05/29/13 6 am TA = Peter 1 pm TAs = Brian & Anthony Axial vertebrae o Vertebrae, Coccyx, sacrum?

? o Transverse foramina o Cervical vertebra Hole is where blood vessel goes (unique to mammals) All mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae Hold the skull Skull will rock (condyle) o Vertebrae Transverse process (L/R wing) Spinous process (back wing) Body of the vertebrae (central aspect) Sits on the disk and prevents disk from sliding laterally Hole in front of spinous process = Spinal Cord goes through there Parts that go vertical = Pedicle (bone surrounding cavity for spinal cord) Lamina = where it forms the arch (top part shaped like lambda) Lamina and 2 pedicals come together to form Neural Arch and Neural Canal Any rounded surface (like on a rocking chair) = CONDYLE o Occipital condyle sits in atlas and allows you to rock o Only Anterior/Posterior movement o Second vertebra w/ dens allows head to rotate o Sternoclidomastoid should be cut in all children cause they cant say no All transverse processes point down Lumbar vertebrae have a broad, fat spinous process o 5 of those Sacral = 5 (fused) Coccygeal vertebrae (5 of those, attached) o In animal world = utae? Spinous processes touch when bending backwards o Lock spinous processes, transfer E from shoulder to hips and can transfer down when doing a backward dive Bifid = Cervical vertebrae Flat & pointing down = Thoracic (12) Broad & flat = Lumbar (5) Occipital hole Occipital condyle Hole in front at top of vertebrae = hypoglossal canal o Right through the occipital condyle

o ***Foramina you must know for exam!!! Any hole/space between vertebrae = INTERvertebral foramina o Inter = between

Basic Histology Review Simple squamous, Simple columnar, Simple cuboidal o Simple = 1 layer o Squamous = flat o Cuboidal = cube-shaped o Columnar = long, tapered (column-shaped) Side must be 2x base to be columnar vs. cuboidal Simple squamous = single layer, flat cell o In the lungs (diffusion of oxygen and CO2) o Helps diffusion o Blood vessels, Alveolar cells o Facilitates diffusion Simple cuboidal = single layer, cube-shaped o Secretory & absorptive Simple columnar = single layer, column/quadrilateral cell (rectangular) o Also Secretory &/or Absorptive o Mostly in intestines (Microvilli on surface) Kidney has 12 changes in epithelia along the nephron, and there is a sequence

4 basic types of animal tissue: o Epithelium o Connective o Muscle & Nervous (next week) Simple = 1 layer Squamous, cuboidal, columnar Specialties: o Ciliated epithelium = Columnar cells (w/ cilia) o Microvillus columnar? Epithelium = lines cativies and surfaces of structures o Skin, tongue, resp/digestive tract o Anytime theres a lining = epithelium o This cell can be found in the respiratory tract = EPITHELIUM! HNE Stain o Binds DNA, so all dark spots are different nuclei in different cells o Image of kidney cells o 2 types of cells present (EASIEST WAY TO TELL = look @ nucleus): Flat layer along the inside of a cavity: simple squamous Lining an artery

Flat nuclei Surrounding it are nice, round nuclei arranged in a circle = Simple Cuboidal Connective tissue: blood (lots of dark spots) In the field of view, you can see ____ (Connective tissue as blood & 2 types of epithelial tissue & basal lamina)

All simple epithelial cells will attach to a basement membrane = Basal Lamina o Between simple squamous cells is a fine, fine matrix that is binding to it o In the field of view, you can see a basement membrane (True) Simple Columnar o Lumen (cavity) of the gut (white cavity/empty space) o One layer, all nuclei are somewhat lined up at the same level o Bound under the nuclei by the basement membrane o Protection, absorption, secretion o Nuclei should be located immediately Basal nuclei = from the gut! Located near the basal lamina Medial nuclei = from the gall bladder! Located in the middle of the cell Pseudostratified columnar cells o Look at all 3 magnifications o Simple (not really stratified, look like it) o Every epithelial cell attaches to the basement membrane o Projections off of cells = Cilia o Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar cells o *Respiratory Tract! Goblet cells (secrete mucus) o Trachea and bronchi? (& in male urethra) In the pipes of the lung o Nuclei located at different levels & Distorted! o *Goblet Cells & Cilia found together motile cilia found in upper respiratory tract o Mucocilillary escalator move mucus (secreted by goblet cells) o Cilia: Different in size = motile Functional movement Functional direction! Provide an eticurrent Ex. Of motion = rowing a boat (relaxation does not count as a change in direction) or swimming Chemicals w/in cells trigger cilia to move when triggered, use ATP to couple the movement & it activates a dynein arm to move the cilia

Disease of the dynein arm Cartaginer Syndrome Immotile cilia Diseased lungs b/c cant move crap out of lungs Smokers: Cilia disappear go into transitional epithelium state In Fallopian tube & bronchii Beat in one direction In fallopian tube, move ova Associated cells from ovary to uterus Same size = NOT cilia, MICROVILLI Absorption, increase SA White glow around cells, not really visible o Thin brighter area around the cell Stereocilia, Non-motile cilia Visible @ lower magnifications?

Multilayer cells: Stratified squamous, Stratified squamous keratinized, & Transitional (NOT Stratified cuboidal or Stratified Columnar at the end of next semester, in reproductive system) Stratified Squamous, Non-Keratinized Epithelium cells: o ID cells based on outermost shape (furthest from basal membrane) o Appear cuboidal, but at the end look flat = Stratified Squamous o ALWAYS name tissue epithelium by their outermost layer o Probably tongue Stratified Squamous, Keratinized o Live stratified below o Keratinized above dead cells! o Darker cells than non-keratinized? o Keratinized cells are burned by UV, exposing live, un-keratinized skin cells to UV, which results in cancer o Keratin = block UV!!! Stratified Cuboidal o Monkey pancreas o Endocrine, Exocrine, Involved in Diabetes o Islet of Langerhan = light brown areas in between dark purple region o Every other cell (dense purple things) = Acinar Cells Acini is also a SHAPE (shape somewhat like a goblet, more like a teardrop big & round @ bottom, narrowing toward top) Shaped in clusters = acini Islands of langerhan make Insulin & Glucagon Also contains a blood vessel lots of smooth muscle = Artery On lining of blood vessel = Simple Squamous Epithelium (surrounded by Smooth Muscle) o If we were speaking of the anus, part Smooth & part Skeletal

Epithelium = Stratified Squamous (for protection) Histology changes based on the function: o Simple Epithelium o Stratified transitional, Stratified Squamous Non- & Keratinized Keratinized = Skin Filliform cells on cat tongue (like a file) have Keratin designed for abrasion Tastebud cells = Stratified Squamous Non-keratinized = side of Mouth Transitional: o Contracted bladder (empty, vs. distended = full) has folds, relaxed Examining outer aspect Cells touching basement membrane change in texture when projecting outward Cells are full, cytoplasm filled so distinct shape of cells from basement membrane becoming fuller as going outward o Distended bladder flattened out Dark line on tip of arrow = transitional epithelial cells Cells look the same when distended b/c same shape Liquid deposits from transitional epithelium Clearish spots with gray margin exterior to cells (on the outside of thick dark layer of cells) Cell gets squeezed, and cytoplasm enters this

***Not glandular, stratified, keratinized, & transitional???

Connective Tissue: Loose (Areolar) tissue o Located below the dermis, so part of the Integumentary system o Black spots = nuclei of fibroblasts (make fibers & extracellular matrix) o 3 types of fibers: Collagen: the more pink & wider fibers Majority of fibers! Bundle of collagen fibers = slightly darker pink than other areas Elastin: Black lines Sun rays destroy Elastin fibers (& you get wrinkles) Elastin = maintain skin tightness o Protein that functions like elastic o Squiggly o Body can destroy its own elastin (ex. Emphysema destroy elastin that hold pipes together, so hear a sound when they breathe in)

o If Loose Areolar connective tissue is destroyed, Elastin cannot be remade Reticular Fiber Really fine and thin (light black, really thin) o Under your Dermis! Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis o Need to know what fibers are made by what proteins Dense Fibrous Regular o Very similar to Dense Fibrous Irregular (not shown, just goes in different directions) o A.k.a. White fibrous o What tendons & ligaments are made out of Ligament = 2 bones Tendon = Muscle to Bone o Ex. In the field of view is a tissue sample taken from the distal end of a muscle TRUE o Ex. Could get a muscle model & put a tag on the white part of it the tip of red arrow 4 is on Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue o LOTS of Fibers, LITTLE amounts of Cells o Light purple = collagen fibers (much lighter) o Fine, thin black nuclei embedded in collagen = Nuclei of Fibroblast Cells

Skeleton: o Right Femur Ball & Socket Covered w/ articular Cartilage (where a bone connects) Oscossa = Hip Big bump = Greater Trochanter Larger muscle attaches Smaller bump = Lesser Trochanter Attaches to a smaller muscle Near knee rounder inner edge = Condyle Medial vs. Lateral condyle Medial near middle of body Lateral to side o Tibia, Patella o Shin part of Tibia Linear aspira o Fibula is always lateral Longest, thinnest bone in the body Most easily broken o Size of calcitonin determines size of muscle connected to it (larger calcitonin = larger calf) Ossified skeletons in mammals!

Skeletal Muscle: o Multi-nucleated (up to 50/cell) o Nuclei peripherally located (pushed to edge of cell) o Striated o Voluntary (biceps, tongue, etc.) o Like spaghetti noodles or tuna flakes Cardiac muscle o Heart only o Involuntary o Striations o Branched shape o Multi-nucleated (may have 1-3 nuclei per cardiac muscle cell) o Intercalated disks used to transfer electric signal throughout heart (gap junctions) Intercalated Disks run PERPENDICULAR to the muscle fibers Smooth Muscle o Mononucleated (single nucleus per cell) o Involuntary contraction o Blood vessels, stomach, intestine (small) o Non-striated o Spindle-shape (center where nucleus is will be thicker, and then it thins out at the edges) Thicker center, thinner extremities Nervous Tissue (Spinal nerve cell) o Large cells = Neurons o Multi-polar = multiple dendrites and a single axon o Cell body o Dark black spot = nucleolus, part of nucleus o Neuroglia (glial cells) are the smaller cells that are spread out Support Nutrition Protection Phagocytic Function in forming myelin sheath (increased signal transmission and protection from damage to neuron)

 Anterior spine = closer to acetabulum Superior = closer to top of body Posterior = opposite side of acetabulum Femur o Head Medial o Fovea capitum: Makes blood and supplies blood; arteries and veins coming out from here Patella o Side that it falls on = which leg it belongs to Side it falls on is relative to the body So it will fall to the left direction, but right side of the body if it is a right patella Tibia (medial) o Lateral condyle on the side o Inter__ in between Lateral & Medial condyle Fibula o NEVER articulates with the patella o Articulates w/ the tibia o Rounded end = Top o Pointy end = bottom Point is the malleolus (lateral; lateral ankle) o L/R: Look for the fossa behind the pointy end LEFT = Fossa goes down and back Foot: NOT disarticulated (disconnected) o Talus = 1st point of articulation o Calcaneus = heel Largest bone in the leg? o In front of talus = Navicular (canoe shaped) o Right of Navicular = Cuboid o Three at the top = Cuneiform Medial (innermost, closest to big toe) Intermediate Lateral (closest to pinky)