report 1. An account presented usually in detail. 2. A formal account of the proceedings or transactions of a group. 3.

Law A published collection of authoritative accounts of court cases or of judicial decisions. Often used in the plural. A report or account is any informational work (usually of writing, speech, television, or film) made with the specific intention of relaying information or recounting certain events in a widely presentable form. Written reports are documents which present focused, salient content to a specific audience. Reports are often used to display the result of an experiment, investigation, or inquiry. The audience may be public or private, an individual or the public in general. Reports are used in government, business, education, science, and other fields. Reports use features such as graphics, images, voice, or specialized vocabulary in order to persuade that specific audience to undertake an action. One of the most common formats for presenting reports is IMRAD: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. This structure is standard for the genre because it mirrors the traditional publication of scientific research and summons the ethos and credibility of that discipline. Reports are not required to follow this pattern, and may use alternative patterns like the problem-solution format. Additional elements often used to persuade readers include: headings to indicate topics, to more complex formats including charts, tables, figures, pictures, tables of contents, abstracts,and nouns summaries, appendices, footnotes, hyperlinks, and references. Some examples of reports are: scientific reports, recommendation reports, white papers, annual reports, auditor's reports, workplace reports, census reports, trip reports, progress reports, investigative reports, budget reports, policy reports, demographic reports, credit reports, appraisal reports, inspection reports, military reports, bound reports, etc. Reports are very important in all their various forms along with the usual evidences like in a crimes scene people usually leave behind evidences. . They fill a vast array of critical needs for many of society's important organizations. Police reports are extremely important to society for a number of reasons. They help to prosecute criminals while also helping the innocent become free. Reports are a very useful method for keeping track of important information. The information contained in reports can be used to make very important decisions that affect our lives daily. A memorandum (abbrev.: memo) was from the Latin verbal phrase memorandum est, the gerundive form of the verb memoro, "to mention, call to mind, recount, relate",[1] which means "It must be remembered (that)...". It is therefore a note, document or other communication that helps the memory by recording events or observations on a topic, such as may be used in a business office. The plural form of the Latin noun memorandum so derived is properly memoranda, but if the word is deemed to have become a word of the English language, the plural memorandums, abbreviated to memos, may be used. (See also Agenda, Corrigenda, Addenda) A memorandum may have any format, or it may have a format specific to an office or institution. In law specifically, a memorandum is a record of the terms of a transaction or contract, such as a policy memo, memorandum of understanding, memorandum of agreement, or memorandum of association. Alternative formats include memos, briefing notes, reports, letters or binders. They could be one page long or many. If the user is a cabinet minister or a senior executive, the format might be rigidly defined and limited to one or two pages. If the user is a colleague, the

format is usually much more flexible. At its most basic level, a memorandum can be a handwritten note to one's supervisor. In business, a memo is typically used by firms for internal communication, as opposed to letters which are typically for external communication.[2] Dean Acheson famously quipped that "A memorandum is not written to inform the reader but to protect the writer". Charles Peters wrote that "bureaucrats write memoranda both because they appear to be busy when they are writing and because the memos, once written, immediately become proof that they were busy."[3] memorandum1. a short note designating something to be remembered, especially something to be done or acted upon in the future; reminder.2. a record or written statement of something. 3. an informal message, especially one sent between two or more employees of the same company, concerning company business: an interoffice memorandum. 4. Law. a writing, usually informal, containing the terms of a transaction. 5. Diplomacy. a summary of the state of an issue, the reasons for a decision agreed on, etc. letter1. a written or printed communication addressed to a person or organization and usually transmitted by mail. 2. a symbol or character that is conventionally used in writing and printing to represent a speech sound and that is part of an alphabet. 3. a piece of printing type bearing such a symbol or character. 4. a particular style of type. 5. such types collectively. A letter is a written message containing information from one party to another.[1] The role of letters in communication has changed significantly since the nineteenth century. Historically, letters (in paper form) were the only reliable means of communication between two people in different locations. As communication technology has diversified, posted letters have become less important as a routine form of communication. For example, the development of the telegraph shortened the time taken to send a letter by transferring the letter as an electrical signal between distant points. At the telegraph office closest to the destination of the letter, the signal was transferred back into a hardcopy format and sent as a normal mail to the person's home. This allowed the normal speed of communication to be drastically shortened for large distances. The facsimile (fax) machine took this one step further: an entire letter could be completely transferred electrically from the sender's house to the receiver's house by means of the telephone network as an image. Today, the internet by means of email plays a large part in written communications. Historically, letters exist from the time of ancient India, ancient Egypt and Sumer, through Rome, Greece and China, up to the present day. Letters make up several of the books of the Bible. Archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians. Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals. Though the two activities are closely related, literary critics are not always, and have not always been, theorists. Whether or not literary criticism should be considered a separate field of inquiry from literary theory, or conversely from book reviewing, is a matter of some controversy. For example, the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism[1] draws no distinction between literary theory and literary criticism, and almost always uses the terms together to describe the same concept. Some

critics consider literary criticism a practical application of literary theory, because criticism always deals directly with particular literary works, while theory may be more general or abstract. Literary criticism is often published in essay or book form. Academic literary critics teach in literature departments and publish in academic journals, and more popular critics publish their criticism in broadly circulating periodicals such as the Times Literary Supplement, the New York Times Book Review, the New York Review of Books, the London Review of Books, The Nation, and The New Yorker. LITERARY APPRECIATION Literary Appreciation is simply the ability to understand, enjoy and evaluate works of Literature. Evaluate here means to make judgment about the quality or value of literary work. Evaluation is usually an opinion about a given work, but it must be based on facts The Paper one of the SSCE Literature usually requires candidates to answer questions on: Literary Appreciation and a Prescribed Shakespearean Text. Questions on Literature Appreciation are further divided into questions on general knowledge of literature, questions on unseen prose and poetry passages. This text is devoted to these aspects of Literature. The Definition of Literary Appreciation and Criticism Stages of Literary Appreciation (reflection) Ogenlewe (2006) posits that literary appreciation refers to the evaluation of works of imaginative literature as an intellectual or academic exercise. In this process the reader interprets, evaluates or classifies a literary work with a view to determining the artistic merits or demerits or such a work. Donelson and Nilsen (2009) echo this sentiment and add that it is the process by which one gauges ones interpretive response as a reader to a literary work. This means that the reader is able to gain pleasure and understanding for the literature, understand its value and importance and admire its complexity. Nilsen and Donelson (2005) further determined that a main goal of teaching literature is to elicit a response from students so they can explore their own lives and improve their logical thinking skills. Therefore, the key to developing appreciation for reading is first selecting appropriate adolescent literature in which students can identify and make connections. This can foster love for reading and improve their language arts skills as well. Literary appreciation focuses on the adequate grasp of the definitions and applications of traditional literary devices such as plot, character, metaphor, setting and symbolism which may be encountered within texts. According to Donelson and Nilsen (2009), literary appreciation occurs in seven stages. Level 1: Pleasure and Profit (literary appreciation is a social experience) Level 2: Decoding (literacy is developed) Level 3: Lose yourself (reading becomes a means of escaping) Level 4: Find yourself (discovering identity) Level 5: Venture beyond self (going beyond me, assessing the world around them) Level 6: Variety in reading (reads widely and discusses experiences with peers) Level 7: Aesthetic purposes (avid reader, appreciates the artistic value of reading) Margaret Earlys Stages of Growth in Literary Appreciation determines that the personal attitudes, reading and observing skills are all part of literary appreciation. Stages which readers go

through are added unto without dropping the previous stages. Thus, literary appreciation is a lifelong process. However, occasionally students are ill-equipped to handle transition from childhood literature to adolescent literature and fail at establishing literary appreciation. This may occur as a result of a students late or early cognitive maturity. As teachers, we must understand that in order to appreciate literature students must experience pleasure from their reading. Transaction reading journals and literature circles can be helpful as students can document their progress and reflect on them. They should be provided with a forum to respond to literature in the classroom, discuss personal responses, ideas and deductions with other students. This will also allow them to make text to text connections. Knickerbocker and Rycik (2002) asserts that it is important to understand literary development that teachers should consider students stages of development and select materials and methods appropriate to them. This sentiment is supported by Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development at which children are said to go through mental development at different ages. They affirm that each level must provide a sense of satisfaction for the reader if he or she is expected to move unto the next stage. Literary Criticism Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals. Though the two activities are closely related, literary critics are not always, and have not always been, theorists. Whether or not literary criticism should be considered a separate field of inquiry from literary theory, or conversely from book reviewing, is a matter of some controversy. For example, the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism draws no distinction between literary theory and literary criticism, and almost always uses the terms together to describe the same concept. Some critics consider literary criticism a practical application of literary theory, because criticism always deals directly with particular literary works, while theory may be more general or abstract. Literary criticism is often published in essay or book form. Academic literary critics teach in literature departments and publish in academic journals, and more popular critics publish their criticism in broadly circulating periodicals such as the Times Literary Supplement, the New York Times Book Review, the New York Review of Books, the London Review of Books, The Nation, and The New Yorker. History of Literary Criticism Aristotles Poetics clearly defines aspects of literature and introduces many literary terms still used today. Classical and medieval criticism Literary criticism has probably existed for as long as literature. In the 4th century BC Aristotle wrote the Poetics, a typology and description of literary forms with many specific criticisms of contemporary works of art. Poetics developed for the first time the concepts of mimesis and catharsis, which are still crucial in literary study. Platos attacks on poetry as imitative, secondary, and false were formative as well. Around the same time, Bharata Muni, in his Natya Shastra, wrote literary criticism on ancient Indian literature and Sanskrit drama. Later classical and medieval criticism often focused on religious texts, and the several long religious traditions of hermeneutics and textual exegesis have had a profound influence on the study

of secular texts. This was particularly the case for the literary traditions of the three Abrahamic religions: Jewish literature, Christian literature and Islamic literature. Literary criticism was also employed in other forms of medieval Arabic literature and Arabic poetry from the 9th century, notably by Al-Jahiz in his al-Bayan wa-l-tabyin and al-Hayawan, and by Abdullah ibn al-Mutazz in his Kitab al-Badi. Definition of Literary CriticismLiterary criticism is simply the attempt to explain a literary work. A literary critic is one who explains or interprets a literary workits meaning, production, aestheticism, and historical value. HistoryThe history of literary criticism dates back to Plato and Aristotle. Both philosophers expressed ground breaking opinions about literature, specifically on the issues of literary mimesis (imitation and representation) and didacticism. Literary mimesis asks the question, Does literature imitate life, or does life imitate literature? Didacticism in literature asks the question, How does the text lend itself as an instructional or moral guide to life? Tools of Literary Criticism The tools with which a literary critic uses to interpret a text are literary theories. A literary theory is a method for analyzing a literary work. Some critical theories include New Criticism, Psychoanalytic Criticism and Marxist Criticism. New CriticismNew Criticism is characterized by its emphasis solely on the text. A New Critic approach to a literary work is only concerned with the meaning, irony, ambiguity, symbols and universal themes of the text, without any regard to authorial intent, historical or cultural contexts. Psychoanalytic CriticismPsychoanalytic Criticism uses psychoanalysis as a means of explaining the behavior and motives of the characters in a literary work. Psychoanalytic Criticism also explores how the psyche of the author informs the text. Marxist CriticismMarxist Criticism approaches a literary work from a socioeconomic standpoint. A Marxist critique of a literary work explores how the text intentionally or unintentionally supports capitalism, imperialism or other philosophies. Critical Approaches
1.Anthropological: Tends to focus on aspects of everyday life in various cultures (i.e. folklore, ritual, celebrations, traditions). You might ask, "What is the everyday social function of this text? How has it been transmitted (orally/written)? Does it reflect folk culture?" 2.Archetypal: Relates to Psychoanalytical Criticism in some ways(see below). Developed by Carl Jung, this approach accepts the idea of the unconscious mind. However, unlike Sigmund Freud and other critics, Jungians argue that part of the unconscious is shared by all people. From this perspective the term "collective unconscious" developed, a term representing the memories of human products and activities (found in myths, symbols, rituals, literatures) and reproduced as archetypes. Archetypes are figures or patterns recurring in works of the imagination, and can be divided into three categories. Archetypal characters include (but are not limited to): the hero, the villain, the outcast, the

femme fatale, and the star-crossed lovers. Archetypal situations include (but are not limited to): the quest, the journal, death and rebirth, and the task. Archetypal symbols and associations include polarities: light/dark, water/desert, height/depth, spring/winter. It is important to note two things. First, works may contain multiple archetypes. Second, not everything is an archetype. A balance between these two extremes can be very difficult to achieve. Looking for recurring patterns within a piece or within a collection of related stories can be useful in using this approach. 3.Biographical: Relates the author's life and thoughts to her works. As these tend to reflect the period in which she lived, biographical criticism may be an important aspect of the (New) Historical approach (see below). The biographical approach allows one to better understand elements within a work, as well as to relate works to authorial intention and audience. You might ask, "How does the text reflect the author's life? Is this text an extension of the author's position on issues in the author's life?" Biographical criticism has two weaknesses that should be avoided. First, avoid equating the work's content with the author's life (or the character with the author); they are not necessarily the same. Second, avoid less-than-credible sources of information, particularly works that tend to be highly speculative or controversial unless verified by several sources. (Some of the recent biographies on Thomas Jefferson might serve as an example of this pitfall.) 4.Narratological: Concerns itself with the structure of narrative--how events are constructed and through what point of view. You might ask, "How is the narrative of this work (fiction, poetry, film) pieced together? Who or what is narrating?" This considers the narrator not necessarily as a person, but more as a window through which one sees a constructed reality. This can range from someone telling a tale to a seemingly objective camera: "To what extent is the narrative mediated?" 5.New Criticism: Unlike biographical and historical approaches, a New Critic approach contends that literature need have little or no connection with the author's intention, life, or social/historical situation. Everything needed to analyze the work is contained within the text . New Critics also tend to examine the physical qualities of the text in a "scientific matter" that examines language and literary conventions (e.g. rhyme, meter, alliteration, plot, point of view, etc.). It is similar, though not identical, to Structuralism in its emphasis on the text itself (see below). 6.(New) Historicism: May approach a text from numerous perspectives, but all perspectives tend to reflect a concern with the period in which a text is produced and/or read (including contemporary work). No "history" can be truly objective or comprehensive because history is constantly written and rewritten; however, studying the historical context of a work, particularly in contrast with that in which it is read, can illuminate our biases and hopefully enable us to understand the text (and the culture, context, ourselves) better. New Historicism is concerned with relating the idea of a text to other key concepts: culture, discourse, ideology, the self, and history. New Historicists examine intersections of text, reader, and history and with a special emphasis on literature as a cultural text. New Historicists also examine the relationship of literature to the power structures of society. Historical research might include Biography (see above), reception studies, influence studies, or even a technological approach to the medium (filmmaking, printing, the music industry, computers and the WWW). It has also been utilized with Reader-Response criticism (see below). You might ask, "How does the text embody a history of its time? Is this text a useful historical document?"

7.Post-Structuralism: While accepting Structuralism and Sausseure's analysis of language (see Structuralism below), post-structuralism considers the relationship between language and meaning, ultimately rejecting any certainty of meaning. Jacques Derrida, one of the most influential post-

structuralism, called his critical method "deconstruction." Using deconstruction, the reader analyzes the text and especially its language to expose its ambiguity and upset the connection between the text and the "real world." You might initially ask, "How does the language/meaning in this text contradict itself? How can a work be interpreted in multiple ways?"
8.Psychoanalytic: Such criticism aims at uncovering the working of the human mind--especially the expression of the unconscious. Possibilities include analyzing a text like a dream, looking for symbolism and repressed meaning, or developing a psychological analysis of a character. Three ideas found in the work of Sigmund Freud are particularly useful: the dominance of the unconscious mind over the conscious, the expression of the unconscious mind through symbols (often in dreams), and sexuality as a powerful force for motivating human behavior. Psychoanalytic criticism can be applied to either the author/text relationship or to the reader/text relationship. You might ask, "How is this text use or represent the unconscious mind: of the author, the characters, the reader?" 9.Reader-Response Criticism: Studies the interaction of reader with text, holding the text as incomplete until it is read. This critical approach can be, and often is, combined with other approaches (such as Psychoanalytical and Historical) but challenges the self-contained focus of New Criticism or the claim of meaninglessness embraced by Post-Structuralism. 10.Semiotics: Critiques the use of language, preferably in texts that comment on the nature of language (see Structuralism). To the semiotician, language is an arbitrary but shared system of assigned meanings. You might ask, "How does this text critique language? Does it break the rules of language usage? Why?" Or if the text doesn't seem to comment on its own language, "How does the language used reflect an unawareness of language as an ideological tool?" 11.Social Criticism: Concerns itself with the social function of texts, thus consisting of several categories, and analyzes social structure, power, politics, and agency. Social criticism is similar to historical criticism in recognizing literature as a reflection of environment. There are several social movements, but Marxism, Feminism and Gender Studies, and Green Theory are prevalent. Marxism is concerned with labor practices, class theories, and economics, especially as concerned with the struggles of the poor and oppressed. A Marxist might ask, "How are classes stratified/defined in this text? Does this text reflect an economic ideology? What is the attitude toward labor furthered by this text? " Feminist Criticism examine works by and about women. Gender Criticism evolved out of feminism to address issues of masculinity/femininity as binaries, sexual orientation, hetereosexism, and differences in sexes. Both are political activities concerned with fair representation and treatment of people. A critcic using Feminist Studies or Gender Studies (sometimes also known as Queer Studies) might ask, "How is gender constructed or deconstructed in this text? Is the view of the text gendered or sexist?" A Green Critic might ask, "Of what priority is conservation in this text? What is the relationship between humankind and Nature?"

12.Structuralism: Like New Criticism, Structuralism concentrates on elements within works of literature without focusing on historical, social, and biographical influences. Structuralism, however, is grounded in linguistics and developed by Ferdinand de Sausseure. Sausseure's work argues that language is a complete, self-contained system and should be studied as such. Sausseure also claimed that language is a system of signs. When applied to literature, this form of criticism is generally known as Semiotics (see above).