CC606HYDROLOGY

CHAPTER 3 SURFACE RUNOFF

3.1 Definition
Direct Runoff/surface runoff
Water that flows over the ground surface or through the ground directly into streams, rivers, or lakes'. Air yang mengalir di atas permukaan tanah atau melalui tanah terus ke dalam sungai, sungai atau tasik.

Surface runoff
overland flow (sheet flow) shallow concentrated flow open channel flow

Base Flow
Groundwater seepage into a stream channel. Resapan air bawah tanah ke dalam saluran aliran

Interflow

Part of the water in the unsaturated zone of the soil moves in a lateral direction, especially if the hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction is more than that in vertical direction and emerges at the soil surface at some location away from the point of entry into the soil. This phenomenon is known as interflow.
Sebahagian daripada air dalam zon tidak tepu tanah bergerak ke arah sisi, terutamanya jika kekonduksian hidraulik dalam arah melintang adalah lebih daripada itu dalam arah menegak dan muncul di permukaan tanah di beberapa lokasi yang jauh dari pintu masuk ke dalam tanah. Fenomena ini dikenali sebagai menggabungkan diri.

Definition
Runoff (RO)
is the total amount of water flowing into a stream, or the sum of direct runoff and baseflow.
To determine the amount of annual runoff, subtract the amount of annual evapotranspiration from the annual amount of precipitation.
Precipitation - Evapotranspiration= Runoff (RO)

3.2 Catchment Area

is an extent or an area of land where surface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean.

Runoff in catchment area drain into other catchment area in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller catchment area combining into larger catchment area
Each catchment area is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a geographical barrier such as a ridge, hill or mountain. Catchment areas are separated from each other by watersheds. A watershed is natural division line along the highest points in an area.

Catchment characteristics affecting runoff

1. Watershed Factor: a. Size b. Shape c. Altitude d. Topography e. Geology [Soil type] f. Land use [vegetation], Orientation g. Type of drainage network h. Proximate to ocean and mountain range

1. Size of Watershed:

A large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to outlet than smaller watershed and vise-versa.

2. Shape of Watershed:
Runoff is greatly affected by shape of watershed. Shape of watershed is generally expressed by the term form factor and compactness coefficient. Form Factor = Ratio of average width to axial length of watershed = B/1 or A/1/1 = A/I2 Compactness Coefficient: Ratio off perimeter of watershed to circumference of circle whose area is equal to area of watershed Two types of shape: Fun shape [tends to produce higher runoff very early] Fern shape [tend to produced less
runoff].

3. Slope of Watershed:
It has complex effect. It controls the time of overland flow and time of concentration of rainfall. E.g. sloppy watershed results in greater runoff due to greater runoff velocity and vice-versa.

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Watershed Factor:

4. Orientation of Watershed: This affects the evaporation and transpiration losses from the area. The north or south orientation, affects the time of melting of collected snow. The orientation of a watershed influences the melting speed of snow. Watersheds developed especially in North-South direction have an alternative exposure to sunrays; the melting speed of snow thus being smaller than in cases of watersheds developed towards East-West. Soil moisture: Magnitude of runoff yield depends upon the initial moisture present in soil at the time of rainfall. If the rain occurs after along dry spell then infiltration rate is more, hence it contributes less runoff. 7. Soil type: In filtration rate vary with type of soil. So runoff is great affected by soil type. 8. Topographic characteristics: It includes those topographic features which affects the runoff. Undulate land has greater runoff than flat land because runoff water gets additional energy [velocity] due to slope and little time to infill rate. 9. Drainage Density: It is defined as the ratio of the total channel length [L] in the watershed to total watershed area [A]. Greater drainage density gives more runoff Drainage density = L/A

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Rainfall characteristics affecting runoff

a. Type of storm and season b. Intensity c. Duration d. Arial Distribution e. Frequency f. Antecedent precipitation g. Direction of storm movement

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Rainfall characteristics affecting runoff

1.Types of Precipitation: It has great effect on the runoff. E.g. A precipitation which occurs in the form of rainfall starts immediately as surface runoff depending upon rainfall intensity while precipitation in the form of snow does not result in surface runoff. 2. Rainfall Intensity: If the rainfall intensity is greater than infiltration rate of soil then runoff starts immediately after rainfall. While in case of low rainfall intensity runoff starts later. Thus high intensities of rainfall yield higher runoff. 3. Duration of Rainfall: It is directly related to the volume of runoff be cause infiltration rate of soil decreases with duration of rainfall. Therefore medium intensity rainfall even results in considerable amount of runoff if duration is longer. 4. Rainfall Distribution: Runoff from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall. It is also expressed as distribution coefficient mean ratio of maximum rainfall at a point to the mean rainfall of watershed. There fore, near outlet of watershed runoff will be more. 5. Direction of Prevailing Wind: If the direction of prevailing wind is same as drainage system, it results in peak low. A storm moving in the direction of stream slope produce a higher peak in shorter period of time than a storm moving in opposite direction 6. Other Climate Factor: Other factors such as temperature wind velocity, relative humidity, annual rainfall etc. affect the water losses from watershed area.

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STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

Q=V*A Q=discharge (m3/sec) V=Velocity(m/sec) A=Area(m2)

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Stream Flow gaugingVA method

Stream flow meter Float gauging

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Stream discharge
The amount of water that flows down a stream per unit time is called discharge and is usually abbreviated by the symbol Q

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Area & Measurement velocity

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Example 1

If only two depths are used for measurement, then an average of 0.2D and 0.8D gives a good representation of the profile velocity, or 0.6D if only one depth is used (Hewlett, 1982 p99).

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Exercise 3
Following data acquired from works measurement discharge by using current meter. Determine discharge by using Area velocity method Given V=0.075N+0.32

Distance from the cliff

Vertical/ depth , (m)

Prophecy way

No. Rotation

Time (second)

1.2 3.2 5.0

0.2 0.41 0.32

0.6D 0.6D 0.6D

8 14 20

40 40 40

7.0
9.0 11.0 13.0

0.04
0.80 0.35 0.75

0.6D
0.2D

25
34

40
40

0.6D
0.2D 0.6D 0.2D 0.6D

42
35 23 25 28

40
40 40 40 40

15.0 17.0 19.0

0.80 0.40 0.32

0.2D
0.6D

19
17

40
40

0.2D
0.6D

14
13

40
40

0.2D
0.6D

12
10

40
40
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Distanc e from the cliff 1

Depth (m)

Velocity (m/s)

Wid th, m 5 Mean (3+4)/2 6

Area,m2

Flow, m3/s

3 0.2D

4 0.6D

7 (2x6)

8 (5x7)

1.2
3.2 5.0 7.0

0.20
0.41 0.32 0.04

0.075(8/40)+0.32=0.335

0.335

2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0

0.2*2=0.4

0.335*4= 1.34

9.0
11.0

0.80
0.35

2.0
2.0

13.0
15.0

0.75
0.80

2.0
2.0

17.0
19.0

0.40
0.32 TOTAL FLOW

2.0
2.0

V FOR 0.2D & 0.6D V = 0.075N+0.32 V0.6D = 0.075(8/40)N+0.32= 0.335 22

Discharge in White Scar Cave using the Integration (Gulp) Method

Dilution methods of stream or cave-water gauging are based on dilution of a known volume and concentration of a tracer when applied to the flow. Measurements of the cross-sectional area of the channel are, therefore, not required. Several tracers are suitable for dilution gauging sodium chloride and fluorescent dyes for example, can be monitored in situ using a conductivity meter and fluorometer respectively. The integration method differs from the constant-rate method of dilution gauging in that the tracer is added to the stream in bulk (i.e., as a single 'gulp'). The most accurate procedure for calculating the discharge is then based on the ratio of the input tracer load (VC1) to the mixed concentration at the downstream location (less the background concentration):
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Method: One group should locate a conductivity meter in the channel flow (Figure 5) (NB avoiding areas of extreme cavitation), and record the background conductivity on a worksheet ~ see below

A second group should select a injection point some 30 to 40 m upstream of the monitoring station. At this point they should fill two 10 litre buckets full of stream-water and gradually dissolve 450 g sodium chloride into each (Figure 6). Once the NaCl is dissolved, further water should be added to fill the bucket to the 10 litre mark. If channel discharges are high, the test may require four buckets (each with 450 g NaCl) to be added

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Learn about infiltration

Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour.

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 For consistency in hydrological calculations, a constant value of infiltration rate for the entire storm duration is adopted. The average infiltration rate is called the Infiltration Index and the two types of indices commonly used are explained in the next section.

Infiltration indices The two commonly used infiltration indices are the following: index W index

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The - index
This is defined as the rate of infiltration above which the rainfall volume equals runoff volume, as shown in Figure

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Excess rainfall
Excess rainfall Not retained on land surface AND Not infiltrated into soil

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Excess rainfall vs. time

Key component of rainfall-runoff relationship

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Abstraction (losses)
Water absorbed by infiltration Parameters of infiltration equations can be determined by phi index Phi index Constant rate of loss yielding excess rainfall hyetograph with depth equal to depth of direct runoff
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Example 2 : Estimate Loss with index

A storm with 10.0 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8cm. Given the time distribution of the storm as below, estimate the index of the storm

Time from start (h)

Incremental rainfall in each hour (cm)

0.4

0.9

1.5

2.3

1.8 1.6

1.0

0.5

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Solution (trial and error method)

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Solution

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Time from start(h)

Rainfall excess ( cm)

0.35
(0.9-0.55)

total rainfall excess = 5.8cm = total runoff

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Exercise 2
Raifall volume for each 30 minute duration is of 130.000 m3. Calculate the index of to the basin. Kelebatan hujan bagi setiap 30 minit adalah sebanyak 130,000m3. Kirakan indeks untuk lembangan tersebut .
Rainfall (mm) 114.3 76.2 60 50.8 90 88.9 120 50.8 150

Duration 30 (minute)

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Solution

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