2013 Year 12 Physics - Task 3

A superconductor is an element, intermetallic alloy, or compound that will conduct electricity without resistance below a certain temperature (known as the critical transition temperature or Tc). Once set in motion, electrical current will flow forever in a closed loop of superconducting material.1 Many materials can exhibit the phenomenon of superconductivity at low enough temperatures. As seen in Figure 1, unlike non-superconductive metals there is a sudden drop to 0 resistance when a superconductive material is cooled below its critical temperature.
Figure 2

Figure 1

2013, Eck, J. Superconductors http://www.superconductors.org/tc_graph.gif

Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) is one of the first commercially sold high temperature superconductors. As shown in Figure 2 when YBCO is cooled to below 93K, the resistance falls to zero. YBCO is used in HTC cable commercially sold as and was the one of the first materials to become superconductive above 77 K which is the boiling point of liquid nitrogen which was extremely significant because it made the cooling of superconductors much cheaper and more efficient.

2012, Geun-Joon Lee. Resistance vs Temperature of YBCO http://www.intechopen.com/books/applications-of-high-tc-superconductivity/superconductivityapplication-in-power-system

Superconductors can be categorized into two main groups:

Type I: Metal and metal alloys The Type 1 category of superconductors is mainly comprised of metals and metalloids that show some conductivity at room temperature. They require incredible cold to slow down molecular vibrations sufficiently to facilitate unimpeded electron flow in accordance with BCS theory. Characterized as "soft" superconductors they were discovered first and require the coldest temperatures to become superconductive. They exhibit a very sharp transition to a superconducting state and "perfect" diamagnetism the ability to repel a magnetic field completely.2 Many metals and metal alloys can exhibit superconductivity such as Aluminium (1.175K), Mercury (4.15K) and Niobiumgermanium alloy (23.2K).

Joe Eck, 2013. Superconductors. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.superconductors.org/. [Accessed 11 May 2013] 2 Joe Eck, 2013. Type 1 Superconductors. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.superconductors.org/Type1. [Accessed 11 May 2013]

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Type II: Oxides and ceramics The Type II category of superconductors is mostly comprised of metallic compounds and alloys. Type II superconductors - also known as "hard" superconductors - differ from Type I in that their transition from a normal to a superconducting state is gradual across a region of "mixed state" behavior and will allow some penetration by an external magnetic field.3 They generally have much higher critical temperatures than Type I. Some examples of Type II superconductors are Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 (127K) and HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+x (133 K).

How superconductors work While as there are some discrepancies when applying the theory to some Type II superconductors (Yatendra, S. J. First Quantization and Basic Foundation of the Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity, pg. 2) and many who question its validity (Hirsch, J. E. BCS theory of superconductivity: it is time to question its validity), BCS theory is the currently accepted model describing how electrons are able to propagate through a material with no resistance. In a superconducting material there is a crystalline lattice structure which vibrates according to its temperature (as temperature drops lattice vibrations decrease). Below a particular temperature known as the critical temperature, the vibration of the lattice is minimal allowing pairs of electrons to form called Cooper Pairs. Below this temperature when a pair of electrons flow through the material the first electron attracts the positive charges of the lattice (shown in Figure 3) creating a positive region or phonon behind the first electron due to the reduced gap between the positive charges of the crystal lattice that attracts the second electron (Shown in Figure 4). The lattice which moves slower because it is made up of heavier positive charges by then has moved back to its original position due to its elasticity allowing the second electron to pass through uninhibited. Its increased momentum causes it to push the first electron by repulsion, speeding it up as it comes up to two more positive charges. The second electron attracts the lattice as it passes through in turn effectively taking the role of the first electron by creating a phonon for a third electron to pass through and so forth. This process (shown step by step in Figure 5) repeats as the electrons move through the lattice. Each pair of electrons travel through the material assisted by each other. This theory was developed by a group of scientists including John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schrieffer and this is why its known as the BCS theory.
Figure 3 Figure 4

Cooper pairs in a crystal lattice 1. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill. Cooper pairs in a crystal lattice 1. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill.

Joe Eck, 2013. Type 2 Superconductors. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.superconductors.org/Type2. [Accessed 11 May 2013]

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Figure 5

Cooper Pairs moving through lattice. Barry, T J. 2003. http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/t.j_barry/bcstheory.html (Animated)

Advantages and Limitations of the Use of Superconductors As there are two main types of superconductors each has their own advantages and limitations. Superconductor Type Type 1 Advantages
They are easier to work with as they are able to be made into thin sheets or extruded into wires. Tougher and can withstand impacts Much easier and cheaper to produce/manufacture they are either just pure metals or simple alloys. Can use liquid nitrogen to reach the critical temperature, as well as maintain it. Liquid nitrogen is relatively cheap and easy to produce making temperature maintenance costs significantly smaller.

Limitations
Usually have very low critical temperatures which are very hard to reach and maintain. Require liquid helium as a coolant get below critical temperature and liquid helium is much more expensive compared to the other coolants. Less malleable and ductile i.e. more brittle and fragile, shatter more easily and are generally less workable. Chemically less stable and tend to decompose in extreme conditions Much more difficult to produce.

Type 2

As a whole superconductors have both advantages and limitations in their use. One advantage is efficient conduction. Because the resistance of superconductive material is so low, there is no current wastage when they are used to conduct electricity as energy loss. This is because Power loss is given by the current (I) squared multiplied by the Resistance (or and distribution. Another advantage is the that strength of the magnetic field produced by an electromagnet is directly proportional to current and as superconductors produce no heat there is no limit to the ) and as R is effectively zero no power is lost. This could have far reaching impacts on electricity production

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current fed into it. This would allow us to create incredibly powerful magnets that produce very powerful magnetic fields. A further advantage lays in the phenomenon of perpetuating current that is observed in superconductors. This occurrence means that once a current is established in a circuit it will continue to flow for a long time period even if the power source is removed further increasing the efficiency of these magnets. The biggest disadvantage to the use of superconductors is that to be superconductive they must be at their critical temperature, which can be very costly and hard to maintain. The very low temperatures required by current superconductors severely limit their use. Currently only Type II superconductors are able to be cooled relatively cheaply using liquid nitrogen but is much harder and more expensive to produce as well as quite delicate and not really suitable for prolonged use. This can be overcome by the development of room temperature superconductors which wouldnt require cooling and would make superconductors a viable option for widespread use. A further limitation is that they emit strong magnetic fields which may have potential health risks for people exposed to it such as blindness, sterility, brain cancer and other health issues. Superconductors also have another advantageous property with a multitude of uses. They exhibit whats known as the Meissner effect. The Meissner effect is that a superconductor can totally exclude external magnetic fields. This phenomenon can also be described as ideal diamagnetism, when the conductor completely repels magnetic fields (Seen in Figure 6(c)) allowing another magnet to be levitated above it. This comes with a limitation as too strong a magnetic field can cause the deterioration of superconductivity.
Figure 6

The Meissner effect. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill.

Current Uses of Superconductors The Meissner Effect can be very useful for many things especially Maglev (or magnetically levitated) trains. When used in the process of magnetic levitation, no kinetic energy is wasted due to friction from contact with the ground. This is an advantage because no energy is expended overcoming friction (with the ground) allows the maglev trains to reach speeds of up to 581km/h. Maglev trains utilise superconductors and superconductive electromagnets to work. Their operation can be split into 2 parts: Levitation and Propulsion.

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Figure 7

Levitation Maglev trains are levitated off the ground by the force of repulsion between normal electromagnets on the track and superconducting electromagnets on the bottom of the train which are made to have the same poles (shown in Figure 7). Because they use superconductor magnets the repulsion is strong enough to resist the force of gravity and make the train hover dramatically reducing friction.

Maglev Levitation. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill.

Figure 8

Propulsion To move forward magnets are placed on the side of the train and on the track and they are made to have alternating polarities (see Figure 8). The north magnets will attract the south magnets but in order to maintain forward momentum and not oscillate the magnets on the train switch polarity. This propels the train forward and the changes get faster as the speed increases and the frequency of these changes effectively limits the speed of the train. The magnets on the sides of the track and train also help guide the train keeping it on track (through both repulsion and attraction of magnetic fields.
Maglev Propulsion. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill.

Other Current uses of superconductors include: Sensitive magnetometers Such as SQUIDs (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices), very sensitive magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields. Fast fault current limiters - A device which limits the potential fault current when a problem occurs (e.g. in a power transmission network) Superconducting electromagnets Used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), magnetic confinement fusion reactors and Particle Accelerators. Future Applications of Superconductivity There is the possibility for superconductors to have a massive effect on society due to their many unique properties such as the Meissner effect and is zero resistivity. Before many of these future uses can come to fruition high-temperature, versatile superconductors that are cheap and easy to manufacture must be discovered which could take many decades. Motors and generators rely heavily on currents flowing through coils of wire creating a magnetic field. In a conventional system there is energy loss due to resistance in the metal wire. This energy loss depends on the metal but if high temperature superconductors could be easily and cheaply manufactured and used it would raise efficiency to 99%. This would create more efficient generators

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that could be half the size because none of the generated current is lost due to resistance. Motors would produce a higher ratio of output power to input power because none of the input power is wasted in the wires. The ability to propagate current with no resistance would have profound effects on the transmission of electricity. Currently 7-11% of power produced is lost in the transmission of electricity from the power station to the home. If no energy was lost through resistance we would have to produce less power. This would have a positive effect on the environment as we would use less natural resources such as fossil fuels. Another positive effect would be that it enables the further use of geothermal power. Geothermal power uses the heat of the earth to produce electricity and is a very good source of renewable energy. A current limitation of geothermal power is that the power plants have to be placed in the hot inner regions of Australia meaning the electricity has to travel large distances which corresponds to large power losses. If we could have superconducting wires we could better utilize geothermal power because they remove the power loss. A conversion to superconducting wires in our electricity grid would require massive structural changes as superconducting wires only carry DC current. Computers play an integral role in modern society. A current field of research is to create more powerful and faster computers. A computers power depends upon how many devices you can put on a single chip, the closer together these devices are the faster the computer. However, this proximity generates more heat which causes the chips to malfunction. If we were to use superconducting devices then heat wouldnt be a problem and it would be possible to make very fast and powerful computers. These computers will allow us to perform more complex operations and speed up current technologies.

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Bibliography
Ame en Science Studio, 2013. All about superconductivity. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.supraconductivite.fr/en/index.php?p=supra-explication#supra-explication-cooper.Accessed 16 May 2013]. Barry, T J. 2003. BCS Theory. [ONLINE] Available at: http://ffden2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/t.j_barry/bcstheory.html. [Accessed 16 May 2013]. Eck, J. 2013. Superconductors. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.superconductors.org/. [Accessed 12 May 2013]. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013. BCS theory (physics) -- Encyclopedia Britannica. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/57052/BCS-theory. [Accessed 16 May 2013]. Health Canada, 2012. It's Your Health - Electric and Magnetic Fields from Power Lines and Electrical Appliances. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/environ/magnet-eng.php. [Accessed 16 May 2013]. Hirsch, J. E. BCS theory of superconductivity: it is time to question its validity. Department of Physics, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA 92093-0319 Nave, R. 2013. Cooper Pairs and the BCS Theory of Superconductivity. [ONLINE] Available at: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/coop.html. [Accessed 16 May 2013]. Saxena, A J. 2012. High-temperature Superconductors. Springer. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill. Yatendra, Prof. S Jain. First Quantization and Basic Foundation of the Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity . Department of Physics, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong - 793 022, India IMAGES Figure 1: 2013, Eck, J. Superconductors http://www.superconductors.org/tc_graph.gif Figure 2: 2012, Geun-Joon Lee. Resistance vs Temperature of YBCO http://www.intechopen.com/books/applications-of-high-tc-superconductivity/superconductivity-applicationin-power-system Figure 3: Cooper pairs in a crystal lattice 1. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill. Figure 4: Cooper pairs in a crystal lattice 1. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill. Figure 5: Cooper Pairs moving through lattice. Barry, T J. 2003. http://ffden2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/t.j_barry/bcstheory.html (Animated) Figure 6: The Meissner effect. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill. Figure 7: Maglev Levitation. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill. Figure 8: Maglev Propulsion. Xiao L. Wu, Robert Farr. 2012. Physics in Focus. McGraw Hill.

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Analysis of Accuracy, Validity and Reliability of First Quantization and Basic Foundation of the Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity
Reliability: This text is extremely reliable because the information it contains is echoed throughout all my sources of which many are written by Doctors or Professors of physics. Accuracy: The information is accurate as it was only quite recently published and no conflicting papers could be found that would discount it. Validity: This journal was very valid because it was written by a scientist with a PhD in physics who is a life member of the Indian Association of Physics and the Indian Science Congress. It is a published paper with the author citing many references. It is written without bias and has been peer reviewed.