February 2013 (Spring drive) Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) Semester 6 BC005901 Artificial Intelligence

Q1. What is artificial intelligence? What are the achievements of AI? Ans. AI is the branch of computer science concerned with the study and creation of computer systems that exhibit some form of intelligence: systems that learn new concepts and tasks, systems that can reason and draw useful conclusions about the world around us, systems that can understand a natural language or perceive and comprehend a visual scene, and systems that perform other types of feats that require human types of intelligence. An understanding of AI requires an understanding of related terms such as intelligence, knowledge, reasoning, thought, cognition, learning, and a number of computer-related terms. Achievements of AI: Deep Thought is an international grand master chess player. Sphinx can recognize continuous speech without training for each speaker. It operates in near real time using a vocabulary of 1000 words and has 94% word accuracy. Navlab is a truck that can drive along a road at 55 kmph in normal traffic. Carlton and United Breweries use an AI planning system to plan production of their beer. Robots are used regularly in manufacturing. Natural language interfaces to databases can be obtained on a PC. Machine Learning methods have been used to build expert systems. Expert systems are used regularly in finance, medicine, manufacturing, and agriculture Q2. Explain about state space search briefly. Ans. State space search is a process used in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) in which successive configurations or states of an instance are considered, with the goal of finding a goal state with a desired property. The concept of State Space Search is widely used in Artificial Intelligence. The idea is that a problem can be solved by examining the steps, which might be taken towards its solution. Each action takes the solver to a new state. State space search as used in AI differs from traditional computer science search methods because the state space is implicit: the typical state space graph is much too large to generate and store in memory. The required State can be worked towards by either: Depth-First Search: Exploring each strand of a State Space in turn.

Breadth-First Search: Exploring every link encountered, examining the state space a level at a time.

Q3. Prove that A* is optimal. Ans. Suppose some suboptimal goal G2 has been generated and is in the fringe .Let n be an unexpanded node in the fringe such that n is on a shortest path to an optimal f(G2) = g(G2) since h(G2) =0 g(G2) > g(G) Since G2 is sub optimal f(G) = g(G) Since h(G) = 0 f( G2)> f(G) form above Suppose some suboptimal goal G2 has been generated and is in the fringe .Let n be an unexpanded node in the fringe such that n is on a shortest path to an optimal goal G. F(G2) > f(G) form above H(n) <h^*(n) since h is admissible G(n)+h(n) <g(n)+h*(n) F(n)<f(g) Hence f(G2) > F( n), and A* will never select G2 for expansion. Q4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of predicate logic? Ans. Advantage Much more sophisticated than SL. Can capture much (but not all) of natural language.

Disadvantage Not decidable.

Q5. What is Skolemization? How is it accomplished? Ans. Skolemization is the process of removing existential is quantifiers by elimination .In the simple case translate ,where A is a constant that does not appear elsewhere in the KB .but there is added complication that some of the existential quantifiers, even through move left, may still be inside a universal quantifier. Skolemization is accomplished as follows are: IF the first quantifier in an expression is an existential quantifier ,replace all occurrences of the variable it quantifier with an arbitrary constant not appearing elsewhere in the expression and delete the quantifiers ,the same procedure should be followed for all other existential quantifiers not

proceeded by a universal quantifiers in each case ,using different constant symbols in the substitution. For each existential quantifier r that is preceded by one or one more universal replace all occurrences of the existentially quantifier variable by a function symbol not appearing elsewhere in the expression .the argument assigned to the function should match all the variable appearing assigned to the function .The same procedure should be repeated for each remaining existential quantifiers using a different function symbol and choosing function arguments that correspond to universally quantifier variables that precede the existentially quantified variable being replaced

Q6. What is Semantic Network? How frames can be regarded as an extension to Semantic nets?

Ans. Semantic Nets: Semantic networks are an alternative to predicate logic as a form of knowledge representation. The idea is that we can store our knowledge in the form of a graph, with nodes representing objects in the world, and arcs representing relationships between those objects. The major idea is that: The meaning of a concept comes from its relationship to other concepts, and that, The information is stored by interconnecting nodes with labeled arcs. Frames: Frames can also be regarded as an extension to Semantic nets. Indeed it is not clear where the distinction between a semantic net and a frame ends. Semantic nets were initially used to represent labeled connections between objects. As tasks became more complex, the representation needs to be more structured. The more structured the system; it becomes more beneficial to use frames. A frame is a collection of attributes or slots and associated values that describe some real world entity. Frames on their own are not particularly helpful but frame systems are a powerful way of encoding information to support reasoning. Set theory provides a good basis for understanding frame systems. A basic idea of frames is that people make use of stereotyped information about typical features of objects, images, and situations; such information is assumed to be structured in large units representing the stereotypes, and these units are what are referred to as frames. Frames (or something similar) are important because they allow deep understanding of new situations about which only minimal information is directly available. They represent our understanding of regularities in the universe that allow intelligent action based on minimal clues. Each frame represents: a class (set), or an instance (an element of a class). Q7. Name and explain the action in Conceptual Dependency which refers to a transfer of possession. Ans. Conceptual Dependency (CD)

Conceptual Dependency originally developed to represent knowledge acquired from natural language input. CD is a content theory of how to represent simple sentences. Since it was created by Roger Schank (1972), CD has gone through various incarnations - different sets of primitive actions, different types of states, and different theories of inference. We'll consider a cleaned-up, "canonical" CD theory, which is fairly close to Schank's original conception but includes a cleaned-up theory of states, relations, and inferences. At its core, CD is a theory of how to represent sentences. It has two basic axioms: For any two sentences that are identical in meaning, regardless of language, there should be only one representation. Any information in a sentence that is implicit must be made explicit in the representation of the meaning of that sentence." From these axioms, Schank built a theory based on a primary set of conceptualizations, which come in two kinds: active and stative. ACTIONS In order to represent identical meanings in an identical way, CD theory breaks actions down in two fashions: a core set of primitive acts which define the basic types of actions that occur, and a set of conceptual cases that add meaning to the basic action types. While the canonical list of primitive acts has changed as CD theory has evolved, the original core set was: ATRANS ATRANS refers to a transfer of possession - the abstract transfer of possession from one person to another, as in a give or a buy. No physical transfer need take place; the transfer occurs purely on the plane of ownership. PTRANS PTRANS refers to a transfer of physical location - some objects moved from place to place, as in a go or a move. Ownership need not transfer; possession - the abstract transfer of possession from one person to another. No physical transfer need take place; the transfer occurs purely on the plane of ownership. MTRANS MTRANS refers to the transmission of an IDEA - some conceptualization is transmitted from one head to another (or within the same head). Tell, forget and remember can all be expressed with MTRANS. An idea is represented by an MOBJECT slot in CD, which is superficially like OBJECT except that it contains a whole concept as its value: MOVE MOVE refers to the movement of a body part, not the movement of an object. Normally MOVE is instrumental to some other action (such as a kick or a throw), but sometimes it is used by itself, as in kiss, raise a hand, and scratch.

PROPEL PROPEL refers to the application of force to an object. Normally PROPEL is instrumental to some other action, but sometimes it is used by itself. PROPEL verbs include pushing, pulling, throwing and kicking. GRASP GRASP refers to the gripping of some object by a person. Normally GRASP is instrumental to some other action, but sometimes it is used by itself. Note that FROM and TO in general have little meaning with respect to GRASP. GRASP verbs include hold, grab, grasp and let go. INGEST INGEST refers to a person taking something inside his or her body: eating, drinking, breathing, etc. EXPEL EXPEL refers to a person taking something outside his or her body: spitting, crying, sweating, etc. ATTEND ATTEND refers to a person attending or focusing a sense organ towards a stimulus look, listen, feel, and so on. SPEAK SPEAK is an instrumental action that refers to the production of sound: say, play music, scream, and so on. MBUILD MBUILD refers to the construction of a mental concept: realize, decide, imagine, conclude, etc. MBUILD frequently uses ATTEND as an instrumental action. DO DO catches all the things that the first 11 primitive actions don't. It's also useful when we know something happened, but we don't precisely know what or how: Q8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Expert Systems? Ans. Expert systems attempt to capture the knowledge of a human expert and make it available through a computer system. Expert systems are expected to achieve significant actual performance in a specialized area that normally requires a human expert for successful performance, e.g., medicine, geology, investment counseling.

Expert systems are meant to solve real problems which normally would require a specialized human expert (such as a doctor or a mineralogist). Building an expert system, therefore, first involves extracting the relevant knowledge from the human expert. Such knowledge is often heuristic in nature, based on useful rules of thumb rather than absolute certainties. Extracting it from the expert in a way that can be used by a computer is generally a difficult task, requiring its own expertise. A knowledge engineer has the job of extracting this knowledge and building the expert system knowledge base. Advantages of ES Provides consistent answers for repetitive decisions, processes and tasks Holds and maintains significant levels of information Encourages organizations to clarify the logic of their decision-making Never "forgets" to ask a question, as a human might

Disadvantages of ES Lacks common sense needed in some decision making Cannot make creative responses as a human expert would in unusual circumstances Domain experts not always able to explain their logic and reasoning Errors may occur in the knowledge base, and lead to wrong decisions Cannot adapt to changing environments, unless knowledge base is changed

Q9. With necessary diagram, explain how MYCINES works. Ans. MONITOR (for MYCIN rules) attempts to evaluate the premise of the current rule, condition by condition. If any of the conditions is false, or indeterminate due to lack of information, the rule is rejected, and the next rule on the list of applicable rules pending in the current context is tried. The rule application succeeds when all of the conditions in the premise are deemed to be true, and the conclusion of the rule is added to the record of the current consultation:

Q10. Explain the different hardware components used for Robot briefly. Ans. Robot Hardware: Sensors Sensors are the perceptual interface between robots and their environment. On the one hand we have passive sensors like cameras, which capture signals that are generated by other sources in the environment. On the other hand we have active sensors (for example sonar, radar, laser) which emit energy into the environment. This energy is reflected by objects in the environment. These reflections can then be used to gather the information needed. Generally active sensors provide more information than passive sensors. But they also consume more power. This can lead to a problem on mobile robots which need to take their energy with them in batteries. We have three types of sensors (no matter whether sensors are active or passive). These sensors either record distances to objects or generate an entire image of the environment or measure a property of the robot itself. Many mobile robots make use of range finders, which measure distance to nearby objects. A common type is the sonar sensor. Alternatives to sonar include radar and laser. Some range sensors measure very short or very long distances. Close-range sensors are often tactile sensors such as whiskers, bump panels and touch-sensitive skin. The other extreme are long-range sensors like the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Effectors Effectors are the means by which robots manipulate the environment, move and change the shape of their bodies. To understand the ability of a robot to interact with the physical world we will use the abstract concept of a degree of freedom (DOF). We count one degree of freedom for each independent direction in which a robot, or one of its effectors can move. As an example lets contemplate a rigid robot like an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). It has six degrees of freedom, three for its (x; y; z) location in space and three for its angular orientation (also known as yaw, roll and pitch). These DOFs define the kinematic state of the robot. This can be extended with another dimension that gives the rate of change of each kinematic dimension. This is called dynamic state. Movement For mobile robots a special group of effectors are the mechanisms the robot uses for locomotion, including wheels, tracks, and legs. The differential drive consists of two independently actuated wheels one on each side. If both wheels move at the same velocity, the robot moves on a straight line. If they move in opposite directions, the robot turns on the spot. An alternative is the synchro drive, in which each wheel can move and turn around its own axis. This could easily lead to chaos. But if you assure the constraint that all wheels always point in the same direction and move with the same speed your robot is save. Both differential and synchro drives are nonholonomic. Some more expensive robots use holonomic drives, which usually involve three or more wheels and can be oriented and move independently. Power Sources Robots need a power source to drive their effectors. The most popular mechanism for both manipulator actuation and locomotion is the electric motor. Other possible ways are pneumatic actuation using compressed gas and hydraulic actuation using pressurized fluids. They have their application niches but are not widely used. Bits and Pieces Most robots have some kind of digital communication like wireless networks. Especially today, those modules get cheaper. They can be used for communication between robots or for some kind of back link to the robots home station. Finally, you need a body frame to hang all the bits and pieces.