Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Author(s): Matthew Dillon Reviewed work(s):

Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Oct., 2000), pp. 525-558 Published by: University of Hawai'i Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400282 . Accessed: 16/08/2012 10:08
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DIALOGUES WITH DEATH: THE LAST DAYS OF SOCRATES AND THE BUDDHA
Dillon Matthew

University Loyola Marymount

Thetiger, taken theyoung bikkhu [Buddhist monk] having upto a rocky place,a broken edgeovera hollow tothebikkhus, its from thefeet Thepursuing said: bikkhus begantodevour upwards. spotinaccessible prey "Good man, there is nothing that can be donebyus.Theextraordinary attainment ofbikkhus is to be spiritual seen insucha placeas that inwhich youare." on theSatipatthana -From Buddhaghosa's Sutta 10) Nikaya commentary' (Majjhima

from thefeetupwards, would have understood themonks' himself Socrates, dying in the openingpassageabove. In Plato'sversion of his master's final admonition thepoint "those whotruly that Socrates hours, pursue emphasizes grasp philosophy else butdying and beingdead" (Phaedo64a, cf.67e). In the thestudy of nothing he goeson to developat great this remarkable courseofexplaining assertion, length at any rate, forone ofthefounding an even moreremarkable thesis-remarkable, tradition: after thedeathofthebody,the imfathers oftheWestern philosophical to the merits of its former mortal soul is reborn life, according gradually purifying all corporeality behind. Not Buddhist itself as itevolvesintopureessence,leaving of Indianthought as it was but verymuch in the mainstream doctrine exactly, thefifth ofthe moreor less at thisvery time, B.C.E.,the heart century developing has notbeen lost,at leaston comparative so-calledAxialAge. The similarity phiofthePhaedowith theKatha recent articles havecompared thedoctrines losophers: BookoftheDead.2 The most obviouscompariUpanishad, Yoga,and theTibetan has notyetbeen attempted: thejuxtaposition ofthePhaedowith the son,however, final canonical account of the Buddha's The the Sutta, days.3 Mahiparinibbana to fill this to begin essayis intended gap. present whenwe consider Sucha comparison becomeseven moreintriguing that these teachers wereroughly, even a twogreat perhaps exactly, contemporaneous. Lacking Indian is difficult to and tradition, establish, chronology extremely historiographical infact, India'sreputation as one oftheworld's most ancient the civilizations, despite event to emerge from therealm oflegendis thedeathoftheBuddha, first historical Recent has movedinthedirection dateis controversial. of and eventhat scholarship lifetime a or more from the standard 566-486 the Buddha's by century downdating ofSocrates whichwouldmakehima junior to circa450-370 B.C.E., contemporary or to 399 at the B.C.E.) (whosedatesare fixedrather else,following firmly 470/469
moretraditional date, Socrates' predecessorby only one generation.4 of theirown Moreover,both men mustbe seen againstthe broaderbackground cultureand society,and herewe are struck by a numberof parallels.In bothGreece and India around thistime,a highlydeveloped mythopoetic worldview,perhaps a

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of philothousand by a great yearsor moreold, was beingchallenged flowering schools debated the nature of some devised reality: sophicalsystems. Opposing of of and saw as basis the others reftheories theatom, matter the universe; sought truth and saw everystill others theconceptofabsolute rejected uge in mysticism; in relative terms. a firm stand amid the welter of such ideas,Socrates thing Taking ofthe "MiddleWay" and devoted and the Buddhadevelopeda philosophy their their vision oftheTruth to all who wouldlisten. Yetneither wrote livesto teaching down a wordof it; in bothcases we are dependent on texts composedby gifted their masters' thesetexts are recorded as disciplesafter passing.Moststrikingly, form a which allows for more dramatic of character and dialogues, presentation butperhaps also indicates essential: forSocrates, the necessity theme, something for interaction with other minds as to the an and for the Truth, dynamic approach the to his individual's Buddha, necessity adapt every teaching by appreciating for uniqueneedsand capacities understanding. Do such parallels historical connections? The "floating" of imply chronology Indiadoes notallow us to establish a priority that wouldin turn a suggest possible ofone culture on theother influence atthis be Cultural contact cannot early period. ruledout:communication oversuch great distances was greatly facilitated by the Road of from in lonia the Pali word for "Greek" (cf. Persia, "Yona," Royal stretching later Buddhist to and the Greeks do show some selective of texts) India, knowledge at least from Indiaand itsculture thelatesixth Butas for theactual onward.5 century ofideas,solidevidenceis lacking to Alexander's ofnorthinvasion prior exchange western Indiain327 B.C.E. of to Plutarch's Life Alexander, 64, he (According chapter a debate between Greek and Indian or "naked staged philosophers "gymnosophists" Fortheearlier we aregiven sometantalizing Jains.6) philosophers"-perhaps period hints: to have traveled to and to have (sixth B.C.E.) said is India, Pythagoras century the of to of souls. Even more the an Indian is espoused theory transmigration point, saidto havehada philosophical conversation with atAthens. Socrates the However, inbothcases is highly FortheSocratic with theIndian, testimony suspect. dialogue thesourceis late(third tofourth andtheanecdote istoo brief to be of centuries C.E.), muchvalue.7As forPythagoras, he wouldseem an excellent intermediary, espeas he is usually saidto havebeenan important influence on Plato(though not cially himby nameonlyonces),and particularly who mentions on the by Platohimself, ofthePhaedo,9 butso little substance namethat no doctrines liesbehind thefamous firm conclusions can be drawn, we will name be his inevitably invoking although inthis study.10 frequently In anycase there is admittedly a specifically to suggest Buddhist connothing nection: Greek of India tended to be and focused knowledge fairly generic culturally on theBrahmin does notoccuruntil the (intheform Boutta) class;thewordBuddha C.E.11 third But Buddhism itself century grewout of thatmilieu,and although
accounted a "heterodox"movement because itis notbased on the authority (largely of the Vedas), itsharesmuch withmainstream Brahmanism.12 The purpose of this study,then, is not to claim any direct influenceof one teacher on the other,but rather to explore the affinity thatseems to exist between

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between them(and,by extension, Greekand Indian twotexts that thought), using in coincide matter. Of due allowance for must be made course, conveniently subject notonlyinthenature oftheprincipal thevastdifference characters (one a manwho theother an enlightened knowlclaimedto knownothing, beingwith preternatural in and but also the texts themselves. Besides the fact that one a literis power) edge work of and the other an oral text of the it is artistry ary highest composite origin, document can be acceptedat facevalueas a historically obviousthat neither accuoftheevents itclaimsto describe. raterecord thePhaedorepresents nottheactualdeathscene buta conversaDramatically, after thefact between Socrates' who hadbeenpresent, tionsometime pupilPhaedo, who eagerly asksfor a complete and a certain Echecrates, description. Surprisingly, mentions Platohimself was notpresent, Phaedoexplicitly that due to illapparently the of the is ness(59b).13 dated Moreover, composition dialogue usually (admittedly criteria likesubstance and style) to a vaguely defined "middle by usingsubjective in the of the and (380s-370s?), Phaedrus, company Republic, period" Symposium, would agreethatPlatohad By thistimemostscholars amongother dialogues.14 in his own right, as a philosopher underthe influence of other thinkers matured itthen besidesSocrates andthat (inourcontext, especially Pythagoras) consequently a givenbeliefto the "historical" becomes impossible to ascribe,withcertainty, An even greater the date of the Buddha'sparinibbana Socrates.15 gap separates from the ultimate form of the Mahaparinibbina Sutta(hereafter ("finalnirvana") of the Pali canon,purports to be an eyewitness MPNS),which,likeall thesuttas wordsand deeds,and beginswiththewords"Evamme accountof the master's I have a favorite sutam" disheard")-the"I" beingtheVenerable ("Thus Ananda, werethenmaintained entirely by an oral ciple ofthe Buddha.These recollections in in until were written down the first B.C.E. SriLanka, tradition, finally they century ofmiles and thousands from thetime and place oftheBuddha.16 hundreds ofyears Evenifwe allowfor thebestefforts ofAnandaand therecitation sucha traguilds, withrespect to additions ditionis suspectand liableto contamination, especially and embellishments. inmind, we maybeginourexamination suchprovisos ofthesetwoexBearing is notparallel texts. Sincethestructure ofthedocuments (most traordinary notably, incontrast to Plato's careful observation oftheunities ofaction, and space,the time, thelastseveral months oftheBuddha'slife and touches morediffuse MPNScovers of doctrines, but mostoftenin extreme on a greatnumber the form), summary I will followtheorder structure of our investigation mustbe somewhat arbitrary. "Three of the Buddhism Jewels" (Buddha, Dhamma, by suggested Sangha)-the and theCommunity ofFollowers. theTeaching, Master, TheMaster
discussed some of the general questions regarding the figuresof Having briefly Socratesand the Buddha, it remainsto be seen how theyemergeas characters specificallyin the two works under discussion. We will focus on the followingthree

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whatqualities do theydisplayas teachers, how do theyrelateto the questions: how their around and do face deaths?In all three them, people they impending men are an both characterized extreme respects, by openness. Students Dealingwith As teachers, this extends first ofall to their intellectual openness approach. Despite their own apparent withtheir conviction, theytake pains to includeinteraction students-this essenceofthedialogueform-andmakeclear is,after all, thevery is outofbounds. that no question InthePhaedo, thefirst three for thesoul'simmortality follow closely arguments in on one another, and their conclusion marks the an diaclearly important stage is it followed a as most of the are convinced (84c). by longsilence, logue; company two of the main interlocutors start a conversation betweenthemselves. Finally, and asks: Socrates notices this, feel Ofcourse account itisstill toa number surely Why, youdon't my inadequate? open andobjections, if ofdoubts toexamine itindetail. elsethat Ifitissomething youwant areconsidering, never but if ourdiscussion, about mind; youtwo youfeel any difficulty toput ownviews, don't hesitate forward andpoint outany think your you wayinwhich account couldbe improved; andbyall means make useofmy services too,ifyou my think I canhelp atalltosolve the (84c-d) difficulty.17 Infact, somehesitation, after Simmias and Cebes maketwoelaborate so objections is that not the sense of thrown into confusion, only previous persuasive agreement butall hope ofeverattaining seemslost(88d). Socrates risesto thechalcertainty lenge.SaysPhaedoto hiscompanion: inthepast, hadamazed meoften butnever didI admire him Socrates so Echecrates, much as at that moment. Of course, that he hadsomething to respond was perhaps But what me most was first, howkindly and gently unusual. astonished and nothing how heperceived hetook the men's the next, pleasantly young quickly argument; degree wellhehealed towhich wewere affected andfinally how usandcalled words; bytheir as itwere, from ourflight anddefeat, andturned us around tofollow him and us back, the (88e-89a) joininexamining argument. infact with Socrates a bitofmisdirection: he toys with Phaedo's affectionately begins and playfully their withthemythical duo of Heracles hair, compares cooperation ofargument he a serious discussion of the and and lolaos.Atthat power point begins we must a itsdependence on thehuman factor: notreject as tool logicalanalysis in itsuse. Underno circumstances because we are notadequately skilled simply is certain shouldone follow those(evidently who believethat theSophists) nothing fluctuates he questions hisown and everything as thetide(89d-90e). In particular, in his present in immotives: it is to his the soul's to believe situation, advantage

and such selfishness can cloud one's judgment(91a-b). He concludes: mortality, of Socrates,and much more of the truth, "Follow myadvice: thinklittle and ifyou think what I say is true,thenagree, but ifnot,oppose me witheveryargument you can" (91c).

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is ofparabuthispoint after hisfashion, hereis partly Socrates' ironic, humility it.Andof achieve means to the best is and is the truth mount real, logos importance: thoseforcoursehe does succeed,at leaston an intellectual level,in vanquishing as his means:gentle, is almostas important But his manner midableobjections. with blended wisdom compassion. unperturbed; personal, to deal with determined The Buddhais likewise pertaining anyand all questions of beforehis passing,he addressesthe assembly Moments to his dispensation. monks:
Do notafterwards or aboutthepathorthepractice. theSangha, Ask,monks! Dhamma, to ask theLord before was there 'The Teacher feelremorse, us,and we failed thinking: his wordsa The Lordrepeated weresilent. face to face!'" Atthesewordsthe monks ThentheLord inthePalitext]. verbatim time[thelinesare repeated secondand a third let for theTeacher. said: "Perhaps, Then,monks, monks, you do notask outof respect weresilent. Butstill tellitto another." one friend (MPNS6.5) they

the about theBuddha, or uncertainty hasdoubts that somemonk "Itmay be, monks,

to liberation and are on their (6.6). Buthe has kept stood, open the way unfailingly instant. until the last for possible possibility dialogue been whathad already Anysuch dialoguewould have servedonlyto clarify of he had withheld clear that had made theBuddha said.Earlier, nothing importance to teachers of histime.In response in contrast to other in histeaching, apparently Buddha to the the statement about a final of Ananda's Order, (referring expectation what does honorific a frequent as theTathagata, himself title) "But, Ananda, replies: no theDhamma, of monks theorder Ananda, making expectof me?I havetaught of doctrines" has no 'teacher's 'inner'and 'outer':the Tathagata fist' 8 in respect for side to the esoteric is no this there to Dhamma; (2.25). Thus,according text, is the door For more to add. is there so thosewho havefollowed far, others, nothing a "wanderer" oftheBuddha's (i.e.,one who passing, night always open.On thevery to receive namedSubhaddaattempts has abandonedhis homein searchoftruth) Ananda refuses: an audience. Ananda for asks and the from Buddha, teaching This Lord is the theTathagata, do notdisturb friend Subhadda, weary." "Enough, and theBuddha overhears until a secondandthird is repeated time, finally exchange will and bidsAnandato lettheman in,sincehe is seeking quickly enlightenment to hisquestions from theBuddha's benefit (5.25). replies on the spot (theusual and ordained convinced, Subhaddais indeedquickly to be so honored. lastdisciple are waived)bytheBuddhahimself-the formalities attains he Trueto theBuddha's perfection. prediction, swiftly withthe of Subhadda'sconversation We shouldalso notethatthe substance teachers oftheday,six ofwhomare mentioned the"rival" Buddhaconcerned by
as theyall make out, or name. The key question: "Have theyall realized the truth

underIn factthereare no doubts. The Buddha knowsthatthese monkshave truly

TheBuddha's itand somenot?" orhavesomerealized realized havenoneofthem it,

he refusesto criticize the other teachers personally,yet response is interesting: will not lead to liberation: doctrines makes itclear thattheir

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never mind whether orsome ofthem have realized the Subhadda, all,ornone, Enough, I will truth. teach Subhadda.... In Dhamma whatever and the youDhamma, discipline Noble Path isnot noascetic will isfound reach [who found, Eightfold enlightenment].... of(true) Those other schools aredevoid if inthis onethe tolive but monks were ascetics; to perfection, notlackfor life theworld would Arahants (MPNS [enlightened beings]. 5.26-27) As withSocrates, to question does not thetruth admits no compromise: openness inwhichrival that all paths are equal. Butagainwe shouldnotethemanner imply doctrines are rejected: thereis no rancor, no sectarian jealousy,no ad hominem attack. The teacher is subordinate to the Dhamma;whatcountsis the Dhamma's is it a matter. effectiveness; very practical Others Dealingswith is extended also to thosebeyond The opennessin theteacher-student relationship ofdevotees theextreme theinner circle (ontheGreek side,we maycontrast secrecy of and the Forexamthe Orphics'9). surrounding teachings Pythagoras, Empedocles, thosewho provide their last fashion toward ple, bothmen behave in exemplary theexecutioner has deliberare ofcoursequitedifferent: meals.The circumstances the the smith is unaware that the hemlock for while Cunda Socrates, ately prepared for his both dishhe has specially honored is but poisonous; prepared guest actually know that thedishis fatal. masters no illwill;as thefellow Socrates bearshisexecutioner gratefully acknowledges, himnobly and kindly, incontrast totheusualcurses from other Socrates hastreated knows not with him. He leaves the he that Socrates is indeed, prisoners; angry intears, from Socrates hemlock and departs amidelaborate (Phaedo116c-d). praise his the Buddha eats of the (sukara-madSimilarly, graciously portion "pig-delight" which Cunda but nature of is offered the the exact unknown) smith, dava, by Of and rest of it should be buried bidstheothers (MPNS4.19). course, refrain, the lest on Cunda'spart, buttheBuddhais concerned ofevilintent there is no question that Cundashouldrather be and consoleshimwith theremark themanfeelguilty, from after his last meal "the final Nibbana because gained taking praised, Tathagata to be deathis an evilthing manfeels that hisimpending you!"(4.42). Sinceneither for them notto resent theproximate causes,butthesenavoided,itis onlynatural thisto thepersons is indicative withwhichthey communicate responsible sitivity the that characterizes both men. againof compassion Death Facing and features of the Phaedo is the confidence one of the mostinspiring Certainly

consistent demise-an attitude good humorwithwhich Socratesfaces his imminent two dialogues likewiseset in the final withthatexpressedin the Apologyand Crito, written a decade or two earlier.In thisregardSocratesyields days but presumably to the supremeequanimityof the Buddha, who is of course ontologically nothing withthe contrast beyond fearand doubt. Bothof our textsalso deal at some length

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oftheteacher on theone hand,and thedoubts and emotional between theserenity the latter, humanfrailty, distress of his followers on the other; have not through of ofthemaster's Further are realized thetruth points comparison offered teaching. and the deaths of the masters ofthefuneral the actual descriptions arrangements. by Socrates' is stressed composure byPhaedoat theoutset: when I wasthere. didn't inme, I felt such arise as itotherwise would Pity strange feelings in ofa friend, because heseemed his manner and atthe death both his so happy speech, did he it man not and such that to me that this was to die, appeared fearlessly nobly going divine and would when he if fare well ever Hadeswithout arrived, providence, anyone
would.(Phaedo58e)

often what Phaedo means by divine"providence" translated as (moira, Exactly butPlatocertainly as Socrates is notexplained, "fate") portrays exceptionally pious withrespect to thetraditional to hisconviction on a gods-perhapsas a corrective is in a It to dream vision of demands (which response repeated charge impiety. and practice!") that hisonly "Makemusic, Socrates written works: a hymn composes in to Apollo(whosefestival, has the and execution) currently progress, postponed In versions of fables. the Socrates has taken the vision's poetic Aesop's past, message hisownbrand of"music," as a command to practice that butnowhe is,philosophy, is typical takesitmoreliterally, of justto be sure(Phaedo60e-61b). Sucha reaction we must which that the but does not presumes obey gods, "popular" piety, pretend to understand what want from Socrates iscertain that whatever us.20But exactly they be forourown good. Later, as an argument want,itmust suicide,he they against endorses thestatement that "thegodsare ourcaretakers and we humans are one of thegods'possessions" and then confidence that he is to gods (62b), expresses going who are "wiseand good" (63b) and "good masters" thatnot (63c). It is interesting thegoodnessof thegods is takenforgranted but,even more, onlytheexistence Cebes also agreesthat are "thebestoverseers there are" here;hisinterlocutor they in This is no common article of faith is it basic to the (62d). Athens, fifth-century yet of the Phaedo,whichpresumes a just universe as a backdrop forthe arguments soul'sjourney. is madeofthemaster-slave Notmuchmore as the metaphor dialogue thesoul is seen as very mucha free however: as itworks itswayto proceeds, agent thegods,butfrom thephysical ofthebody. notfrom world liberation, mainpoints: thereasonthat Thisis indeedone of Socrates' the"themanwho life in is when hastruly his about to die,and optimistic spent philosophy courageous that he willachievethehighest there when he dies" is (64a) because"deathis good of the soul from the body" (64c), and onlywhenthe soul is unthe separation can itbe truly freeand pure;it is in thissensethat"thosewho truly encumbered thestudy ofnothing else butdying and beingdead" (64a). pursue grasp philosophy
But it is one thingto construct rationalarguments to thiseffect-even convincing to have the courage oftheseconvictions.In the Phaedo, all wind ones-and another level thatthe soul is immortal, and that up agreeingwithSocrateson an intellectual in he is headed fora better but in life, only Socratessucceeds acting a mannerconsistent withthatbelief.In such matters, logos takes you onlyso far.

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The characters, are awareofthisgap between intellectual Socrates, especially and true belief. At the of end a that the soul is agreement long"proof" imperishable, whilehe cannot Simmias admits that refute thearguments, both themagnitude ofthe and human weakness leave room for doubt(107b). Earlier, whenSocrates problem ridicules as "childish" thefear that thesoulcan be blownawaybythewind, andsaid, Cebes usas if wehadthat topersuade orrather, not "Socrates, fear, try laughed, as ifwewere but there child is a within who fears So such let's afraid, perhaps us, things. topersuade that child like not tofear death some saidSocrates, "Well," try bogeyman." must chant a over him until charm it out of him." (77e) "you spell every day, you The charm wearsoff Socrates twiceremarks on hisfailure to persuade his quickly. his best efforts: once to Simmias and once to Crito (84e) (1 companions, despite 15c); bothtimeshe does so "witha laugh,"showing characteristic rather good humor thandisappointment or annoyance. He can overcome their minds withdialectic; he has no illusions aboutwinning their hearts. Devotedfriend that he is, apparently inparticular Crito ofAnanda) cannot learn thelesson. (insomewaysthecounterpart thepassagejustcited, after he pleadswith to postpone Socrates the Shortly drinking others have putitoff tilllate,there is still time.Such poison:it is notyetsunset, Socrates is fine for but not for he has nothconduct, others, him; patiently explains, to so and would ridiculous to he orders the himself; ing gainby doing, onlyappear without delay(116e-117a). poisonbrought The contrast between and flawed master at thedeath perfect pupilsculminates scene.Whenthecup is brought, Socrates takesit"very without or gently, trembling or With color a to the that his to (117b). expression" prayer changing gods departure the nextlifebe fortunate, he drinks the hemlock and contentedly." "very calmly Phaedothendescribes theentire breakdown into tears, group's gradual exceptfor "I who rebukes Socrates have heard that one to die in himself, them, adding ought silence.Keepquietand be strong!" ofthemselves Ashamed, they finally gaincontrol (117c-d). Thefamous deathscenethat follows twoquestions. First, presents immediately as to themanner: as thepoisontakeshold,ithas a numbing on Socrates; effect the chillspreads from hisfeet until itreaches hisheart; he shudders and isgone upwards ofa gentle, death seems a man, for such (118a). Thedescription painless appropriate all we in "thebestand most and most of Phaedo's knew," just intelligent concluding words.Butitis also apparently other ancient and modern purefiction. Comparing Gill has documented accounts of hemlock thatitseffect is Christopher poisoning, the of the described Plato: quite opposite peaceful,regular process by typical include distortion ofspeech,vomiting, and convulsions.21 Platohas evisymptoms sanitized thegruesome details with theatmosphere to harmonize ofdignity dently he has been at painsto create.In Plato'sidealvision, and consolation that thesoul
sheds the body like a cast-off skin-a perfect death calculated to allay any "childish" fearsthe readermay stillentertain. But in the scene is a triumph. Dramatically, Plato shows himself more a poet than a usingsuch license to manipulatethe truth, philosopher.

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we owe a rooster to Second,thereare Socrates'famouslastwords:"Crito, Please off and don't it is a of (118a). Asclepius god healing, Asclepius. pay forget" but exactly whatSocratesmeanshere has escaped everyone, withCrito starting who seemsto be expecting more:"Itwillbe done,"said Crito, "butsee if himself, else to say." No reply, and no comment you have something by Phaedo or his Few can doubt that consummate that artist he Plato, was, could have companion. for a major and so modern statement, passedup thisultimate opportunity opinions forhidden, have searched Socrates is to an perhaps mystical, meanings: referring inthepast, unknown incident to hisgratitude for healed from the sickness of being and so forth.22 Rather to Plato'sillness, thanoffer another life, keyto thepuzzle,let us leave itat that:it is a puzzle. Simpleor esoteric, Socrates' lastwordsremain a if we are for a final to of we are It mystery us; looking nugget wisdom, disappointed. be of Plato's art to leave us rather than to rest content with some baffled, may part such a strategy seemsat odds withthe otherwise inspirational message, although of final Forthepurposes and the scene. ofourconatmosphere uplifting satisfying it to note that the words no obvious suffice lesson. trast, will convey theBuddha madea conscious choiceto die at a specific LikeSocrates, but time, thecircumstances werequitedifferent. The Buddhanever ranafouloftheauthorhis advice was eagerly ities;quitethe contrary, sought by heads of state(MPNS 1.1ff.), clans mourn his passing and compete forthe honorof and variousruling theBuddha decidedto relinquish hisrelics (6.24ff.). Instead, voluntarily enshrining elaborate series ofepisodes;natural and supernatural forces conhislifeina rather in but the Buddha is control to on the end, depicted complete spire bring throughwas attacked evidenceofdeclineoccursat 2.23, when"theLord out.Thefirst bya with severesickness, he effort, sharppainsas ifhe wereaboutto die." Withgreat he tellsa relieved Ananda: recovers. Later, I am nowold,worn onewhohastraversed I have life's Ananda, out, venerable, path, oflife, the term which iseighty. as an oldcart ismade togo bybeing reached held Just iskept with sothe straps, Tathagata's body bybeing strapped up.Itisonly together going withdraws hisattention from outward andbythe when the cessation of Tathagata signs, enters into thesignless concentration of mind, that hisbodyknows certain feelings,
comfort. (2.25)

thathindersour search fortruth cf. 67d, 81e, 82e, 92a), as something (66a, d), that enslaves us with its needs (66c-d), or even as an evil by which the soul is contaminated(67a; cf. 83d). As in the Phaedo, the MPNS presentsthe same sharp contrastbetween the

cartstresses the inevitability The homely ofa processnatuimageoftheworn-out The the Buddha has itsend. almost outlived itsusefulness; bodyof rally approaching with as itsfunctions are impaired meditative age, onlyincreased techniques provide the side of the there is no Yet relief, up" physical mind-body entity. "strapping the as is in evident toward found elsewhere antagonism body, occasionally early We may contrast Socrates'repeatedmetaphor from the (borrowed Buddhism.23 from whichthesoul must ofthebodyas a prison Orphics?24) escape (Phaedo62b,

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and thedismay of hisfollowers, who haveyetto realizethe ofthemaster serenity of histeachings. Consonant truth with theoral nature ofthesutta, the "thematic" of is outburst/didactic response usually sequence grieving presented formulaically, withonlyminor scene to scene. OnlyAnandais granted a certain changesfrom inthis amount ofindividuality theBuddha's from theinitial After recovery complex. I haveseentheLordincomfort, boutofillness, Anandaexclaims: and I have "Lord, I lost seentheLord's a drunkard's. And,Lord, patient enduring. mybodywas like my andthings to mebecauseoftheLord's wereunclear sickness" (2.24). Later, bearings neartheend,Ananda"wentintohis lodging and stoodlamenting, on the leaning I am still a with learner much to do! And the Teacher is 'Alas, door-post: passing to me!'" (5.13).Thiselicits a tribute to Ananda's away,who was so compassionate butnotbefore theBuddhaissues thefollowing admonition: virtues, do not told allthings that Ananda, Enough, weepandwail!HaveI not already youthat anddelightful arechangeable, arepleasant to and other? So subject separation becoming howcoulditbe,Ananda-since whatever is born, is to become, compoundedsubject
itshouldnotpassaway?(5.14) decay-how coulditbe that

The lessonofimpermanence one oftheleading motifs ofthe (anicca)is infact The crucial sutta. testis one's reaction to theBuddha'spassing: theunenlightened theenlightened contrast to Greek this (andinsharp grieve, accept.Notably thought), is moreimportant distinction than that between human and divine; thegods(devas), fallinto thesamegroups, as theBuddha too,themselves impermanent, explains: aresky-devas there whose minds areearthbound, areweeping andtearing Ananda, they their down their themselves and and hair, raising arms, throwing twisting turning, crying: "AlltoosoontheBlessed Lord is passing all toosoontheWell-Farer is passing away, all toosoontheEyeoftheWorld is disappearing!" Andthere areearth-devas away, whose areearthbound, who do likewise. minds But those who free from devas are craving endure "All are what patiently, saying: compounded things impermanent- istheuseof

this?" (5.6)

On the humanplane,the exactsame reactions and tearing their hair, ("weeping theresponse oftheMallaclan (5.21)tothenewsthat theBuddha etc.")characterize will soon enter finalnirvana, and again after the event(6.12). Withappropriate thesequenceis repeated twicemore to describe ofmonks foladjustments, groups the final 6.19-20). (6.10-11, nirvana lowing inboth ourtexts Thepoint is basically thesame:grief is misplaced and betrays a lackofunderstanding ofthemaster's in The difference be related teaching. style may to the manner of composition In particular, we maycontrast (oralversus literary). inthefinal Plato'sdramatic to a crescendo themore scene,with economy, building
diffuse didacticismof the MPNS: the lesson is profound, but not subtle; verbatim the crowd,adding a touch of thathumanpathos so abundantin the death scene of the Phaedo. Note also thatthe enlightenedresponse of certaindevas and monks in Plato: apparently findsno counterpart none of Socrates' devotees made quite the

hammers ithome.OnlyAnanda andstands outa bitfrom repetition uniquely grieves

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Inthisrespect theBuddhasucceeded to reachhislevelofawareness. breakthrough on thequestion and thishas somebearing oftheSangha, the whereSocrates failed, committed to on the of the master. We will of carrying teaching community disciples ofthis to thisinthelastsection return essay. forthegreatness of theTathagata, the out One might expectthat, of respect cenbe suppressed, muchas Platoapparently of hisdemisemight details physical sutta not dwell on the does ofthehemlock. soredtheeffects details, Certainly grisly them. After theBuddha consumed theindigestible orfalsify does itignore butneither offered humans)"pig-delight" (forordinary Cunda, "the Lordwas by the smith withbloodydiarrhea, and withsharppainsas ifhe attacked by a severesickness all thismindfully and clearly wereaboutto die. Buthe endured aware,and without Further references to exhaustion (4.20). (4.21, 4.39, (4.20), complaint" purging is no attempt makeclearthat there to portray 5.24), and thirst (4.22),however brief, In thisrespect theweakness oftheflesh. theMPNS shows the Buddhaas beyond Yettheparinibbana ofthetwotexts. itself is presented itself to be themorerealistic in Buddha the of event theyogictradition: the enters series four lower as a spiritual states known as jhanas,followed meditative (6.8). So bythefour "spheres" higher of Feeling and Perception") that subtleis the lastofthese(the"Cessation Ananda the itfor theend;he is corrected more Anuruddha. the mistakes by Finally, insightful the same sequence,thenascends again to the fourth Buddhadescendsthrough the fourth and jhana, "leaving jhana,the Lordfinally passedaway" (6.9: Bhagava the his As at moment of fatal a thunderous marks decision, parinibbayi). earthquake event cf. themomentous (6.10; 3.10). tothesemeditative theBuddha hisfinal utters words: Just exercises, "Now, prior I declareto you:all conditioned are of a nature to on monks, things decay-strive over nuance the Commentators or even question here,26 mayhaggle untiringly."25 basic meaning is quitestraightforward, buttheir bothdoctrine text,27 emphasizing or is a variation on so in this and practice sutta) anicca, (vaya "decay" important (root: "attentiveness"). "attainment"; sampada,"success,""happiness," appamada, as theyare in context, Appropriate theyare notnew or unique:thesame phrase hisfinal occurs earlier announces decision tothemonks, and is (3.51)as theBuddha inthecanon.28 elsewhere fulfill found the role Nevertheless, they admirably typical offamous lastwords, to be recalled as a sourceofinspiration, and as suchcontrast with theenigmatic ofSocrates inthePhaedo. utterance sharply Funeral Arrangements of Socrates'positive The cornerstone attitude toward death is the immortality of the soul (with whichthe selfis identified) and the corresponding of devaluation with thesebeliefs is hisindifference thebody.Consistent to thematter ofburial. The
issue arises in the first exchange withCritocited above. When Critoasks how they should buryhim, youwant,"he said,"ifyou can catchme and I don'tescape you."Andhe "However and lookedat us,saying: I am is Crito that theSocrates quietly laughed "I can'tpersuade

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the onewhoisnow andconstructing eachofthe but hethinks me conversing arguments, tobethe onehe'll seeas a corpse a little he how and so asks to me.... But later, you bury him I will I die,but must assure that not will remain behind when take leave anddepart, Crito will so that bearitmore andnot for when he easily, my grieve supposed suffering seesmy burnt or nor at funeral that it is is Socrates he buried, say my body being laying orburying.... outorbearing tothe Youmust be courageous andsaythat itis my grave andbury ithowever seems toyouproper andmost body youareburying, customary." (115d-116a) offunereal ritual To appreciate this thecrucial importance passagewe shouldrecall in it in inGreek Iliad serves as a both the breach the theme, Already major society. of Hector's funeral cere(theelaborate (themutilation body)and the observance In begging forproper the ghostof Patroclus Achilles burial, monyforPatroclus). the thereason me as quickly as possible, and I willpassthrough makes clear:"Bury me a and don't The the of the at of Hades. souls, ghosts dead, keep distance, gates theriver, so I wander alonebythewidegatesof allowmetojoinwith them beyond ofElpenor makesa similar Hades" (Iliad23.70-74). The ghost plea intheOdyssey (11.71ff.) finalrestto the departed To grant imposeda sacreddutyon the survivors: Noris this a literis perhaps themost famous example. merely Antigone Sophocles' in sucharrangements theextreme is ampleevidence for caretaken there arymotif; for the fate of hiscorpsesetshim Socrates' lack of concern citizens.29 by average the of and to from mainstream Greek testifies the culture, depthof his conapart ofthesoul,whichhas nothing to ofdeathand theafterlife victions aboutthenature ritual as a consolation Atmost, he allowsfor theproper thestate ofthebody. do with himinanysubstantive hisfriends andfamily; itwillnotaffect for way.Thisconfident sanctions stancein theface of ancient and courageous universal) (and practically butwe Buddhist ideasofimpermanence, wouldseemto accordwellalso with early withrespect to the is a pronounced ambivalence willsee thatin theMPNS there of the Buddha's remains. dispensation we haveseen that ofcompounded on theimpermanence The emphasis things concern forhis that theBuddhawould have no great so farwouldseemto imply In relevant to the "ashes to dust dust." fact, ashes, passageofthe bodilyremains; so maintained with the of indifference much same attitude MPNSbegins nobly very itis Ananda who says: inthePhaedo:Instead ofCrito, bySocrates about "Do not we do with the remains?" what shall "Lord, yourselves worry Tathagata's devote strive for the Ananda. You should thefuneral highest yourgoal, arrangements, tothe devoted with minds anddwell selves tothe tirelessly, zealously your highest goal, Brahmins andhouseorprincely arewiseKhattiyas [warrior caste], highest goal.There will funeral." take careofthe tothe holders whoaredevoted (5.10) they Tathagata:
Ananda thathis body "should be dealt with like the remainsof a Buddha instructs monarch": this includes two cloth wrappings"five hundredtimes wheel-turning and a stupa to be each," two ironchambers,a funeral pyrewithvarious unguents,

the question, and thistimethe Anandarepeats Butthetextdoes notstopthere.

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raisedat the crossroads. "Andwhoeverlayswreaths or putssweetperfumes and colorsthere witha devoutheart, will reapbenefit and happiness fora longtime" (5.11). is eventually The funeral even moreelaborate thanthat.The Malla clan of Kusinara a at which honored, organizes magnificent ceremony "they paid respects, and adored the Lord's with dance and with worshipped, body songand music, garlandsand scents, and circular tents"-andthis sixdays awnings making goeson for thedevas(whosewillis interpreted (6.13). On theseventh, bytheadeptAnuruddha) that in direct the bodybe carried the a certain through city way,at which"even and of thesewers rubbish werecoveredknee-high with coral-tree heaps Kusinara as the Buddhahad prescribed flowers" (6.16), and the body is prepared exactly also attend thecremation: thepyre be lit cannot (6.17). Miracles effort, despite great it until the Great after which bursts into flame (6.21arrives, Kassapa spontaneously all else "vanished and noteven 22). Of the burned bodyonlythe bones are left, ofwaterrosefrom thereafter "a shower thesky, ashes or dustremained"; and another whichburst forth from thesal-trees the As for the (6.23). extinguished pyre" a arises the a Brahmin divides them relics, great dispute among claimants; eventually with the urnmaking a ninth and theembers a tenth; all equallyin eight portions, instupas With the sutta comes to an end. theseareenshrined that, (6.24-28).30 GiventheBuddha's fame and favor, itis notdifficult to imagine theMallas great a lavish funeral above.Whatstrains alongthelinesdescribed conducting credulity, ofsuchprecise instructions to theBuddhahimself, is theattribution however, espeofindifference, that infact hisearlier statement a statement accordsbetter after cially with ofimpermanence that isone ofthehallmarks oftheDhamma, thedoctrine and The devotional strain thatis everywhere in the of thissuttain particular. apparent a place also inthePali canon,and of Buddhism finds quitenaturally development somesuchprocess at workhere.Inthisreading, we maywellsuspect section 5.11, withitsdescription oftheobsequiesfora "wheel-turning monarch" and the merit oftherelics, willhavebeen a later attached to theritual adoration addition byway ofmagnifying thefounder and encouraging theformal of the Ofcourse laity. worship inthesematters, themurky textual tradition butthetension precludes anycertainty Ifthisis acceptedas plausible, at leastjustifies somesuspicion. within thetext itis worth that the later devotional did not the displace noting passages presumably withitsmoreaustere butweresimply earlier indifference, section, appendedto it. Thusthesutta seemsto havegrown thanconsistent rather and byaccretion editing, ifthisis thecase, itincreases itsvalueas a sourcefor doctrine. original TheTeaching
to do one oftwothings: to ascertain Itis ourduty either thefacts, whether by seeking if instruction or bypersonal this is to select thebestand most or, discovery; impossible, human that can supply, and use itas a raft to ride theseas theory dependable intelligence we cannot oflife-that that makeourjourney with confidence and is,assuming greater meansofa divine revelation. (Phaedo85c-d) security bythesurer

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close to the well-knownBudSimmias'commentto Socratesseems remarkably dhistimage of the Dhamma as a raft on the sea of samsira, the cycle of life,to be BothSocrates clungto as long as necessarybutdiscardedwhen no longerhelpful.31 and the Buddha saw their as a as a means to an matter, essentially practical teaching end. The whole process is describedby Socratesas the grandconclusionto the first threearguments forthe immortality of the soul, namelythe cyclical argument (69e72e) thatopposites come fromopposites, and thus the livingfromthe dead; the recollection is a recollection of knowledgethat (72e-78b) thatall learning argument musthave been acquired in previous lives; and the affinity (78b4-82c) argument thatthe natureof the soul is more like the unchanging essence of reality, while the world. At the of this end body is more like the constantly phenomenal changing last section,Socratestakes the affinity one that the argument step further, claiming natureof a soul's rebirth is directly relatedto thatsoul's previousbehavior.He then embarks upon a very important descriptionof the philosophical soul's progress towardliberation: until at last, for the [Thesoulsof"inferior" people]continue wandering through craving whichunceasingly are imprisoned once morein a body. them, corporeal, pursues they Andas youmight areattached tothesamesort ofcharacter or nature which expect, they life.... [T]hose who have cultivated or assault or theyhavedeveloped during gluttony of taking instead are likely to assumetheform of drunkenness, painsto avoid them, and other animals.... (81e-82a) donkeys perverse Butno soulwhich hasnotpractised and is notabsolutely whenitleaves philosophy, pure thebody, attain to the divine of nature "race but thelover [theon may genos, gods"], only oflearning.... (82bc) Andso, Cebes,thosewho care abouttheir soulsand do notdevotethemselves to the dissociate themselves from these others.... believe that it is to body firmly [T]hey wrong with her offer of liberation and so turn and follow opposephilosophy purification,they herwherever she leads.... (82d) seeker after wisdom knows that whenphilosophy takesitover,his Every up to thetime soul is a helpless inthebody, chained handandfoot to viewreality prisoner, compelled in utter notdirectly butonlythrough itsprison And bars,and wallowing ignorance. can see the ingenuity ofthe imprisonment, whichis brought aboutbythe philosophy own activedesire, whichmakeshimfirst to hisown confinement. prisoner's accessory takesoverthesoul inthiscondition and bygentle tries to Well,philosophy persuasion setitfree. Shepoints outthat observation means of the and ears and all the other by eyes with sensesabounds and she urges thesoulto refrain from them unless deception, using itis necessary to do so, and encourages in isolation, itto collectand concentrate itself butitsownisolated considered in isolation, and trusting nothing uponrealities judgment no truth to anyother whichitviewsthrough in some another medium attributing thing other suchobjects, she knows, aresensible and visible butwhatshe herself sees is thing; and invisible. notreject Nowthesoulofthetrue feels that itmust intelligible philosopher this for andso itabstains as possible from anddesires as far release, opportunity pleasures and griefs.... (82d-83b)

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is an obviousand significant seriesof parallels Now there thetermibetween in of and found Indian of the this that same texts excerpt nology general period, Buddhist and otherwise. in asserting To beginwith, that theform ofthenewly born in a former soul dependson itsnature Socrates comesclose to thedoctrine of life, karma(Pali: kamma), thatactionbearsconsequencesand thattheseare namely worked out overtime"on the wheel of birth." "Liberation" "release" (Gk: lysis, the Sanskrit recalls moksha the [82d]) (Pali: mokkha, vimokkha, vimutti), release from that constitutes theultimate and Buddhism samsnra alike, goal ofBrahmanism while"purification" to thePali visuddhi, a (Gk:katharmos [82d])wouldcorrespond in inherent the but best known the massive combuddhadhamma, concept through of the fifth-century C.E.commentator known as the Visuddhimagga, the pendium "PathofPurification." We maycompare Socrates' statement about"ignorance" (Gk: amathia[82e]) distorting the imprisoned withNyanatiloka's body'sviewof reality comment on thePaliavijja(Skt: as "the root of all eviland suffering avidya) primary in the world, man'smental himfrom veiling eyes and preventing seeingthetrue of things."32 nature Thatthecause ofthisimprisonment is our own "desire"(Gk: theSecond NobleTruth, that thecause ofsuf[82e]) accordswell with epithymia is desire "thirst"). (Pali:tanha, fering Personified warnsthatthe relianceon the senses (Gk: aistheseis Philosophy thatthe [83a]) leads to "delusion"(Gk: apate [83a]), just as we hearfrequently "sense-bases" likewise lead to delusion (Pali: indriya, (Pali: moha).As an ayatana) thesoul to "collectand concentrate itself in isolation" antidote, Philosophy urges kai athroizesthai), an apt description ofthe (Gk: autende eis hauten ksyllegesthai Pali samadhi("concentration"), the lastelement of the Eightfold The Path.33 soul should in its trust "isolated ti ho noesei aute (Gk: kath' auten), only judgment" justas the Buddhist relies on the knowledge derived from (Pali,"transamatha-vipassana and The Platonic will thus abstain "as far as possible quillity insight"). philosopher from and desires and as the Indian cultivates an (83b)just pleasures griefs" aspirant asceticlifestyle characterized (Pali:upekkha). (brahmacarya) byequanimity These remarkable similarities exists suggest just how muchcommonground between Greek and Indian in the Axial the main difference that thought Age, being such ideas belongto the Indianmainstream individual (found-with nuances,of course-in the Upanishads, theBaghavad-Gita, and thesutras ofJainism, Samkhya, whilein Greecethey are confined to a minority of philosoYoga, and Buddhism), Two phersand sects on the periphery (e.g., Pythagoras, Empedocles, Orphism). in deserve notice: the of doctrine reincarnation and the concepts particular special on purification. emphasis in thedialogue,Socrates Earlier introduces theconceptoftransmigration34 as of his for the soul's at that he recalls "an part "cyclical" argument immortality; point ancient tradition" soulsare born from thedead,which (palaios... logos[70c])that
to impliesa source older than eitherof the two Greekscreditedwithbeing the first circulatesuch ideas in Greece, Pherecydesof Syros35 and Pythagoras.36 The historian Herodotus,a contemporary of Socrates, attributes the belief to the Egyptians source forancientdoctrine, butthisclaim is usuallyrejectedfor (2.123), his standard

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M. L. Westrightly lackofevidence.37 outthat Herodotus must havebasedhis points in statement on personal his but has trail knowledge gainedduring stay Egypt,38 that "ofthesoul'sprogleft no traces; he also states that theprecise form ofthedoctrine ress "is found, thousands ofyears" outside and Greece, many onlyin India, through ina form like itis found there the strikingly Pythagorean."39 intransmigration is Itissomewhat to learn that eveninIndia thebelief surprising hints The RigVedacontains that could attested onlyinthelater onlybrief scriptures. until be so construed without the benefit of the not scarcely Upanishads hindsight;40 on firmer As usual,dating is approximate at best, butwe are do we stand ground.41 bothofwhichprenotfar from thebeginnings of Buddhism and Jainism, probably theories ofrebirth, as do theclassiclater strains ofHinduism. sumehighly developed the to have been introduced rather late centuries doctrine seems Thus, (eighth-fifth been but then to have and B.C.E.?) firmly rapidly, widely, acceptedby justabout ofIndian system every major thought. is not.Pherecydes thereception InGreecethetime frame is comparable, though In the to mid-fifth the to the sixth B.C.E. and Pythagoras early century, century belong in the in but also not the Presocratic doctrine poetry lyric appears only Empedocles42 outside some exposure of Pindar 133), whichindicates 2.55-56, frag. (Olympian Socrates' the Yetnoneofthese wouldseemtojustify circles.43 calling philosophical of Orpheus, the legendary Thatwordpointsin the direction tradition "ancient." theTrojanWar (ca. whose myths would place himsome timebefore poet-priest, thecultof "Orphism," ofwhichhe was thereputed 1200 B.C.E.?). In fact, founder, but his were thesixth associations seemsalso to datefrom B.C.E.,44 mythical century what those to warrant for the cult's beliefs.45 "ancient" that Just sufficiently epithet Thereis a great deal ofconfusion wereis very difficult to saywith beliefs precision. at least because bothsects were and Pythagoreanism, betweenOrphism partly the also laid claim to the because secretive, Pythagoreans compulsively partly texts.46 Orphic than to point out to separate thestrands ofsimilar Forus itis lesscrucial systems and were all docPlato that theOrphics, expounding Empedocles, Pythagoreans, to gain release.The from whichthe soul is striving of a cycle of rebirths trines butno each oftheothers mayhave had on Platois arguable, degreeof influence to notethat he was ignorant ofthem, and itmaybe relevant one wouldclaimthat and Sicilybefore Platospentsome timein Italy to mostchronologies) (according for both the Phaedo,and bothplaces were majorcenters Pythagoreanism writing and Orphism.47 butcombined The emphasis on purity is nothing unusualin Greekreligion,48 for itacquiresnew meaning, as the requisite of metempsychosis with thedoctrine the rebirths. from the of toward ultimate release Here,too, Orphics cycle progress ofbothsectspracticed an followers broken had already and Pythagoreans ground:
as "puritan."49 The pointmaybe grasped thathas been characterized ascetic lifestyle of thatpoem seem to The fromEmpedocles' Katharmoi ("Purifications"). fragments various incarnations: indicatethatthe soul moves upwardsthrough "AlreadyI have and a bush and a birdand a silentfishin the sea" (frag. once been a boy and a girl/

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and and doctors/ "In theend theyare seersand hymn-writers 117)-until finally: in honor."50 arise as then and men;/ they gods,highest earth-dwelling princes among viewsabouttheascentofthesoul to Thisaccordswell enoughwithSocrates' divine releaseinto the"raceofthegods"inthepassagequotedabove.The ultimate realizes its idenSelf in Indian as the can also be paralleled nature (Atman) sources, in final not describe Thisdoes with Godhead(Brahman).51 nirvana Budexactly tity is no self, no atta[Skt: that there ofanatta asserts terms dhist atman]), (thedoctrine the is of and theoverall defies difference buttheprecise definition, concept process of this Indian sources and in both the Greek similar rather period. astonishingly the Phaedo,which,more ironic thatthe passagesabove from It is somewhat findalmostno direct our comparative thanany otherin Plato,justify approach, ofany no sustained discussion In the sutta in the MPNS. fact, presents counterpart the Dhamma as a to summarize but rather of individual attempts point doctrine, lists(e.g., the "seven via numerical references, whole, mostoften by shorthand of mindfulness" "four foundations the ofenlightenment" factors [1.17],etc.), [1.9], in the canon. Even elsewhere more that are to important fully explained teachings disto the Buddha's"comprehensive is the repeatedreference moretantalizing on sevendifferent whichhe delivers occasions,butonlyin thefollowing course," form: summary when with imbued iswisdom. this isconcentration, ismorality, this This Concentration, when imbued with fruit andprofit. concentration, Wisdom, brings morality, brings great free from the wisdom becomes with imbued Themind fruit andprofit. completely great views offalse andof ofbecoming, ofsensuality, the that is,from corruption corruptions,
(1.12, 14, 18; 2.4, 10; 4.4, 12) ignorance.

of the Eightfold divisions and wisdomare the traditional concentration, Morality, to also are alluded but these Four of the Noble the last Truths, Path, onlybriefly (e.g., Their relative little elaboration. 2.2, 3.50) andwith maybe judgedbythe importance for butthesubstance istaken this delivers theBuddha with which sermon, frequency the features of Plato's to most of no There is counterparts problem finding granted. in the "comprehen"Pathto Purification" (samadhi, above, such as concentration notedabove),equanimity sive discourses" 1.9), ignorance (avijjl,1.12), (upekkha, liberation 3.33), delusion(moha,2.7), desire(tanha, (vimutti, 1.16, 4.2; vimokha, and notfully Buttheseare scattered 4.2), and so forth. developed. in which of rebirth discussion one extended Thereis, however, (punabbhavo) of a transmigrating the Buddhaseems to followa more"orthodox" conception of no-self/soul more doctrine more than the rather difficult) (and typical entity, various the rebirths of asks about At Ananda followers, monks, nuns, (anatta). 2.6, who have died at Nadika.The Buddhagivespreciseinformation: and laypersons
of an Arhat,anotherreached the stage of one individualachieved the perfection will once be born but another more,anotheris assured of salvation Non-Returner, are Nonvarious groups are mentioned:over fifty as a "Stream-Winner." Further, over five hundred"Stream-Winners" over ninetyOnce-Returners, (2.7). Returners,

thatthatwhichhas come to be as a man "Ananda,it is notremarkable Finally:

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should die. But that cometotheTathagata toaskthefate ofeach ofthose youshould who havedied,that is a weariness to him"(2.8). The Buddha then goeson toteach the"Mirror of Dhamma"bywhichdisciples can discern whentheyhave reached thestageofStream-Winner, assured offinal liberation (2.9). Thesepassagesassumea continued between thedeceasedperson and identity theone reborn-very muchas in Hinduism or Plato. Thisdoes notaccordwith the morerigorous viewofanatta, whichholdsthat there is no suchcontinuum, no oneto-onecorrespondence between incarnation. "Thisis thecentral pastand present doctrine ofBuddhism," "without a [an]understanding [of]which saysNyanatiloka, real knowledge of Buddhism is altogether It is the real impossible. only specific Buddhist with which theentire structure oftheBuddhist stands or doctrine, teaching Be that as itmay, a more casualattitude inmuchBuddhist literature falls."52 prevails mostnotoriously in theJataka tales of the Buddha'searlyincarnations; (perhaps end with his statement I was so-and-so "And in thestory"), and the typically they almost totalabsence of theterm in the MPNS,whichmight a showcase provide forsuch a doctrine, cautionsus against sort of to the ascribing any dogmatism Buddhadhamma. Farmore thananatta, thedoctrine ofanicca("impermanence") one of provides the mostimportant leitmotifs of the MPNS,as we have alreadynoticed.It leads thelist oftheseven"principles ofperception" elaborated at (1.9),butis more fully several in later the sutta. the of Ananda's failures to ask points Following longcatalog theBuddha to postpone hisparinibb.na, theBuddhainstructs: have I not "Ananda, toldyoubefore: Allthose that aredearand pleasant to us must suffer things change, and alteration? So how could this be possible?Whatever is born, separation, is liableto decay-that itshouldnotdecay is impossible" become,compounded, twicemore, whenthe Buddhaconsolesthe (3.48). The same wordsare repeated Ananda and when the thesorrowing (5.14) weeping again Kassapa Greatrestrains In monks to the monks his decision to in (6.20). announcing months, passaway three the Buddhadeclares:"All conditioned are of a nature to decay-striveon things that whenrepeated as the (3.51),a pronouncement untiringly" gainsin importance Buddha's final words in to the Buddha's the (6.7).As noted above, reacting passing, of from all as a others; acceptance impermanence distinguishes enlightened beings contrast to thelatter's emotional three times we hearthestandard refrain: outbursts, "All compounded are impermanent is the use of (anicca samkhara)-what things this?" (5.6, 6.11 [devas];6.10 [monks]). as a doctrine in Greekphilosophy is above all associated with Impermanence thenameof Heraclitus is "flux," based on his (ca. 500 B.C.E.).Heretheusualterm that cannotbe stepped in twice-although thisin turn is based imageoftheriver on Platonic from It be that Plato has overHeraclitus.53 mostly quotations may that of Heraclitus' but for our it will suffice to emphasized aspect thought,54 purposes
note thatthe doctrineintrigued him,and perhaps Socrates beforehim.55Socrates admitsfreely, and in so manywords,thatall compounded things are subjectto debut-here from the Buddha's doctrine-he also composition, departingradically a second of the recognizes category uncompounded:

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ora naturally "Would a compound (suntethenti) (sunexpect composite younot object it where was And not which tobe liable tobreak thetoi) up put together? ought anything which is not inthis is really be theonething ofall others affected way?" incomposite "Is isalways tobethe said Cebes. it not that what "That seems case," extremely probable is inconstant is incomposite, andwhat andvariable iscomposandinvariable constant tothe we "That is howitseems tome.""Then letusreturn same which ite?" examples actual nature of he before. Does that were (aute ousia, essence") discussing things "very which todescribe inourdiscussions-remain -theirtrue we try constant always being is ornot? Doesequality itself orbeauty orany other initself andinvariable itself as it thing kind? one of of Or does each these uniform ever admit and entities, change any being and in remain constant never alteration self-contained, always invariable, admitting any in or sense?" (78c-d) anyrespect any answer to thislastquestion-and is theanswer "Yes" is ofcoursetheexpected then that thebodyis compound and naturally received-andtheargument develops will soul not and not.56 the second of but the is Clearly category essencesis perishes, of his celebrated of to Plato-this is in factone version moreimportant theory one of "Permanence," in direct thatreasonhisdoctrine is rather "ideas"-and for if isevenmore we arejustified in tothat oftheBuddha. Thiscontrast contrast striking element of Plato's the word autos to a the terminology: designate emphasizing key "itself" autoto ison,autoto kalon, autohekasinvariable essenceofthething (thus itself or beauty itself oranyother as itis in itself" toon,"equality tonho estin, thing talksof "setting theseal of reality" on things [78d; cf.also 75c-d, whereSocrates the autos is the like"thebeautiful etc."]).Semantically, itself, good itself, equivalent a doctrine of "self-ness," and so Platois actually ofthePali atta("self"), asserting no-self. theopposite ofanatta, precisely the devaluation Plato'sdualism pervades Phaedoand leadsto a thoroughgoing infavor visible world oftheabstract and invisible world ofessences. oftheconcrete, The dichotomy is most acute in discussions ofthebody/soul antithesis. As we saw buta hindrance to thesoul in itspursuit of purity and above,thebodyis nothing the soul with its and delude it it can "infect" untrusttruth; corporeality through The philosophic soul naturally senseperceptions. wants to be freed from its worthy is properly the "practice of death."A similar sortof bondage,and so philosophy inearly as we notedinourdiscusdualism can be found elsewhere Buddhism, but, sionofthebodyabove,theMPNSdoes notexhibit to anypronounced antagonism On thecontrary, there aresomepassages that seemto thematerial sideofexistence. ofthemundane. thevitality celebrate theBuddha to enter so thedelights of As Maratempts parinibbana prematurely, himto linger. at in world seemto tempt is the train thephysical This, least, implied he might thatleads up to his"broadhints" to Anandathat be prevailed ofthought his on earth "for a It should be to outthatin century." pointed upon prolong stay
each case the "broad hint"at longerlifeis immediately of preceded by a recognition afforded Thus at the delight by each ofthesixteenlocalitieswherethe hintis offered. the Udena shrine is delightful, the 3.2: "Ananda, Vesali is delightful (ramaniya), the SattambakaShrine is delightful, the Bahuputta Gotamaka Shrine is delightful,

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of the word ramaniya variations later(3.41, 3.43, 3.47). The insistent repetition to inparticular describe so not that these are placesimplies ("delightful") many spots thanothers, is ubiquitous: moredelightful butrather that thisdelight theworldis one live in well want to it a or ofone." "for a remainder century, delightful; might The Buddha evenseemsto acknowledge a trace ofnostalgia at 4.1 when,"[h]aving from he lookedbackatVesaliwith returned thealms-round andeaten, his'elephantlook'and said: 'Ananda, this thelasttime willlookuponVesali.Now theTathagata we willgo to Bhandagama.'" The Commentary that"theBuddhas, when explains turn the whole round as an The does.""57 back, looking body elephant stately gesture adds a noteofsolemnity and finality, butperhaps also ofpoignancy. The moment to theworld. validity grants far the mostenthusiastic endorsement of corporeal existence occurswhen By Anandabegsthe Buddhanotto pass away in Kusinara, "thismiserable little town ofwattle-and-daub, inthejungleinthebackofbeyond"-itwouldbe better to right to one of the cities will in where for the funeral go big "they provide Tathagata's But the him: in Buddha corrects once a this proper style"(5.17). previous age hamlet was thevastcity of Kusavati, ruledby a great and righteous wheel-turning itwas king; andwell-populated, with crowded andwell-stocked with food. rich, prosperous people And the of Kusavati was of ten never free sounds or the sound ... city byday night: ofelephants, and horses, kettle-drums, side-drums, lutes, carriages, cymbals singing,
with criesof"Eat, drink and be merry!" as thetenth. (5.18)58 gongs,

twice at 3.5 ("And a second time ..., and a third time ..."), and withappropriate

theCapala Shrine Shrine is delightful, is delightful." The same catalogis repeated

Notonlydoes this vision ofthepastennoble thepresent wretched townof teeming of butitdoes so using as positive valuestheearthly Kusinara, food, wealth, pleasures to and drink, the world of the senses. frankly appealing one mayask,inall this is dukkha, thefirst oftheFour Noble Where, "suffering," Theterm Truths? does occurintheMPNS(e.g.,at 2.1, themost of expansive listing in thesutta, the FourNobleTruths and at 3.51, 4.3, bothin summary verses), but, likethedoctrine of anatta, it receives Thereis, of course,no emphasis. verylittle that theworldofsamsara to escape the"cycleof shouldbe embraced: suggestion rebirths" one must havea proper (ofmorality, wisdom, concentration, understanding and liberation); with this"thecraving for been has cut the off, tendency becoming has beenexhausted, willbe no more towards and there rebirth" (4.2). My becoming is rather that instead ofconstructing a rigidly dualistic scheme liberation point pitting thesoul),theMPNS,somewhat samsira(as Socrates against pitsthebodyagainst to be allows the two to coexist without Choossure, illogically explicit antagonism.
Plato's Socrates rejectsthe corporeal in no uncertainterms; ing to be consistent, choosing perhaps "compassion forthe world" (lokanukampaya[3.4, 38, 50]), the Buddha of the MPNS not only refrains fromcondemnation,but even pays quiet to nature and to human existence. homage

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TheCommunity ofpeople thethoughts and actions to influence and theBuddhacontinue Socrates followers and todaybecause theirmessagewas carriedon by theirimmediate of which differ considervarious to posterity transmitted "schools," many through of deliberhad any intention Ifthe"founders" themselves and belief. ably in style it is reasonable to expect into the torch of their the future, teaching atelypassing with their deaths. inthedialogues testament ofthis someexpression dealing between and theBuddha. Socrates a vastdifference Hereimmediately emerges or school of infactdid not"found" Socrates anyconphilosophy59 propound any method" is undereven the so-called"Socratic of thought; sistent poorly system schools loosely knownas "Socratic"were established stood. Nevertheless, by in who the Phaedo: three various Antisthenes, Euclides, followers, appear including In hindsight, oftheseand other "Socratics" and Phaedo himself.60 giventhatlittle truesuccessor, and hisAcademy itseemsobviousthatPlatois Socrates' remains, schooland incorporated someyearslater, ca. 387?) was indeeda formal (founded rules ofconduct; thewholewas dedibutalso certain notonlyclassesand lectures are reminded that thesiteitself was of we catedtotheMuses,"patrons education";61 noteven a secretive a monastery, sacred,and had variouscultassociations-not secularinstitution either. butnotan entirely or Pythagoreans, sectliketheOrphics a formal institution under to establish has no suchintention ButPlato'sSocrates him After theopening. Socrates bothCebes and Crito hisauspices,although give fear death need an enchanter to charm that who away people suggests lightheartedly will that be able to find one. Socrates asks where Cebes their dread, replies they they searchalso for is morevaluable,"and you must must looktheworld over, nothing better fitted for thetask becauseyoumaynotfind ownunited efforts; anyone byyour before the Crito's thanyourselves" (78a-b). Ata muchlater execution, just stage, receives a similar response: question oranything else? ormyself about children for the others "But have your younodirections I said what best?" What canwe do toplease new, Crito," Socrates; "Nothing "just you do will me If own whatever look after amalways you please your selves, telling you. you if other with menow. On the evenif andyoutoo, andmine hand, you youdon't agree in of both now and track that we have and fail to follow the spoken yourselves neglect will do no at all." with me it however the (115b-c) now, good fervently youagree past, recomhave anyspecific of hischildren does Socrates theeducation Notevenfor oftheendeavor; the on thesupreme Bothpassagesinsist mendations. importance while the latter of of an the former teacher, speaks a implies importance appropriate in Most out and laid set a direction "track," present. dialoguespast by arguments on in both passages agree layingfull responsibility ultimately the importantly,
ourforthe taskthan ourselves; ifwe look after searcher:we will findno one fitter advice, fullyin keeping with the selves, all will be well. Stark,uncompromising And of his guidingdeity:knowthyself. of Socratesand the admonition individualism

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without a system behind a mapofthedialectic track to be followed it,without yet, in the it leaves with (whichis nowhere us, veryappropriately, given Dialogues), morequestions thananswers. thisis one reason succesPerhaps whythehistorical sorsofSocrates setoutalongsuchdifferent paths. theBuddhahad a system to offer and an organization to maintain Bycontrast, and propagate it:the Sangha,the Orderof monks(bikkhu) and nuns(bikkhuni). itis expressly intheMPNSthat stated theBuddhahad resolved notto enter Indeed, until the Order with was established followers) (3.7, parinibbana lay (along firmly with the conversion of the five wanderers who heard 35). TheOrder beganofficially theBuddha's first and hadgrown overtheforty-five ofhis sermon, substantially years so itwas already well-defined career, teaching bythetimeofhisdeath.Moreover, theformal oftheSangha(thepatimokkha: 227 rules for 348 for monks, regulations are in another of the Pali the nuns) cataloged ("Basket Canon, Vinaya Pitaka portion ofDiscipline"), and so itis notnecessarily thetaskoftheMPNSto repeat thisinformation. thefuture oftheOrderafter thepassing of itsone and only Nevertheless, leadermight wellweigh on theminds ofthemembers. The Buddha such anticipates a concern to Cebes' to Socrates at 6.1: above) (parallel question itmay be that think: "TheTeacher's instruction hasceased, nowwe Ananda, youwill havenoteacher!" not be seenlike for I havetaught what and Itshould this, Ananda, toyou as Dhamma anddiscipline atmy beyour teacher. will, explained [vinayal passing, theBuddha thendoes add three brief addenda:themonks' disclaimer, Despitethis casual manner of callingeach other "friend" is to be replacedby a moreformal distinction between andsenior monks abolish the"minor (6.2);theOrder junior may rules"ifitwishes(6.3); and one monkis penalizedwith thesilent treatment for an offense 1 and 3 seemrather trivial at this (6.4). Points (the unspecified juncture pariat 6.9), but point2 is interesting. the nibbanais imminent, occurring Obviously Buddharegards someofthecode as expendable. Butsince no one bothers to ask whichare the "minorrules,"the commentators note thatthe Ordereventually decidesto abolishnone of them. The Sanghais thusmorestrictly than regulated Freedom is but not either because of extreme cauoffered, taken, really necessary. tion orelse toavoidendless Ineither debates. shows that a certain case,theoutcome has been lostin thetransition. The textis certainly notmeant to convey flexibility thisimpression, in thenext section theBuddha asks if however; quitethecontrary: there are "anydoubts oruncertainty abouttheBuddha, theDhamma, theSangha, or aboutthepath orthepractice" ofthis (6.5),and,as we saw inourdiscussion passage are none.We are left with theconfident of the above,there image Sangha'scomto the master's pleteunanimity justprior departure. A free-for-all ofquestions and answers wouldcertainly havebeen inappropriate at thatsolemnmoment, buton thatoccasionwe knowthatsuch unanimity was

more apparent than real: not too long afterthe parinibbana, eighteen different schools of Buddhism are knownto have existed.The Dhamma and disciplinelacked the directionprovidedby a single authority; like Socrates,the Buddha anoints no disappointedsuccessorto take his place.62 He does, however,anticipatedoctrinal

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four sources that a monk a given claim:the mayciteto validate putes;he supposes of or a elder.In a an organized Buddhahimself, elders, single Sangha, community must be with the Suttas and reviewed doctrines suchcases,thedisputed "compared totheSuttas and thediscipline inthelight ofthediscipline" (4.8-11). Thereference a fixed text seems to of as the ultimate (not written, necessarily presume authority but not necesthe MPNS of an anachronism so we and here, course), suspect might havebeencirculating discourses must before someoftheBuddha's sarily. Certainly and thediscipline after hispassing, was set up their official compilation obviously the to establish the criteria for orthoWhat is evident is his lifetime. impulse during in or instituinvest this not individual established and to anyliving authority doxy, the Buddhavacanam, from the founder: tion,but in a textthatderivesultimately Socrates' to "follow thetrack We maycontrast "WordoftheBuddha."63 injunction we havespoken ofbothnowand inthepast"(Phaedo115b),where, characterthat inthewordofSocrates, is no investment ofanyauthority whatsoever there istically, ofdialectic. and results butonlyinthemethod Based on a passagelikeMPNS4.8-11, itseemsthatBuddhism threaten might with theletter "ofthebook,"concerned rather thanthespirit to becomea doctrine of the Dhamma.Ultimately, however-and notwithout numberless and disputes rivalinterpretations-the Dhammaitself to dogma,and even the provedresistant could notcontain it. "canon"oftheP5liScriptures Lestthe questionbe seen in strictly it terms, however, Theravada-Mahayana theMPNSweighsin one moretimeon thequestion shouldbe emphasized that of We ultimate must recall the where Ananda reacts to the first authority. passage "The onlything thatwas some comfort onsetof the Buddha'sillness: to me was will notattain thethought: 'The Lord finalNibbanauntil he has madesome statementabouttheorder of monks"'(2.24). One partof the Buddha'sresponse was of he earlier as evidence his has made no "inner" or no "outer," quoted openness: in respect "'teacher's fist' ofdoctrines." Buttheresponse continues: Ifthere is anyone "I shall whothinks: take oftheorder," or"Theorder should charge tome,"lethim refer make some statement about the but theTathagata doesnot order, think insuchterms. So why should theTathagata make a statement about theorder?
(2.25)

In thisradicalstatement the Buddhahimself claimsno authority for theSangha.64 in responsibility The Orderis on itsown. Buttheshift is even moredrastic in the linesofthenext section: famous liveas islands or:"lamps"65] unto Therefore, Ananda, youshould [dipa; yourselves, ownrefuge, with nooneelseas your with theDhamma as an island, your being refuge, with as your with noother theDhamma (2.26) refuge, refuge.
of Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha is here revisedand reducedto The "triplerefuge" the barestminimum: oneselfand Dhamma. However much supportmay be offered itall comes down to You and the Truth. by teacherand community, How is thetruth to be found?The Buddha goes on to recapitulate the meditation

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of Mindfulness exercisesknownas the FourFoundations mind, (body,feelings, is how a monk livesas an islanduntohimself,... "That, Ananda, "mind-objects"): on solitary reminds us of with no other (2.26). Thisemphasis introspection refuge" itself thesoul should"collectand concentrate adviceat Phaedo83a: that Socrates' realities considered but its own isolated inisolation, judgment upon nothing trusting and remains ofself-reliance is even more in isolation." Butthetheme fundamental, their the greatchallengelaid down by greatmasters who, understanding pupils' It refused for inclination to latchontotheteacher ultimately dependence. support, oftheteacher/guru withthe insistence on theabsolute contrasts authority sharply for the in Greeceand India.66 Andthisis notsimply encountered morecommonly there is no choice. would because Socrates would student's owngood,but, they say, at thetraditional Buddhist haveunderstood (themeans) pointing imageofthefinger "If themoon(the end);as he tellshiscompanions: youtakemyadviceyouwillthink the much more of truth" and little of (Phaedo91b-c). Ifan organized Socrates, very that is understandable, around the and not around Buddha Socrates, up system grew of of sections the touched we have for reasons on, including testimony other already in emphasizing thestatearejustified Butifwe (alongwith oursutta. others) many thenhere, essenceoftheBuddha'slasttestament, ment of2.26 as thetrue too,we which to build our own on common havefound refuge. important ground vitally Conclusion be justilikeSocrates and theBuddhamight oftwogreat teachers Thejuxtaposition Plutarch akinto that whichinspired fiedeven bya naiveimpulse, (secondcentury and in of "noble" Greek but not towrite B.C.E.) pairs parallel biographies, justsingly, to the better him a to certain whosecareers leaders Roman resemblance, presented we in account of in hisreaders. their virtues inculcate deaths, So, too, our parallel their and the Buddha: shared Socrates the out by inspiring qualities point might their in and their confidence their their beliefs, supreme equanimity, openness, owntwofeet. For with their like-minded followers that their insistence paths pursue ofpuregoodtoward a state from delusion and fear freedom meant thetruth both, to meant had a ness.Their concrete, changelives.Itis practical purpose, teaching ofthedialogues and reader them than about to learn from more them, any important far from in and make radical moved to who is or suttas changes thought behavior, a erudite. thanthemerely Plutarch, beingnaive,has gotthemessagemoreclearly would Platonic with moralist surely agree. leanings, that shouldbe piquedto explore is also a valid intellectual Yetthere curiosity Greece butbetween and the not between Socrates the further affinity just Buddha, of Socrates lies Plato,and and India.For,as we have seen, behindthecharacter to quesmuchofitwilling ofPresocratic Platoliesthewholeworld behind inquiry,
than in terms thatseem moreacceptable to Eastern tionthe basis of ordinary reality of the Buddha is onlythe mostindividualized traditional Westernthought. Likewise, of his age; we have few names to associate withthe competing the Indianthinkers is evidentthroughout and Yoga, buttheirinfluence schools of Brahmanism, Jainism,

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ofopinion ofearlyBuddhism. Theenormous inbothGreece thescriptures diversity to sort time makes itdifficult outtheinfluences, butis initself added and Indiaatthis further research. in human has the intelfor comparative history Rarely justification been so wide Socrates' fate confirms how lectual open. sadly enterprise threatening can be, butitdoes notclose thechapter on thehistory ofGreek thisopenness phiAristotle's the of Plato's and schools Academy, Lyceum, important Cynilosophy: and Epicureanism werestill to come. Of theselasttwo, cism,Skepticism, Stoicism, ofworld an application ofatomtheformer developsa theory cyclesand thelatter in India. with ideasconcurrent bothofwhichagainbearcomparison ism, istodeny theunique of either orto ignore the Noneofthis civilization, greatness or that one was on the other differences between to claim for them, dependent great is to gainnewperspectives from thegreater Rather, purpose inspiration. meaningful to establish a between Socrates (in fashion) very rudimentary dialogue juxtaposition: oftheother, to readone inthelight so as to see moreinboth. We and theBuddha, to view history but for the are accustomed remarkable Axial diachronically, Age theworld as an ancient senseto study (at least)itmakesmore synchronically, "Age at leastas profound and farmorewidespread67 thanitsmodern of Enlightenment" counterpart. European

Notes 1 - Translated inSoma 1981, p. 23. 2 - See, respectively, 1994, Gold 1996,and Cohen1976. Singh 3 - Digha Nikjya16, translations 1988 and M. O'C. Walshe byVajiraand Story I willcitefrom Walshe'stranslanoted, 1995, pp. 231-277. Unlessotherwise coincide with thoseofthePali whose references tion, conveniently paragraph ed. T. W. Rhys-Davids TextSocietyedition of the Digha Nikaya, and J. E. 1903),vol.2, pp. 72-168. (London, Carpenter 4 - Boththe "long" and the "short" the Buddha'slifetime chronologies dating series of much later chronicles whose accuracy are based on a complicated falseat worst. Bechert is highly suspectat best,demonstrably (e.g., 1982) is of the later date. For what it is a recent the worth, exponent currently leading that the articleby Erdosy evidence (1993) argues supports archaeological of earlyIndianchronology, view. Giventhe hopelessness Bechert's one can one scholar's statement that"it is quiteremarkable to have dating appreciate of merely one century" theories fallintosucha limited difference (Nakamura 12 of that the to be decisive 1977, pp. ff.). Unfortunately,course, happens itis notmyintent for ourdiscussion. to proveinfluence one However, century is not crucial. relationship way or the other,so the exact chronological theearlier of the Buddha,Fries(1933) arguedforBuddhist Accepting dating in itsmainthesis, on Plato'sdialogueform. influence Thoughunconvincing Dillon Matthew 549

article theclosestcomparison of Platonic Fries' remains pioneering dialogues and thePalisuttas. 5 - The mostaccessibleaccountof contacts betweenthe cultures is givenby Sedlar(1980);cf.esp. chaps.1-5. 6 - Fora full discussion ofthisincident, see Stoneman 1995. 7 - "Aristoxenos themusician tellsthis oftheIndians: one ofthem metwith story at Athens and askedhimwhathisphilosophy Socrates was about.WhenSoche studied human no one rates saidthat theIndian and said that life, laughed ifhe didn'tknowaboutthings divine."The could look intohumanmatters comesfrom toderive Eusebius, 11.3.8,butpurports story Preparatio Evangelica from a pupilofAristotle and a respectable scholar. the However, Aristoxenos, dates from after Alexander's excursion into India,after anecdoteprobably whichitbecamefashionable to makesuchconnections. 8 - PlatoRepublic 600b. Thisnearsilencedoes notnecessarily indicate lack of Platois similarly reticent abouthimself: hisnameappearsonlyat importance; 38b and Phaedo 59b. Apology 9 - Besides theobvious connection with thedoctrine ofrebirth (see further below), in thediathe case is made thatEchecrates of Phlius, Phaedo'scompanion as a center of connections was known (Phliusitself logue,had Pythagorean as did Cebes and Simmias, the [DiogenesLaertius Pythagoreanism V111.46]), with inthedialogueitself, who are twomostimportant interlocutors Socrates with ofPythagoreansaidto haveassociated Philolaus (Phaedo61d),a student to Plato(Diogenes ism,who is supposedto have suppliedthesedoctrines for Laertius Burnet So, 1953, 1-2; Bluck1955, [1911] example, pp. V111.84). 1 :307 and 10-11. Guthrie Stern Cf.Bostock 6-8; 1967, 1993, ff.; 1986, pp. pp. 11: "Plato seems rather to out of his to the Phaedo a way give p. go Pythagoreansetting." Rowe (1993) seriously theseassumptions However, challenges admirable caution.Nevertheless, there is a (see esp. pp. 6-7, 115-117) with of certain between the ideas of Plato and those as Aristotle affinity Pythagoras, noted(Metaphysics is between 987b),justas there Platonism, Pythagoreanism, and thisis notlikely to be coincidence: at least, is highly and Orphism, Plato, conscious ofPresocratic tradition. inClassicalliterature: other mentions little certain 10 - Pythagoras onlyfour figures to B.C.E.: 300 Heraclitus Herodotus 7, 17, 4.95, prior Xenophanes frag. frag. and Isocrates of his own (even in Busiris 28. In theabsenceof anywritings itwas notcertain or nothe wrote whether muchofearly antiquity anything),
doctrineis actually extractedfromPlato-with care, given the Pythagorean latter'sregarding name. Plato would most likelyhave come into Pythagoras' contact with Pythagoreansocieties in southernItaly during his stay there circa 387 B.C.E. See Guthrie1967, 1.161 ff. foran overview,and also de Vogel and Plato." Pythagoras' 1966, esp. chap. 8, "Pythagoras tripto India is poorly

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11 -

12 13 -

14 -

15 -

theopinion ofFerguson see Sedlar1980,p. xx.Note,however, attested: (1957, hastoo close affinities with Indian ofthePythagoreans "thethought p. 82) that to and the of the for the resemblance be name accidental, similarity thought is 'father-teacher' with theIndian Pitta-guru suggestive"! 1.15.71-72: "Thereare some Indians who of Alexandria, Stromata Clement whomout of excessivepiety honor the precepts of Boutta, as a follow they god." the continuity betweenHin(1986) especiallyemphasizes Coomaraswamy and Buddhism; see also Oldenberg duism [1908] 1991. ofthecircumstances is known thisastonishing absence; Nothing surrounding illnesswould have kept thatonlya life-threatening Most (1993) speculates Platoaway. 324-325. Thereis no great Ingeneral, see Guthrie 1967,4:41 ff., controversy to thetenuous here,butRowe(1993, pp. 11-12), does well to call attention differences on crucialpoints beand to thesubstantive basisoftheallotment, in this and the Republic, all supposedly tweenthe Phaedo,the Symposium, "middle" group. such differences between the"Socrates" ofthe Vlastos(1991, p. 46), detects and the of the middle that he "Socrates" earlydialogues group distinguishes and SocratesM, and claimsthatonly a "schizophrenic" betweenSocratesE studies ofthe couldholdsuchdivergent viewssimultaneously. Other important exclude the evidenceof the "real" Socrates'views on the afterlife totally and Smith and McPherran Phaedo: see Brickhouse 1994, pp. 201 ff., 1994, n. 1. pp. 1 ff., including

16 - Geiger 1994, p. xxvi.

all translations from thePhaedoarebyTredennick 17 - Unless otherwise and noted, Tarrant (1993). 18 Walshe (1995) translates the phraseacariya-mutthi; literally Vajiraand Story "theclosedfist ofa teacher who holdssomethings (1988, p. 33) expandthus: back." in various was emphasized 19 - The secrecy oftheesoteric Livesof Pythagoreans VIII.15. lamblichus and cf. Laertius 19, 199, Pythagoras: Porphyry Diogenes was his Notealso that students had authority absolute; Pythagoras' onlyto say "He himself said so" (DiogenesLaertius advises a student VIII.46).Empedocles Moralia 728e). The to guard his teaching"witha silentmind" (Plutarch cf. Burkert the natural to cults: 1985,p. 298. mystery Orphics preserved secrecy of reincarnation when discussing matters Note also Herodotus'reticence namesare known to who have putitforward as their own. Their some later,
has been adopted by certainGreekwriters, some earlier, (2.123): "This theory frommentioning them" (trans.A. de Selincourt[New York: me, but I refrain Penguin,1973, p. 178]).

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20 - See J.Mikalson 1983,esp. chap.9.

21 - Gill 1973, pp. 25-28.

22 - G. Most(1993, pp. 96-111) surveys therange ofopinions overtheyears, and hissupport for themention ofAsclepius offers thethesis that refers to gratitude for Plato'srecovery; thusPlatomakes Socrates him as chosendisciple. endorse between thetwo. 23 - P. Harvey interaction ([1952] 1993,pp. 29-41), stresses 24 - Cf.Guthrie [1952] 1993,pp. 156ff. 25 - P5li: Handa dani bhikkhave vo: Vayadhamma samkhara, amantayami appamadenasampadethati.... 26 - Rhys ofthelastphrase, Davids' rendition "Work outyoursalvation with dilihas become "too famous" to n. Walshe ad (1995 453, loc.); gence," according he finds Brewster's "muchbetter." earnestly!" "Accomplish ina later inTibetan 27 - Thesewords are notfound version extant and translation, in arefound elsewhere reverse see Walshe (Sutta order; 1995, Nipata6.2.5.2) ibid.
28 - See the previousnote.

29 - See Burkert Garland(1985) offers overview; 1985, pp. 190-194, fora brief more detail. 30 - Two of thesereliquaries have been recovered (Schumann by archaeologists 1989,p. 254). 31 - See,for 22.13 (Nyanamoli and Bodhi1995,p. 228). Majjhima Nikaya example, In theMPNS (1.34),theimageappearsfrom thepoint ofviewoftheenlightened one who no longer needstheraft. 32 - Nyanatiloka [1952] 1980,s.v. avijj*. ofthemindis characteristic of Plato'spreference for the 33 - Thisinward turning willnotbe idealas morerealthanthephenomenal: thusthetrue astronomer of thestars, led astray "can be which,likeall theforms, by theappearance reason and but not 529d). onlyby bysight" (Republic apprehended thought, in the the is to the as the is to invisible soul Phaedo, visible, So, too, preferred the body(Phaedo79). Platonever thestepsa student describes must taketo he does depict reachthislevelofperception, Socrates as capableof although intense concentration: at Symposium relates howSocrates 220c-d, Alcibiades for with orother." stoodmotionless hours some twenty-four "wrestling problem as Aristodemus "It'squitea habit Suchbehavior is typical, notes earlier: ofhis, off he goes and there he stands, no matter whereitis" (Symposium you know;
175b). In India,concentration techniqueswere,of course, highly developed in in which the future the Yoga tradition, Buddha Gotama was trained.His own methodfocuseson the "four of mindfulness," which are alluded to foundations at MPNS 3.50 and listedat 2.12. Specific instructions are given in Majjhima

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118. Itisnotable atDighaNikaya 10 (repeated 22) andMajjhima Nikiya Nikaya final nibbanain thecourseofa seriesof meditative the Buddhaentered that 6.8-9). (MPNS absorptions term fortransmigration; laterhe does coin 34 - Socrates uses no singletechnical "to come to lifeagain (Phaedo71e-72a)." "Metemtheverbanabioskesthai, A Latin scholiast on Vergil's Aeneid3.68) is postclassical. (Servius psychosis" which is word was that notes "rebirth/ roughly palingenesia, Pythagoras' thePalipunabbhava notunlike re-becoming," (e.g.,at MPNS2.2-3). Socrates theverbal "tobe born/become with comesclosetothis phrase palingenesthai, again"(72a). one oftheearliest 35 - Pherecydes, composeda lostcosmogonical prosewriters, on thesoul,thesources B.C.E. For his workin themid-sixth teaching century and ofconfusion and the Suda are Lexicon) late, (as often) (Cicero suspected with butare acceptedbyWest(1971, pp. 25, 61) and,cautiously, Pythagoras, Schibli (1990, by pp. 104ff.). Lifeof Pythagorus 19. "Pythagoras seemsto have been thefirst to 36 - Porphyry, introduce thesedoctrines into Greece." inA. Lloyd's exhaustive 37 - Mostrecently (1993,3:59-60). commentary 38 - West1971, p. 62.
39 - Ibid., p. 61.

40 - RigVedaX.16.5is citedas among thebestearly evidence: "Sethim free again when he has an in to go to thefathers, been offered as oblation Agni, youand wanders with thesacrificial drink. Lethimreachhisowndescendants, dressing in a life-span. himself ofcreatures, lethimjoinwith a body"(trans. O knower W. O'Flaherty wereclear,the [1981, pp. 49-50]). Evenifthe interpretation in lack of the Vedas is decisive. conspicuous emphasis early 41 - One of the earliest is foundin the Brihadcranyaka expressions Upanishad, IV.3.36: "When this (body)gets to thinness, whether he gets to thinness old age or disease,... even so thisperson frees himself from these through and returns whichhe started limbs backto againas he cameto theplace from S. Radhakrishnan see also (new) life"(trans. [1953, 268]; p. by Oldenberg [1908] 1991,pp. 15-16, 63 ff.). 42 - Cf.thefragments discussed ([1979] 1993, pp. 103-104). by Barnes ofthecentral 43 - Fora full discussion see Long1948. texts,
44 - See Guthrie[1952] 1993, p. 11. 45 - Burnet way ([1911] 1953) notesthatpalai and palaios seem "to be the regular of referring to the Orphic hieros logos" (in Phaedo 67c5, p. 38), althoughthe to Orphismspecifically. passages he cites do not refer 46 - See Guthrie1967, 1:198.

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47 - Platohimself hints at an Orphic sourcewhenSocrates mentions "the probably doctrine in in that we humans are a sort of (Phaedo spoken secret, prison" inthecontext to "initiation rites" ofpurification 62b),and againwhenhe refers for theafterlife seemto haveendorsed a radical (69c). TheOrphics body-soul in dualism the famous derived (summed up "body-tomb," jinglesoma-sema, fromPlato's Cratylus which is the 400c), certainly prominent throughout Phaedo(e.g.,66a-67b). Forthemost elaborate ofthe "Orphic"interpretation Phaedo,see Stewart 1972, pp. 253-259.
48 - See Burkert 1985, pp. 75-84. 49 - Ibid.,pp. 301-304.

translations 50 - Frag. 146, both (1987,p. 196). byJ.Barnes 51 - Cf.Chindogya IV.4;Katha 111.14, V.10; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Upanishad Upanishad, passim. 52 - Nyanatiloka [1952] 1980,s.v. anatta. 401d-402a, 440a-c. 53 - Theaetetus 160d,181a-182c; Cratylus 54 - As Kirk claims(1954 [1978],pp. 15-16; 369 ff.). to Heraclitean fluxin the Phaedoare seen by Rowe(1993) at 87d 55 - Allusions and 90c. ofthis theapparent contradiction 56 - Rowe(1993,pp. 188-189),lessens argument nature of soul as with thetripartite therefore (and developedinthe composite) thesoul also has three Of butin the Phaedrus and Timaeus parts. Republic, or else simply course,Platomaywell have changedhisviewson thispoint, is a feature neither for different purposes. Dogmatism adoptsdifferent strategies norBuddhist ofPlatonic philosophy. 57 - CitedinVajiraand Story 1988,p. 108. intheDigha vision ofKusavati 58 - Thesensuous is spunoutatmuch greater length 17. Nikaya Socrates as the 59 - IntheClouds(423 B.C.E.),thecomicpoetAristophanes portrays this satiric as Few would head ofa ludicrous portrait reli"Thinkery." accept for it the ofa able evidence thehistorical but does introduce concept Socrates, thefirst timeinextant literature. schoolfor Greek philosophical see Zeller1962 and Rankin 60 - On the"Socratics," 1983,pp. 178-228.
61 - Guthrie 1967, 4:20. 62 - In any event,after the Buddha's passing,the Sangha was directedby Kassapa the Great(who appears at MPNS 6.19 ff.), accordingto the laterchronicles.See Schumann 1989, pp. 258ff. recourseto theirfounder's 63 - A similarimpulse is evident in the Pythagoreans'

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was theultimate Autosepha ("He said ithimself") wordsas definitive: argument VIII.46). (DiogenesLaertius from theVajiraand Story moreclearly translation 64 - The pointemerges (1988, that itis he who shouldlead thecommunity of maythink p. 32): "Whosoever orthat thecommunity such a one would have to bikkhus, him, dependsupon last instructions them. the has no such But, Ananda, Tathagata respecting give of bikkhus, idea as thatit is he who shouldlead thecommunity or thatthe shouldhe have to give community dependsupon him.So whatinstructions the of bikkhus?" respecting community 65 - Linguistically, thereseems to be no way to decide betweenthe two transButwhilethe imagesare quitedifferent, lations. the underlying pointis the same. 66 - The students of Pythagoras wereknown to settle issueswiththephrase"He himself said so." See Kirk and Raven1971, p. 220 with n. 4. (i.e.,Pythagoras) In India,the gurufrom Vedic timeswas often the obedience and granted due or to a father even a see Cenkner 1983, pp. 3-28, and Brent respect god; 1972, pp. 16-51 passim. 67 - Of the manyothercultures from the sixth to the third centuries flourishing Chinainparticular a comparable oftheintellectual B.C.E., displays blossoming from Confucius and Lao Tze to the "Hundred Schools,"which enterprise, flourished until the "burning of the books" ca. 213 B.C.E. See Fung[1931] 1983,chaps.4-8. References Londonand New [1979] 1993. The Presocratic Jonathon. Barnes, Philosophers. York:Routledge & Paul. 1987. Early Greek NewYork: Philosophy. Penguin. .. Heinz. 1982. "The Date ofthe BuddhaReconsidered." TauriBechert, Indologica nensia10:29-36. Richard & Paul. S. 1955. Plato'sPhaedo.London: Bluck, Routledge David. 1986. Plato'sPhaedo.Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bostock, ThomasC., and NicholasD. Smith. 1994. Plato'sSocrates. New York: Brickhouse, Oxford Press. University Walter. 1985. Greek Harvard Press. Burkert, Religion. Cambridge: University Clarendon Press. John. [1911] 1963. Plato'sPhaedo.Oxford: Burnet, William. 1983. A Tradition of Teachers. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. Cenkner, as Supreme A Comparison ofPlato'sPhaedo Cohen,M. 1976. "Dying Opportunity: Matthew Dillon 555

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