcuriosityandintellectualgrowthoflanguage,mathema csandlogic,allofwhichhavean emo onalbaseofsecurity.[8]

Maternalbonding
Mainar cle:Maternalbond Ofallhumanbonds,thematernalbond(motherinfantrela onship)isoneofthestrongest.Thematernal bondbeginstodevelopduringpregnancy;followingpregnancy,theproduc onofoxytocinduring lacta onincreasesparasympathe cac vity,thusreducinganxietyandtheore callyfosteringbonding.Itis generallyunderstoodthatmaternaloxytocincircula oncanpredisposesomemammalstoshowcaregiving behaviorinresponsetoyoungoftheirspecies. Breas eedinghasbeenreportedtofostertheearlypostpartummaternalbond,viatouch,response,and mutualgazing.[9]Extensiveclaimsfortheeectofbreas eedingweremadeinthe1930sbyMargaret Ribble,achampionof"infantrights,"[10]butwerechallengedbyothers.[11]Theclaimedeectisnot universal,andbo lefeedingmothersaregenerallyappropriatelyconcernedwiththeirbabies.Itisdicult todeterminetheextentofcausalityduetoanumberofconfoundingvariables,suchasthevariedreasons familieschoosedierentfeedingmethods.Manybelievethatearlybondingideallyincreasesresponseand sensi vitytothechild'sneeds,bolsteringthequalityofthemotherbabyrela onshiphowever,many excep onscanbefoundofhighlysuccessfulmotherbabybonds,eventhoughearlybreas eedingdidnot occur,suchaswithprematureinfantswhomaylackthenecessarysuckingstrengthtosuccessfully breas eed. 28.05.201316:43

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excep onscanbefoundofhighlysuccessfulmotherbabybonds,eventhoughearlybreas eedingdidnot occur,suchaswithprematureinfantswhomaylackthenecessarysuckingstrengthtosuccessfully breas eed. ResearchfollowingBowlby'sobserva ons(above)createdsomeconcernaboutwhetheradop veparents havemissedsomecrucialperiodforthechild'sdevelopment.However,researchonTheMentalandSocial LifeofBabiessuggestedthatthe"parentinfantsystem,"ratherthanabondbetweenbiologicallyrelated individuals,isanevolvedtbetweeninnatebehaviorpa ernsofallhumaninfantsandequallyevolved responsesofhumanadultstothoseinfantbehaviors.Thusnature"ensuressomeini alexibilitywith respecttothepar cularadultswhotakeontheparentalrole.[12]

Paternalbonding
Mainar cle:Paternalbond Incontrasttothematernalbond,paternalbondstendtovaryover thespanofachild'sdevelopmentintermsofbothstrengthand stability.Infact,manychildrennowgrowupinfatherless householdsanddonotexperienceapaternalbondatall.In general,paternalbondingismoredominantlaterinachild'slife a erlanguagedevelops.Fathersmaybemoreinuen alinplay interac onsasopposedtonurturanceinterac ons.Fatherchild bondsalsotendtodevelopwithrespecttotopicssuchaspoli cal viewsormoney,whereasmotherchildbondstendtodevelopin rela ontotopicssuchasreligiousviewsorgeneraloutlookson life.[13] In2003,aresearcherfromNorthwesternUniversityinIllinoisfound thatprogesterone,ahormonemoreusuallyassociatedwith pregnancyandmaternalbonding,mayalsocontrolthewaymen reacttowardstheirchildren.Specically,theyfoundthatalackof progesteronereducedaggressivebehaviorinmalemiceand s mulatedthemtoactinafatherlywaytowardstheirospring.[14]

Fatherplayingwithhisyoung daughteranac vitythattendsto strengthenthefatherchildbond.

Mainar cles:PetandAnthrozoology Thehumananimalbondcan bedenedasaconnec on betweenpeopleand animals,domes corwild;be itacatasapetorbirds outsideone'swindow. Researchintothenatureand meritofthehumananimal bondbeganinthelate18th centurywhen,inYork, England,theSocietyof FriendsestablishedThe Retreattoprovidehumane treatmentforthementallyill. Byhavingpa entscarefor themanyfarmanimalson theestate,societyocials theorizedthatthe

Humanbondingwithanemuin Australia.

Humananimalbond:humanto animalcontactisknowntoreduce

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themanyfarmanimalson theestate,societyocials theorizedthatthe combina onofanimal contactplusproduc vework wouldfacilitatethepa ents' rehabilita on.Inthe1870sinParis,aFrenchsurgeonhadpa ents withneurologicaldisordersridehorses.Thepa entswerefoundto haveimprovedtheirmotorcontrolandbalanceandwerelesslikely tosuerboutsofdepression.[15]
Humananimalbond:humanto animalcontactisknowntoreduce thephysiologicalcharacteris csof stress.

Inthe19thcentury,inBielefeld,Germany,epilep cpa entswere giventheprescrip ontospend meeachdaytakingcareofcats anddogs.Thecontactwiththeanimalswasfoundtoreducethe Asmallchildbondingwithacat. occurrenceofseizures.In1980,ateamofscien stsattheUniversity ofPennsylvaniafoundthathumantoanimalcontactwasfoundto reducethephysiologicalcharacteris csofstress;specically,loweredlevelsofbloodpressure,heartrate, respiratoryrate,anxiety,andtensionwereallfoundtocorrelateposi velywithhumanpetbonding.[15] Historically,animalsweredomes catedforfunc onaluse;forexample,dogsforherdingandtracking,and catsforkillingmiceorrats.Today,inWesternsocie es,theirfunc onisprimarilybonding.Forexample, currentstudiesshowthat6080%ofdogssleepwiththeirownersatnightinthebedroom,eitherinoron thebed.[16]Moreover,inthepastthemajorityofcatswerekeptoutside(barncats)whereastodaymost catsarekeptindoors(housecats)andconsideredpartofthefamily.Currently,intheUS,forexample,1.2 billionanimalsarekeptaspets,primarilyforbondingpurposes.[16]Inaddi on,asof1995therewereover 30researchins tu onslookingintothepoten albenetsofthehumananimalbond.[15]

Thereisevidenceinavarietyofspeciesthatthehormonesoxytocinandvasopressinareinvolvedinthe bondingprocess,andinotherformsofprosocialandreproduc vebehavior.Bothchemicalsfacilitatepair bondingandmaternalbehaviorinexperimentsonlaboratoryanimals.Inhumans,thereisevidencethat oxytocinandvasopressinarereleasedduringlaborandbreas eeding,andthattheseeventsare associatedwithmaternalbonding.Accordingtoonemodel,socialisola onleadstostress,whichis associatedwithac vityinthehypothalamicpituitaryadrenalaxisandthereleaseofcor sol.Posi ve socialinterac onisassociatedwithincreasedoxytocin.Thisleadstobonding,whichisalsoassociated withhigherlevelsofoxytocinandvasopressin,andreducedstressandstressrelatedhormones.[17] Oxytocinisassociatedwithhigherlevelsoftrustinlaboratorystudiesonhumans.Ithasbeencalledthe "cuddlechemical"foritsroleinfacilita ngtrustanda achment.[18]Intherewardcentersofthelimbic system,theneurotransmi erdopaminemayinteractwithoxytocinandfurtherincreasethelikelihoodof bonding.Oneteamofresearchershasarguedthatoxytocinonlyplaysasecondaryroleinalia on,and thatendogenousopiatesplaythecentralrole.Accordingtothismodel,alia onisafunc onofthebrain systemsunderlyingrewardandmemoryforma on.[19] Becausethevastmajorityofthisresearchhasbeendoneonanimalsandthemajorityofthatonrodents thesendingsmustbetakenwithcau onwhenappliedtohumans.Oneofthefewstudiesthatlooked attheinuenceofhormonesonhumanbondingcomparedpar cipantswhohadrecentlyfalleninlove withacontrolgroup.Therewerenodierencesformostofthehormonesmeasured,includingLH, estradiol,progesterone,DHEAS,andandrostenedione.TestosteroneandFSHwerelowerinmenwhohad recentlyfalleninlove,andtherewasalsoadierenceinbloodcor solforbothsexes,withhigherlevelsin thegroupthatwasinlove.Thesedierencesdisappeareda er1228monthsandmayreectthe temporarystressandarousalofanewrela onship.[20]
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