HUMAN BIOLOGY MR MORGAN

SPECIAL SURFACES FOR EXCHANGE

WHY ORGANISMS NEED THEM All LIVING cells need CERTAIN substances to keep ALIVE: OXYGEN AEROBIC RESPIRATION GLUCOSE acts an ENERGY SOURCE

OGPFWM

PROTEINS needed for GROWTH & REPAIR FATS for making MEMBRANES + act as an ENERGY STORE WATER MINERALS for MAINTAINING WATER POTEN. And for ENZYME ACTION + METABOLISM

Organisms may take these in DIRECTLY FROM ENVIRONMENT Or into their CYTOPLASM FOR METABOLISM PROCESSES Also need to REMOVE WASTE PRODUCTS from such activities in cytoplasm: CARBON DIOXIDE OXYGEN (in PLANTS FROM PHOTOSYNTHESIS) Other wastes e.g. UREA AND AMMONIA SINGLE CELLED/SMALL ORGANISMS can exchange such substances ACROSS THEIR SURFACES They have LARGE SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO LARGE, MULTICELLUR ORGANISIMS these need EXCHANGE SURFACES They have SMALL SURFACE-AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO and cells need MORE SUPPLY: the outer surface is NOT LARGE ENOUGH to EFFICIENTLY supply cells with what they need. Substances also have to TRAVEL FURTHER DISTANCES from the OUTER TO INNER CELLS As do WASTE PRODUCTS LARGER organisms need LARGE EXCHANGE SURFACES, + OFTEN A TRANSPORT SYSTEM to move such substances around the body. EXCHANGE SURFACE PROPERTIES GOOD exchange surfaces have: LARGE SURFACE AREA so there is MORE SPACE for molecules to pass through (often done by FOLDING MEMBRANES/WALLS) THIN BARRIER REDUCES diffusion DISTANCE FRESH SUPPLY of molecules to MAINTAIN CONCENTRATION GRADIENT (a HIGH CONC.) REMOVAL of REQUIRED molecules on the OTHER SIDE to keep CONCENTRATION LOW LAST 3 needed for a STEEP DIFFSION GRADIENT + SOME exchange surfaces use ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS.

EXAMPLES OF SPECIALISED EXCHANGE SURFACES Also found at IN ORGANS to REMOVE SUBSTANCES into the transport system ALVEOLI the WALLS are exchange surfaces to permit GASEOUS EXCHANGE SMALL INTENSTINE NUTRIENTS are ABSORBED LIVER LEVELS of SUGAR are adjusted ROOT HAIRS WATER AND MINERALS absorb EXCHANGE SURFACE a SPECIALISED AREA that is ADAPTED to make it EASIER FOR MOLECULES TO CROSS from ONE SIDE of the SURFACE to the OTHER

THE LUNG AS ORGAN OF EXCHANGE

THE LUNGS A PAIR of INFLATABLE STRUCTURES; in the CHEST CAVITY Air passes via the NOSE, along the TRACHEA BRONCHI BRONCHIOLES Each is ADAPTED to its function the PASSING OF AIR Air then reaches ALVEOLI these PERMIT GASEOUS EXCHANGE The lungs PROTECTED BY RIBS their movement + MOVEMENT OF DIAPHRAGM produces VENTILATION (breathing movements) GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LUNGS Gases PASS THROUGH THIN WALLS of the alveoli OXYGEN passes into the BLOOD in the CAPILLIARIES CARBON DIOXIDE passes FROM BLOOD into the AIR OF ALVEOLI HOW ARE LUNGS ADAPTED FOR THIS EXCHANGE LARGE SURFACE AREA Provides MORE SPACE for passing molecules: ALVEOLI = 100-300um across but there are NUMEROUS AMOUNTS so TOTAL SURFACE AREA is MUCH LARGER than surface of our skin BARRIER PERMEABLE TO OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE PLASMA MEMBRANES which surround THIN CYTOPLASM of the cells = THE EXCHANGE BARRIER READILY ALLOWS the diffusion of OXYGEN + CO2 THIN BARRIER REDUCES DIFFUSION DISTANCE NO. OF ADAPTATIONS:ALVEOLUS = ONE CELL THICK CAPILLARY WALL = ONE CELL THICK BOTH consist of SQUAMOUS CELLS = very THIN/FLATTENED cells CLOSE CONTACT of the CAPILLARIES & ALVEOLUS WALLS NARROW CAPILLARIES causes the red blood cells to be SQUEEZED AGAINST the WALLS which makes them CLOSER TO AIR in the ALVEOLI + also REDUCES their RATE OF FLOW TOTAL BARRIER = 2 (TWO) flattened cells, LESS THAN 1um thick

THIN layer of MOISTURE lining ALVEOLI Passes through CELL MEMBRANES to CYTOPLASM of ALVEOLUS CELLS When BREATHED OUT it EVAPORATES and is lost Lungs MUST produce substance SURFACTANT to REDUCE COHESIVE FORCES BETWEEN WATER MOLECULES WITHOUT, alveolus would COLLAPSE due to cohesive forces of lining water molecules MAINTAINING DIFFUSION GRADIENT RAPID diffusion a STEEP DIFFUSION GRADIENT is needed Meaning HIGH CONC. Of MOLECULES on SUPPLY SIDE/a LOW SUPPLY on DEMAND SIDE To MAINTAIN a FRESH SUPPLY of molecules ONE SIDE needed to keep CONC. HIGH THERE + a SYSTEM to REMOVE MOLECULES DEMAND SIDE to keep the conc. LOW Achieved by VENTILATION MOVEMENTS and the BLOOD TRANSPORT SYSTEM BLOOD brings CARBON DIOXIDE from TISSUES to LUNGS Ensures LARGER (HIGH) CONC. In the BLOOD than in air of alveoli + also carries OXYGEN AWAY FROM LUNGS to ensure LOWER OXYGEN CONC. in the BLOOD than in the air of alveoli (HIGH OXYGEN CONC. IN ALVEOLI AIR) PULMONARY ARTERY pumps BLOOD TO LUNGS In LUNGS, this DIVIDES SMALLER into CAPILLARIES which COVER SURFACE OF ALVEOLI CAPILLARIES are VERY NARROW = SQUEEZES red blood cells through ONE AT A TIME BREATHING MOVEMENTS VENTILATE the lungs Replace USED AIR with FRESH air brings more OXYGEN INTO lungs to maintain a HIGH OXYGEN CONC. in the ALVEOLI Means it is HIGHER THAN IN BLOOD VENTILATION also REMOVES CARBON DIOXIDE from the ALVEOLI Maintains a LOW CARBON DIOXIDE CONC. in them, LOWER THAN IN BLOOD CONSTANT SUPPLY of such gases on ONE SIDE & its REMOVAL OTHER SIDE, maintains a STEEP DIFFUSION GRADIENT so gaseous exchange continues

INHALING = INSPIRATION DIAPHRAGM CONTRACTS to become FLATTER/pushes DIGESTIVE ORGANS DOWN EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES these CONTRACT/RAISE RIBS Chest cavity VOLUME INCREASES AIR INTO the lungs EXHALING = EXPIRATION DIAPHRAGM RELAXES and PUSHED UP by displaced organs EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES these RELAX/RIBS FALL Chest cavity VOLUME DECREASES AIR OUT of the lungs TISSUES IN THE LUNGS THE LUNGS There is the TRACHEA, BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES which ALLOW AIR INTO and OUT LUNGS ADAPTED for EFFECTIVE passage of air through these airways: LARGER airways = large ENOUGH to allow SUFFICIENT AIR FLOW with NO OBSTRUCTIONS Must DIVIDE SMALLER to deliver air TO ALL ALVEOLI Air ways must be STRONG ENOUGH to PREVENT COLLAPSING when air PRESSURE in the lungs is LOW (during INHALATION) Be FLEXIBLE Able to STRETCH + RECOIL TRACHEA & BRONCHI Have SIMILIAR STRUCTURES; DIFFER only in SIZE: TRACHEA WIDER/BRONCHI NARROWER BOTH have relatively THICK WALLS/have SEVERAL LAYERS of TISSUE Consists mainly of CARTILAGE: C-SHAPED RINGS in the TRACHEA LESS REGULAR in the BRONCHI INSIDE SURFACE there is layer of GLANDULAR TISSUE, CONNECTIVE TISSUE, ELASTIC FIBRES, SMOOTH MUSCLE (and BLOOD VESSELS) INNER LINING = an EPITHELIUM LAYER consists of TWO TYPES of cell CILIATED EPITHELIUM GOBLET CELLS BRONCHIOLES NARROWER than the bronchi LARGER ones some CARTILAGE SMALLER NO CARTILAGE WALLS made mainly of SMOOTH MUSCLE and ELASTIC FIBRES SMALLEST bronchioles have attached ALVEOLI at their ends

ROLE OF EACH TISSUE CARTILAGE A type of ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE found in the TRACHEA & BRONCHI which acts as SUPPORT C-SHAPED RINGS which keep AIRWAY OPEN when PRESSURE LOW in the lungs (INHALATION) NOT COMPLETE RINGS = FLEXIBILITY (neck can be MOVED WITHOUT CONSTRICTING airway) + allows OESOPHAGUS to EXPAND during swallowing SMOOTH MUSCLE Type of INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE; allows for INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS e.g. BREATHING and usually found in SOME INTERNAL ORGANS. CONTRACTS to CONSTRICT AIRWAY; this NARROWS LUMEN of the airway Namely in the BRONCHIOLES Narrowing RESTRICTS AIR FLOW which can PREVENT HARMFUL SUBSTANCES ENTERING the lungs which could cause infection ASTHMA people who are ALLERGIC to SUBSTANCES IN AIR causes this INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT, making breathing difficult ELASTIC FIBRES LONG fibres, DEFORMED BY SMOOTH MUSCLE and are a type of PROTEIN ELASTIN smooth muscle CANT UNDO NARROWING OF LUMEN Elastic fibres RECOIL TO ORIGINAL SIZE/SHAPE when SMOOTH MUSCLE RELAXES This WIDENS/DILATES the LUMEN GOBLET CELLS/GLANDULAR TISSUE Found BENEATH EPITHELIUM (particularly in the trachea) and SECRETE MUCUS The MUCUS = GLYCOPROTEIN Mucus TRAPS TINY PARTICLES from the air which could be HARMFUL SUBSTANCES/BACTERIA Trapping such things REDUCES CHANCE OF INFECTION CILIATED EPITHELIUM The EPITHELIUM consists of CILIATED CELLS CILIATED CELLS have numerous TINY, HAIR-LIKE EXTENSIONS projecting from CELL MEMBRANE These extensions = CILIA CILIA move in a SYNCHRONISED PATTERN, so that MUCUS can be WAFTED UP the AIRWAY, to back of throat so it can be SWALLOWED ACID IN STOMACH = will KILL ANY BACTERIA

MEASURING LUNG CAPACITY

BREATHING To breathe, DIAPHRAGM and INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES CONTRACT and RELAX EXERCISING/FRIGHTENED = breathing is MORE RAPID/DEEPER Means MORE OXYGENATED AIR INTO lungs/CARBON DIOXIDE RICH AIR OUT ELEMENTS OF LUNG VOLUME TIDAL VOLUME:The vol. of air MOVED IN & OUT of the lungs with EACH BREATH AT REST (approx. 0.5dm3) VITAL CAPACITY:LARGEST (max.) vol. of air MOVED IN & OUT of the lungs in ONE BREATH (approx. 5.0dm3 but VARIES BETWEEN MEN/WOMEN/AGE/SIZE + regular exercise) RESIDUAL VOLUME:Vol. of air that ALWAYS REMAINS IN LUNGS, even AFTER BIGGEST POSSIBLE EXHALATION (approx. 1.5dm3) DEAD SPACE:AIR found in the TRACHEA, BRONCHI & BRONCHIOLES NO gas exchange in these areas INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME:HOW MUCH MORE AIR can be breathed IN, OVER and ABOVE TIDAL VOLUME when a BIG breath is taken This reserve CALLED ON DURING EXERCISE EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME:HOW MUCH MORE AIR can be breathed OUT, OVER and ABOVE amount breathed in a TIDAL VOL. BREATH These volumes can be shown on a TRACE DIAGRAM:

SHOWS A

LUNG VOLUME
GRAPH: ON A SPIROMETER VOLUME GRAPH:
INSPIRATORY AND EXPIRATORY RESERVES SWAP

SPIROMETERS AND LUNG VOLUME SPIROMETERS can MEASURE VITAL CAPACITY, TIDAL VOLUME, BREATHING RATE and OXYGEN UPTAKE Spirometers CONSIST OF: CHAMBER filled with OXYGEN it FLOATS on a TANK OF WATER Person BREATHES IN from a DISPOSABLE MOUTHPIECE ATTACHED (FOR SAFETY) TO A TUBE CONNECTED TO OXYGEN CHAMBER OXYGEN used in MEDICAL GRADE (FOR SAFETY) BREATHING IN oxygen from chamber, causes CHAMBER TO SINK DOWN BREATHING OUT (into the chamber), causes CHAMBER TO FLOAT UP MOVEMENT OF CHAMBER is RECORDED using a DATALOGGER This produces a SPIROMETER TRACE Person breathing can be asked to do so at REST, AFTER EXERCISE or to take DEEP BREATHS So DIFFERENT BREATHING PATTERNS can be recorded. MEASURING OXYGEN UPTAKE Breathing IN & OUT causes a DANGEROUS BUILD UP OF CARBON DIOXIDE in the chamber To AVOID THIS, SODA LIME is used to ABSORB EXHALED CO2 (FOR SAFETY) Which causes TOTAL VOL. of gas in spirometer to DECREASE

VOL. OF CO2 = VOL. OF OXYGEN BREATHED IN... ...TOTAL REDUCTION = VOL. OF OXYGEN USED TO BREATHE IN & OUT
So CALCULATIONS can be made of USE OF OXYGEN under DIFFERENT BREATHING CONDITIONS

INTERPRETING SPIROMETER TRACES: TO CALCULATE OXYGEN UPTAKE: 1. Find the REDUCTION in chamber using Y-AXIS 2. Find TIME TAKEN for reduction 3. DIVIDE REDUCTION BY TIME TAKEN EXAMPLE: 0.3 dm3 = (REDUCTION) 55 seconds = (TIME TAKEN (s)) 0.3/55 = uptake in SECONDS 0.3X60/55 = uptake in MINUTES Unit:

dm3 min-1

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
TRANSPORT - the MOVEMENT of OXYGEN, NUTRIENTS, HORMOMES, WASTE & HEAT around the body LARGE ANIMAL TRANSPORT ALL LIVING CELLS require OXYGEN SUPPLY + NUTRIENTS so that they SURVIVE Must also REMOVE WASTES to AVOID TOXIC BUILD UP SMALL animals DONT need a SEPARATE TRANSPORT SYSTEM as ALL their cells are NEAR/SURROUNDED by the EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT SMALL ANIMALS = DIFFUSION alone, ENOUGH for their supply of oxygen/nutrients Animals with 2+ LAYERS OF CELLS, diffusion ALONE = TOO SLOW 3 (THREE) factors AFFECT NEED FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEM: SIZE SURFACE- AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO LEVEL OF ACTIVITY SIZE Animals with SEVERAL LAYERS OF CELLS = OUTER CELLS will USE UP diffusing nutrients/oxygen So WILL NOT REACH INNER MOST CELLS SURFACE-AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO SMALL animals = LARGE SURFACE-AREA-TO-VOLUME ratio This is AFFECTED by SHAPE e.g. FLATWORMS: have THIN/FLAT bodies giving large S-A-T-V R but this LIMITS THEIR SIZE To GROW LARGE, animals will need RANGE OF TISSUES & STRUCTUAL support for BODY STRENGTH: VOLUME INCREASES/BODY GETS THICKER but SURFACE AREA DOESNT increase as much Hence LARGE ANIMALS = RELATIVELY SMALL S-A-T-V R So is NOT LARGE to SUPPLY ALL required oxygen/nutrients needed by cells LEVEL OF ACTIVITY Animals need ENERGY FROM FOOD so they can MOVE RELEASING ENERGY from food requires RESPIRATION RESPIRATION needs OXYGEN VERY ACTIVE animals their CELLS NEED MORE ENERGY, so NEED GOOD SUPPLY OF OXYGEN and NUTRIENTS so that SUFFICIENT RESPIRATION takes place to provide the necessary energy WARM-BLOODED animals = EVEN MORE ENERGY FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE TRANSPORT SYSTEM Will need to include: 1. A FLUID/MEDIUM to CARRY nutrients/oxygen around body this is BLOOD 2. A PUMP to create PRESSURE to PUSH FLUID around the body the HEART 3. EXCHANGE SURFACES so that oxygen/nutrients can ENTER BLOOD and LEAVE IT AGAIN where NEEDED 4. TUBES/VESSELS TO CARRY the blood 5. TWO CIRCUITS one to PICK UP OXYGEN/another to DELIVER OXYGEN to the TISSUES

SINGLE AND DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS Example of a SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM = the FISH Blood flows FROM HEART TO GILLS, then to the GILLS TO BODY then BACK TO HEART HEART GILLS BODY HEART MAMMALS have a circulation WITH TWO SEPARATE CIRCUITS DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ONE CIRCUIT: carries BLOOD FROM HEART LUNGS the PULMONARY CIRCULATION SECOND CIRCUIT: carries the OXYGEN & NUTRIENTS AROUND THE BODY the SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION MAMMALIAN HEART adapted to have TWO (2) PUMPS one for EACH CIRCULATION BLOOD goes through HEART TWICE FOR EACH COMPLETE CIRCULATION of the body HEART BODY HEART LUNGS HEART PULMONARY CIRCULATION pumps DEOXYGENATED BLOOD to the LUNGS to pick up oxygen SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION carries NEWLY OXYGENATED BLOOD to the BODY (TISSUES) RIGHT SIDE of the heart pumps blood to LUNGS (picks up oxygen - DEOXYGENATED) FROM LUNGS, travels to LEFT SIDE OF HEART, to pump the blood to THE BODY (OXYGENATED) When BLOOD RETURNS to the heart, ENTERS RIGHT SIDE (DEOXYGENATED) DOUBLE CIRCULATION ADVANTAGES EFFICIENT circulatory system = QUICK DELIVERY of oxygen and nutrients to PARTS OF BODY (where they are needed) SINGLE system: BLOOD PRESSURE is REDUCED so it will NOT flow as QUICK to rest of body This LIMITS RATE in which oxygen/nutrients gets DELIVERED to respiring tissues FISH = NOT AS ACTIVE AS MAMMALS + they DONT need to MAITAIN BODY TEMP. So they need LESS ENERGY; their single system is SUFFICIENT FOR THEIR NEEDS DOUBLE system: The HEART can INCREASE PRESSURE OF BLOOD AFTER passing through the LUNGS so that it FLOWS FASTER TO BODY TISSUES SYSTEMATIC circulation can CARRY BLOOD AT HIGHER PRESSURE THAN PULMONARY circulation Must NOT be TOO HIGH in PULMONARY as it could damage DELICATE CAPILLARIES IN LUNGS MAMMALS are ACTIVE + need to MAINTAIN BODY TEMP. BOTH require ENERGY FROM FOOD via respiration To release LOTS ENERGY = GOOD SUPPLY of oxygen and nutrients

STRUCTURE OF MAMMALIAN HEART

THE HEART Is a MUSCULAR DOUBLE PUMP DIVIDED into TWO SIDES RIGHT SIDE pumps DEOXYGENATED blood to LUNGS to be oxygenated LEFT-SIDE pumps blood to the BODY (TISSUES) BOTH sides apply PRESSURE to the BLOOD by SQUEEZING, forcing the blood INTO the ARTERIES

Looking AT diagram of heart; RIGHT side REPRESENTS the LEFT SIDE

EXTERNAL FEATURES OF HEART It sits SLIGHTLY OFF CENTRE to LEFT of the chest cavity with MAIN PART of the heart being FIRM, RED MUSCLE 2 main PUMPING CHAMBERS are the VENTRICLES ABOVE ventricles, are the ATRIA chambers These have THIN WALLS CORONARY ARTERIES lie OVER HEART SURFACE Carry OXYGENATED BLOOD to the HEART ITSELF As the heart is a MUSCLE so needs to RESPIRE also to gain energy If these arteries become CONSTRICTED, will have SEVERE HEALTH IMPLICATIONS for the animal RESTRICTED BLOOD FLOW = will cause a LACK OF OXYGEN/NUTRIENTS to BODY (delivery REDUCES) so could cause heart conditions such as ANGINA or a HEART ATTACK (myocardial infarcation) At TOP of the heart, there are tubes these are VEINS Veins are responsible for CARRYING BLOOD INTO HEART and ARTERIES (which carry BLOOD OUT OF HEART)

INTERAL FEATURES OF HEART Heart DIVIDED into 4 CHAMBERS 2 upper ATRIA These RECEIVE blood from MAJOR VEINS DEOXYGENATED blood from BODY flows from VENA CAVA into RIGHT ATRIUM OXYGENATED blood from LUNGS flows from PULMONARY VEIN into the LEFT ATRIUM From the ATRIA, blood flows through ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES into the VENTRICLES ATRIOVENTRICULAR valves are thin FLAPS of TISSUE in a CUP SHAPE VENTRICLES CONTRACT = VALVES FILL with blood/REMAIN CLOSED to ensure BLOOD FLOWS UPWARDS into major arteries and NOT INTO ATRIA TENDINOUS CORDS ATTACH VALVES to the WALLS to prevent then TURNING INSIDE OUT (which would cause BLOOD to FLOW UP TO ATRIA) LOCATED in the ventricles SEPTUM is a WALL of MUSCLE, with SEPARATES the VENTRICLES from each other Ensures DEOXYGENATED BLOOD (in the LEFT SIDE) does not mix with OXYGENATED BLOOD in the RIGHT SIDE SEPARATES the two types of blood DEOXYGENATED blood LEAVING RIGHT VENTRICLE flows into the PULMONARY ARTERY Pulmonary artery LEADS TO LUNGS OXYGENATED blood LEAVING LEFT SIDE, goes into the AORTA Which pumps to ARTERIES SUPPLYING BODY At the BASE of MAJOR ARTERIES, are SEMILUNAR VALVES which prevent blood RETURNING TO HEART when the VENTRICLES RELAX PERICARDIUM SACK which the heart is in.

VENA CAVA PULMONARY

R
Carries DEOXYGENATED blood back to RIGHT ATRIUM OF HEART

AORTA
Carries OXYGENATED BLOOD from LEFT VENTRICLE to NUMEROUS ARTERIES which SUPPLY BODY

ARTERY
ONLY ARTERY which carries DEOXYGENATED blood (to the LUNGS)

PULMONARY VEIN
Carries OXYGENATED blood AWAY FROM LUNGS to LEFT ATRIUM

ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES
Located IN ATRIA; these are VALVES which PREVENT blood FLOWING BACK INTO ATRIA VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE causes VENTRICLES to CONTRACT/pressure CHANGE causes valves to CLOSE and make blood flow into ARTERIES BLOOD PRESSURE

SEMILUNAR VALVES
Located BASE OF MAJOR ARTERIES; are valves which PREVENT blood RETURNING TO HEART after the VENTRICLES RELAX

EACH chamber CONTRACTS to create INCREASED PRESSURE IN BLOOD HIGHER the PRESSURE, the FURTHER BLOOD WILL FLOW ATRIA The atria have THIN MUSCLE because they DONT PUMP BLOOD AT SUCH HIGH PRESSURES RIGHT VENTRICLE The WALLS are THICKER THAN ATRIA to allow for blood to be PUMPED OUT OF HEART However, RIGHT VENTRICLE walls are much THINNER THAN the LEFT RIGHT VENTRICLE pumps DEOXYGENATED blood to LUNGS FROM HEART, so DOESNT TRAVEL AS FAR PRESSURE MUST NOT be TOO HIGH, as it could cause DAMAGE to the DELICATE CAPILLARIES in the lungs which are IN CLOSE CONTACT WITH ALVEOLI WALLS (which have minimal/no tissue fluid) so they are NOT well SUPPORTED so COULD BURST LEFT VENTRICLE The WALLS are up to x2/3 THICKER THAN RIGHT VENTRICLE walls Blood from LEFT VENTRICLE is pumped at HIGHER PRESSURE THROUGH AORTA to the BODY Pressure needs to BE SUFFICIENT so as to EFFICIENTLY PUMP blood to body and to OVERCOME RESISTANCE of the systematic circulation

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

SEQUENCE OF CONTRACTION The hearts chambers contract in a COORDINATED FASHION OUT OF SEQUENCE contraction = INEFFICIENT PUMPING THIS sequence in ONE HEARTBEAT = THE CARDIAC CYCLE FILLING PHASE = DIASTOLE BOTH atria and ventricles RELAXING Internal VOL. INCREASES and BLOOD FLOWS INTO the heart FROM MAJOR VEINS Blood INTO ATRIA THROUGH OPEN ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES to VENTRICLES ATRIAL CONTRACTION = ATRIAL SYSTOLE The HEARTBEAT STARTS when the ATRIA CONTRACT; both LEFT & RIGHT at the same time SMALL PRESSURE created by contraction HELPS PUSH blood INTO VENTRICLES This STRETCHES VENTRICLE WALLS, to ensure VENTRICLES ARE FULL Once VENTRICLES are FULL, they begin to CONTRACT Causes blood to FLOW INTO ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES, causing them to SNAP SHUT and prevent blood FLOWING BACK INTO ATRIIA

VENTRICULAR CONTRACT = VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE SHORT PERIOD in which ALL 4 HEART VALVES are CLOSED VENTRICLE walls then CONTRACT which RAISES PRESSURE in ventricles VERY QUICKLY STARTS at the APEX (base) of the heart; causes blood to be PUSHED UPWARDS to arteries

 SEMILUNAR VALVES OPEN and blood is pushed OUT OF HEART Contraction is for SHORT TIME so ventricles RELAX to allow heart to FILL AGAIN (DIASTOLE) HOW VALVES WORK ENSURE that blood flows IN RIGHT DIRECTION OPEN and CLOSED by the changing PRESSURE in the various chambers ATRIOVENTICULAR VALVES AFTER VENTRICLE WALLS RELAX/RECOIL after contracting, pressure IN VENTRICLES DROPS BELOW the pressure in ATRIA VENTRICLE PRESSURE <ATRIA PRESSURE = atrioventricular valves to OPEN Blood flowing INTO HEART, goes STRAIGHT THROUGH atria into the ventricles Pressure of blood INCREASES SLOWLY in atria and ventricles as they FILL WITH BLOOD During ATRIAL SYSTOLE, ANTRIOVENTRICULAR valves REMAIN OPEN During VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE (ventricles contract) PRESSURE inside INCREASES in ventricles When VENTRICULAR PRESSURE > ATRIA PRESSURE = blood moves UPWARDS and FILLS ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES, which keeps them CLOSED to prevent BACKFLOW OF BLOOD, back into the ATRIA. SEMILUNAR VALVES When the VENTRICLES CONTRACT (ventricular systole), pressure in MAJOR ARTERIES is HIGHER THAN the pressure in the ventricles, causing SEMILUNAR VALVES to be CLOSED As VENTRICLES FILL with blood, pressure RISES QUICKLY because the blood CANNOT ESCAPE When VENTRICLE PRESSURE > major arteries (AORTA/PULMONARY ARTERIES) the semilunar valves are PUSHED OPEN The blood is under GREAT PRESSURE, so is FORCED OUT QUICKLY AFTER ventricles STOP CONTRACTING, the heart starts to RELAX ELASTIC TISSUE in the WALLS OF VENTRICLES, start to RECOIL & STRETCH the MUSCLE OUT to return ventricles to ORIGINAL SIZE Causes ventricle pressure to DROP QUICKLY, becoming LOWER than pressure in major arteries and PUSHES CLOSED the semilunar valves when blood flows backwards TOWARDS VENTRICLES; prevents blood RETURNING TO VENTRICLES. SOUND OF HEART Makes a LUB-DUB sound, caused by the hearts VALVES CLOSING FIRST SOUND (LUB) is the ATRIOVENTRICULAR valves CLOSING as the VENTRICLES CONTRACT SECOND SOUND (DUB) is caused by SEMILUNAR valves CLOSING as VENTRICLES RELAX The LUB sound is LOUDER because the atrioventricular valves SNAP SHUT The DUB is not as loud, as semilunar valves CLOSE DUE TO the ACCUMULATION of blood in their pockets.

CONTROL OF CARDIAC CYCLE

NEED FOR COORDINATION CARDIAC muscle can INITIATE OWN CONTRACTION BECAUSE of this, it is known as a MYOGENIC the heart would continue relaxing and contracting even if not attached to the body! ATRIA and VENTRICLES have their OWN NATURAL FREQUENCY of contraction ATRIA muscle = contracts at HIGHER FREQUENCY INEFFICIENT pumping is a result of UNSYNCHRONISED CONTRACTIONS so A condition known as FIBRILLATION A MECHANISM is required to COORDINATE contractions of each chamber HOW HEARTBEAT STARTS At TOP OF RIGHT ATRIUM, (near where the vena cava empties blood into right atrium) is the SINOATRIAL NODE (SAN). SAN = small PATCH of TISSUE which GENERATES ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY It INITIATES a WAVE OF EXCITATION at regular intervals Approx. 55-80 times PER MIN aka. The PACEMAKER CONTRACTION OF ATRIA WAVE OF EXCITATION passes OVER WALLS of BOTH atria Wave travels ALONG MEMBRANES of the muscle tissue As it PASSES, causes the ATRIA TO CONTRACT (ATRIAL SYSTOLE) At the BASE OF ATRIA, is a DISC which CANNOT CONDUCT the wave of excitation So wave of excitation CANT PASS TO VENTRICLE WALLS DIRECTLY At the TOP OF INTER-VENTRICULAR SEPTUM (septum separating the ventricles) is the ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE (AVN) AVN = ONLY ROUTE which excitation wave THROUGH NON-CONDUCTING tissue Wave of excitation DELAYED AT AVN allows TIME FOR ATRIA TO FINISH CONTRACTING + for the blood to flow to ventricles before they contract CONTRACTION OF VENTRICLES AFTER the delay, the excitation wave CARRIED AWAY FROM AVN and DOWN specialised CONDUCTING TISSUES Conducting tissue = PURKYNE TISSUE which runs DOWN INTER-VENTRICULAR SEPTUM At septum BASE, wave of excitation SPREADS OVER ventricle WALLS Then spreads UPWARDS from the base (apex) of ventricles Causes VENTRICLES TO CONTRACT from apex UPWARDS, pushing the blood upwards to the major arteries at top of heart ELECTROCARDIOGRAMS (ECGs) These MONITOR ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY of the heart Involves ATTACHING SENSORS TO SKIN

Some of the electrical activity generated by heart SPREADS TO NEIGHBOURING TISSUES next to heart and ONWARDS TO SKIN The SENSORS pick up the electrical excitation by the heart and CONVERT them to TRACES A NORMAL/HEALTHY person: P = EXCITATON of atria QRS = EXCITATION of ventricles T = DIASTOLE (heart relaxing)

CHANGES in the normal ECG can indicate parts of heart not WORKING CORRECTLY IRREGULAR heartbeat UNCOORDINATED heartbeat (fibrillation) If a person has SUFFERED A HEART ATTACK An ENLARGED heart PURKYNE TISSUE not conducting electrical activity correctly HEART MUSCLE (myogenic) RESPIRES FATTY ACIDS A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF oxygen needed as fat RESPIRED ONLY AEROBICALLY A BLOOD CLOT in coronary artery STARVES part of heart muscle of oxygen, causing THOSE CELLS TO DIE a HEART ATTACK (myocardial infarction) HEART ARTERIES GILLS VEINS BODY TISSUES VEINS - HEART

BLOOD VESSELS
OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS OPEN MANY animals e.g. insects have OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS BLOOD is NOT CONFINED to within BLOOD VESSELS Instead the blood fluid CIRCULATES THROUGH BODY CAVITY Cells and tissues are DIRECTLY BATHED in the blood Animals with open circulatory systems, SOME will have ACTION OF MUSCLES during movement to CIRCULATE the blood OTHERS e.g. insects have a MUSCULAR PUMPING ORGAN (like a heart) Is a LONG, MUSCULAR TUBE, found underneath dorsal surface of the insect Blood FROM BODY enters the heart via OSTIA (likes pores) HEART then pumps blood via PERISTALSIS TOWARDS the HEAD Blood at head POURS INTO BODY CAVITY WHY DONT ALL ANIMALS HAVE OPEN SYSTEMS? ONLY works for SMALL ANIMALS like insects because the blood DOESNT NEED TO TRAVEL FAR Also DONT RELY on blood to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide as they have a SEPARATE TRANSPORT SYSTEM LARGER organisms RELY ON BLOOD for transportation of oxygen/carbon dioxide

Open systems = blood at LOW PRESSURE/flow is VERY SLOW so this WOULDNT BE SUFFICIENT for large, active animals Also mean parts of the body would NOT SUFFICIENT RECEIVE OXYGEN/NUTRIENTS

CLOSED Blood is CONFINED TO BLOOD VESSELS (TISSUE FLUID is a separate fluid which BATHES TISSUES/CELLS) CONFINEMENT TO BLOOD VESSELS = heart can pump blood AT HIGHER PRESSURE so it will FLOW QUICKER Means DELIVERY of blood carrying OXYGEN/NUTRIENTS to the body is QUICKER Mean REMOVAL of CARBON DIOXIDE/WASTES from the body is QUICKER FISH have CLOSED systems so require EXCHANGE SURFACES AT GILLS so that material can be exchanged BETWEEN BLOOD & TISSUE FLUID BLOOD VESSELS ARTERIES Carry OXYGENATED blood AWAY FROM the heart (pulmonary artery is an exception: it carries DEOXYGENATED) Blood is at HIGH PRESSURE so the artery wall MUST be able to WITHSTAND the pressure LUMEN = relatively SMALL to MAINTAIN pressure THICK WALL = contains COLLAGEN (fibrous protein) which PROVIDES STRENGTH ELASTIC TISSUE in wall = ALLOWS it to STRETCH + RECOIL when heart pumps (felt as a PULSE where arteries close to skin) SMOOTH MUSCLE in wall = CONTRACTS + CONSTRICTS the arterys LUMEN 1. (in arterioles, lumen narrows to LIMIT BLOOD FLOW to certain organs/DIRECTS FLOW to other organs where NEEDED) ENDOTHELIUM = is FOLDED and can UNFOLD when artery stretches VEINS Carry DEOXYGENATED blood BACK TO the heart Blood is at LOWER PRESSURE so the walls DONT NEED TO BE ASK THICK as artery LUMEN = relatively LARGE to EASE FLOW of blood WALLS = THINNER layers of COLLAGEN, SMOOTH MUSCLE + ELASTIC TISSUE as veins dont need to STRETCH + RECOIL and dont need to ACTIVELY CONSTRICT VALVES = MAIN FEATURE as these prevent BACK FLOW of blood to the heart and blood FLOWING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION THIN WALLS = veins can be FLATTENED by surrounding skeletal muscle so that PRESSURE IS APPLIED to force blood in direction dictated by valves CAPILLARIES Have VERY THIN WALLS to allow for the EXCHANGE of materials between blood and cells of tissues via tissue fluid 1. WALLS = consist of SINGLE LAYER of FLATTENED ENDOTHELIAL CELLS REDUCES diffusion distance for exchanging materials

2. LUMEN = VERY NARROW Same diameter as RED BLOOD CELL (7um) so that such cells are SQUEEZED as they PASS through the capillary so that again, the diffusion distance DECREASES and the OXYGEN MOLECULES are PRESSED CLOSE to capillary walls

BLOOD, TISSUE FLUID AND LYMPH

BLOOD AND TISSUE FLUID BLOOD is CONFINED to our blood vessels Consists of BLOOD CELLS in PLASMA, which contains many substances: CARBON DIOXIDE (small amount in blood) SALTS GLUCOSE FATTY ACIDS AMINO ACIDS HORMONES PLASMA PROTEIN Cells include ERYTHROCYTES (red blood cells), LMPHOCYTES (white blood cells) and PLATELETS TISSUE FLUID Is SIMILAR TO BLOOD but it DOESNT CONTAIN most substances found in blood + NO PLASMA PROTEINS Its ROLE = to TRANSPORT OXYGEN/NUTRIENTS from blood to cells And REMOVE CARBON DIOXIDE/OTHER WASTES back to the blood

FORMATION OF TISSUE FLUID Arteries REACHING TISSUES branch into SMALLER ARTERIOLES Then INTO CAPILLARIES which eventually LINK BACK TO VENULES, to pass blood BACK TO VEINS. So Blood INTO ORGAN/TISSUE = contained in CAPILLARIES At ATERIAL END = pressure of blood is VERY HIGH (due to contraction of heart HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Tends to FORCE OUT blood fluid, OUT OF CAPILLARIES through the TINY GAPS in capillary wall Fluid that LEAVES becomes TISSUE FLUID and consists of platelets, oxygen and nutrients ALL RED BLOOD CELLS, PLATELETS + most WHITE BLOOD CELLS are TOO LARGE to leave as gaps in capillary wall are TOO SMALL It BATHES tissues and cells to permit exchange of oxygen/nutrients ACROSS CELL SURFACE MEMBRANES via (facilitated)diffusion Oxygen + nutrients ENTER CELLS Carbon dioxide + other wastes LEAVE CELLS HOW FLUID RETURNS TO BLOOD The HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE is not only force acting on the fluid The tissue fluid ITSELF has SOME HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE which causes it to be forced back into the capillaries Blood + tissue fluid have SOLUTES which DECREASES THEIR WATER POTENTIAL (more negative) Tissue fluid water potential LESS NEGATIVE than blood; causes TISSUE FLUID to move BACK INTO the BLOOD, via osmosis, down water potential gradient At the VENOUS END (of capillary) = blood LOSES HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Hydrostatic pressure in TISSUE FLUID + OSMOTIC FORCES of plasma proteins = sufficient to move FLUID BACK INTO CAPILLARIES (carrying any waste products e.g. carbon dioxide, leaving the cells) FORMATION OF LYMPH NOT ALL tissue fluid returns to capillaries SOME DRAINED AWAY INTO LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Lymphatic system consists of numerous vessels (similar to capillaries) which START IN TISSUES to drain excess fluid into LARGER VESSELS (that eventually rejoin blood system in chest cavity) Lymph is SIMILAR TO TISSUE FLUID as has same solutes But has FEWER OXYGEN/NUTRIENTS (as been absorbed by body cells) Will be MORE CARBON DIOXIDE + WASTES (released from body cells) Also MORE FATTY MATERIAL (absorbed from the intestines) MAIN DIFFERENCE between tissue fluid and lymph Lymph = LOTS OF LYMPHOCYTES, produced in LYMPH NODES LYMPH NODES = SWELLINGS found at INTERVALS along lymphatic system SWELLINGS = can FILTER bacteria/foreign material from lymph fluid so that the LYMPHOCYTES can DESTROY them part of IMMUNE SYSTEM

FEATURE CELLS

BLOOD
ERYTHROCYTES, LEUCOCYTES & PLATELETS PLASMA PROTEINS and HORMONES SOME LIPOPROTEINS 80-120mg per 100cm3

TISSUE FLUID
SOME (PHAGOCYTIC) WHITE BLOOD CELLS leucocytes SOME HORMONES & SECRETED PROTEINS from cells NONE LESS AMOUNT (absorbed by body cells) LESS (absorbed by body cells) MORE (released from body cells)

LYMPH
LYMPHOCYTES

PROTEINS

SOME proteins

FATS GLUCOSE

ABSORBED from INTENSTINES EVEN LESS

AMINO ACIDS CARBON DIOXDE

MORE LITTLE

EVEN LESS MORE

CARRIAGE OF OXYGEN
HAEMOGLOBIN Oxygen is TRANSPORTED IN red blood cells (erythrocytes) Erythrocytes CONTAIN the protein HAEMOGLOBIN; when it TAKES UP OXYGEN, it becomes OXYHAEMOGLOBIN HAEMOGLOBIN + OXYGEN = OXYHAEMOGLOBIN Haemoglobin = COMPLEX PROTEIN with FOUR SUBUNITS EACH subunit consists of a HAEM GROUP + POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN HAEM GROUP contains a SINGLE Fe2+ (iron ion) that can ATTRACT AND HOLD
an OXYGEN MOLECULE an AFFINITY FOR OXYGEN (attraction)

Each haemoglobin molecule = hold max. of 4 oxygen molecules TAKING UP OXYGEN Oxygen absorbed by blood in the lungs Oxygen molecules diffuse into blood plasma and ENTER RED BLOOD CELLS Here, TAKEN UP by the haemoglobin so MAINTAINS STEEP DIFFUSION GRADIENT of oxygen, which allows more oxygen to enter cells RELEASING OXYGEN Body tissues and cells NEED OXYGEN FOR AEROBIC RESPIRATION So oxyhaemoglobin MUST BE ABLE to RELEASE its oxygen This is DISSOCIATION HAEMOGLOBIN AND OXYGEN TRANSPORT ABILITY of haemoglobin to TAKE UP and RELEASE OXYGEN depends on amount in the surrounding tissues AMOUNT OF OXYGEN measured by RELATIVE PRESSURE it CONTRIBUTES TO MIXTURE OF GASES called PARTIAL PRESSURE (pO) or OXYGEN (unit = kPa) In a NORMAL FLUID:-

AMOUNT of oxygen is directly proportional to SURROUNDING AIRS OXYGEN TENSION Graph showing %saturation against oxygen tension = STRAIGHT LINE BLOOD CONTAINING FLUID: Haemoglobin takes up oxygen to CREATE S-SHAPED CURVE called the OXYHAEMOGLOBIC DISSOCIATION CURVE LOW OXYGEN TENSION = haemoglobin doesnt uptake oxygen READILY because the heam groups which attract oxygen are in CENTRE OF HAEMOGLOBIN MOLECULE so makes it difficult for oxygen to REACH and associate with them This difficulty ACCOUNTS FOR LOW SATURATION of haemoglobin at low oxygen tensions RISING oxygen tension = INCREASED DIFFUSION of oxygen molecules into haemoglobin Eventually, an oxygen molecule WILL DIFFUSE and ASSOCIATE INTO haemoglobin molecule Creates SLIGHT CHANGE in SHAPE of haemoglobin (conformational change) SHAPE CHANGE = MORE oxygen molecules can diffuse and associate MORE EASILY (accounts for STEEP CHANGE in oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve as OXYGEN TENSION RISES Once contains 3 OXYGEN MOLECULES = HARDER for fourth oxygen molecule to associate with final haem group Means DIFFICULT for 100% SATURATION of ALL haemoglobin molecules DESPITE increased oxygen tension The graph curve will LEVEL OFF FETAL HAEMOGLOBIN Haemoglobin of MAMMALIAN FETUS = HIGHER AFFINITY for oxygen than an adults haemoglobin Fetal haemoglobin must be able to PICK UP OXYGEN from an ENVIRONMENT which makes ADULT HAEMOGLOBIN RELEASE OXYGEN This is the PLACENTA; fetal haemoglobin must absorb oxygen from fluid in mothers blood This REDUCES OXYGEN TENSION in blood fluid, causing maternal haemoglobin to RELEASE ITS OXYGEN Oxyhaemoglobin disassociation curve FOR FETAL HAEMOGLOBIN is to the left of curve for adult haemoglobin.

CARRIAGE OF CARBON DIOXIDE

HOW IS CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORTED?

Carbon dioxide RELEASED from RESPRING TISSUES

NEEDS to be REMOVED from tissues and TRANSPORTED TO THE LUNGS Is transported in 3 WAYS:1. 5% DISSOLVED directly in PLASMA 2. 10% COMBINED directly WITH HAEMOGLOBIN 3. 85% TRANSPORTED in form of HYDROGENCARBONATE IONS (HCO) FORMATION OF HYDROGENCARBONATE IONS As carbon dioxide diffuses into blood, some ENTERS RED BLOOD CELLS

It COMBINES WITH WATER, creating a weak CARBONIC ACID The acid is CATALYSED by ENZYME CARBONIC ANHYDRASE

CO + HO HCO
Carbonic acid then DISSOCIATES RELEASES HYDROGEN IONS (H+) and HYDROGENCARBONATE IONS (HCO -)

HCO + HCO- + H+
The hydrogencarbonate ions DIFFUSE OUT of the red blood cell INTO PLASMA The CHARGE INSIDE the red blood cell is maintained by movement of CHLORIDE IONS (CL-) FROM PLASMA INTO red blood cell = THE CHLORIDE SHIFT The hydrogen ions could cause CONTENTS OF RED BLOOD CELL to BECOME ACIDIC

To prevent this, HYDROGEN IONS are TAKEN UP BY HAEMOGLOBIN This produces HAEMOGLOBNIC ACID which ACTS AS A BUFFER = maintains CONSTANT pH
RELEASING OXYGEN As blood ENTERS RESPIRING tissues, haemoglobin CARRIES OXYGEN in form of OXYHAEMOGLOBIN The OXYGEN TENSION of respiring tissues IS LOWER THAN LUNGS (because oxygen is used in respiration) Causes OXYHAEMOGLOBIN to DISASSOCIATE & RELEASE oxygen to tissues RELEASING MORE OXYGEN the BOHR EFFECT Hydrogen ions released from dissociation of carbonic acid COMPETE FOR SPACE TAKEN UP BY OXYGEN on the haemoglobin molecule When CARBON DIOXIDE IS PRESENT, the hydrogen ions DISPLACE the oxygen on haemoglobin molecule Causes OXYHAEMOGLOBIN to RELEASE MORE OXYGEN to tissues
Tissues which RESPIRE MORE (e.g contracting muscles) there will be MORE CARBON DIOXIDE

as a result, will be MORE HYDROGEN IONS PRODUCED in the red blood cells causes OXYHAEMOGLOBIN to release MORE OXYGEN

= the BOHR EFFECT

At any particular oxygen tension, oxyhaemoglobin RELEASES MORE OXYGEN when MORE CARBON DIOXIDE is present MORE carbon dioxide = LESS SATURATED haemoglobin, causing the dissociation curve SHIFT DOWNWARDS, to THE RIGHT (the BOHR SHIFT) Bohr shift results in MORE OXYGEN, READILY RELEASED when there is MORE CARBON DIOXIDE produced via respiration, which is NECESSARY for muscles to continue aerobic respiration