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Simulation of subcooled ow boiling in a micro-channel

Rui Zhuan, Wen Wang*
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China

article info
Article history: Received 3 August 2010 Received in revised form 26 November 2010 Accepted 5 December 2010 Available online 21 December 2010 Keywords: Simulation Micro-channel Subcooling Boiling Bubble Heat transfer

abstract
Bubble behavior was simulated to analyze the mechanism of subcooled boiling in a microchannel. Bubble growth, condensation, and collapse in subcooled boiling, as well as the function of the degree of subcooling, lift-off diameter, heat ux, and mass ux are discussed. The inuence of surface tension on interfacial heat transfer is likewise presented. In the calculated results, both onset of nucleate boiling and boiling heat transfer are inuenced by micro-channel size. The simulated ow pattern corresponds with some experimental results. Findings on the boiling heat transfer from the simulation were compared with experiments. 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR.

bullition en e coulement sous-refroidie dans Simulation de le un micro-canal

bullition ; Bulle ; Transfert de chaleur s : Simulation ; Micro-canal ; Sous-refroidissement ; E Mots cle

1.

Introduction

Subcooled boiling is often observed in a micro-channel heat sink. This can provide high heat transfer rates and maintain relatively low wall temperature under highly subcooled conditions. Fig. 1 shows how bubble generation occurs along a heated channel during subcooled boiling. Kandlikar (1998) divided the process of subcooled water boiling into partial boiling, fully developed boiling, and signicant void ow, and proposed a comprehensive methodology to predict heat transfer in each
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 86 21 34206096; fax: 86 21 34206814. E-mail address: wenwang@sjtu.edu.cn (W. Wang). 0140-7007/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2010.12.004

zone. Collier and Thome (1994) classied subcooled boiling into two zones: highly subcooled, which starts from the onset of boiling, and developed subcooled, wherein bubbles detach into the bulk liquid ow and condense slightly. In macro-scale subcooled boiling, bubbles grow at the superheated layer near the wall under conditions wherein the surrounding uid is subcooled. Some bubbles condense partly after lifting off the wall while other bubbles collapse into the bulk liquid. Therefore, many dispersed bubbles can be observed in the liquid ow. In saturated boiling, the lifting bubbles grow quickly and combine with one another. The

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Nomenclature A area (m ) thermal diffusivity (m2 s1) al d, D bubble diameter (mm) De hydraulic diameter (m) E energy (J kg1) e(DP) relative error in pressure jump Fo Fourier number volumetric force (N m3) Fvol volumetric surface tension force (N m3) Fst v g gravity acceleration (m s2) G mass ux (kg m2 s1) H heat transfer coefcient (W m2 K1) latent heat (J kg1) hlv h, Dx, Dy, Dz grid size (mm) I third order identity matrix Ja Jakob number k thermal conductivity (W m1 K1) Ma Marangoni number m mass ow rate (g s1) 0 mass transfer in bubble interface (kg m3 s1) mb Nu Nusselt number ! n normal direction to the surface p pressure (Pa) Pr Prandtl number Q heat source term due to phase change (W m3) q heat ux (W cm2) Marangoni heat ux on interface (W cm2) qMa Re Reynolds number r, R bubble radius (mm) S mass source term due to phase change (kg m3 s1)
2

s t t0 T V We X DP

tangential direction to the surface time (s) the previous time in unsteady iteration (s) temperature ( C) volume (m3) Weber number thermodynamic equilibrium quality pressure jump (Pa)

Greek symbols volume fraction of liquid phase al volume fraction of vapor phase av volume fraction of liquid phase (i l) or vapor ai phase (i v) ! y velocity vector (m s1) m dynamic viscosity (kg m1 s1) r density (kg m3) s surface tension coefcient k surface curvature h n efciency 4 micro-channel aspect ratio Subscripts b bubble f uid l liquid ONB onset of nucleate boiling sat saturation tp two phase v vapor vol volume w wall

interfacial heat transfer mode accompanying bubble evolution differs for subcooled boiling and saturated boiling. In the subcooled boiling of the micro-channel, nucleation bubbles are generated when the superheated layer of the wall satises the superheat degree required for nucleation. As there is a large surface tension jump through bubble interface, the nucleation requires a large superheat degree on the wall. Consequently, there develops a large superheat degree at the bottom wall, and the bulk ow becomes less superheated or subcooled. Bubble evolution is accompanied with changes in interfacial heat transfer mode. Bubbles attached to the bottom wall continue to grow where

interfacial evaporation is considerable. However, the bubbles lifting off the bottom partly condense when the interface reaches the subcooled liquid, then some of them collapse. Therefore, in subcooled boiling of a micro-channel, evaporation and condensation may coexist on the bubble interface. Moreover, because the wall shear stress in the micro-channel is higher than in the macro-scale, an apparent decrease in bubble departure size can be observed. Small bubbles condense and collapse after lifting. Hence, in micro-scale subcooled boiling, bubble sizes in a dispersed bubble ow are considerably less compared with those in macro-scale.

Fig. 1 e Bubble generation along the heated wall in subcooled boiling.

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It is difcult to develop reliable models for subcooled boiling heat transfer in micro-channels. Through experiments, Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b) showed that subcooled boiling was categorically different from saturated boiling in terms of distribution of void fraction. There are high void fractions in slug and annular ows of saturated boiling. While, in subcooled boiling, some bubbles grow in the superheated layer at the bottom wall and then condense partly in the subcooled bulk liquid. Hence, interfacial condensation should be rst conned when creating a model for bubble heat transfer. Some empirical correlations have predicted ow boiling heat transfer in micro-channels. Ribatski et al. (2006) compared predictions from literature with some experimental database. Generally, there has not been any denite evaluation on ow boiling heat transfer due to large discrepancies in data under different conditions, as evidenced in literature. Some investigations (Kattan et al., 1998; Wojtan et al., 2005; Cheng et al., 2008; Triplett et al., 1999) also focused on macro- and mini-scale ow boiling patterns, developing the heat transfer correlations corresponding to specic ow patterns. Based on the ow boiling of R134a in a microtube, Revellin et al. (2006) compared data with the prediction model for macro- and mini-scale ow pattern map given by Kattan et al. (1998) and Triplett et al. (1999). Signicant difference was noted in transition line locations and ow patterns. The thermodynamic equilibrium quality is negative in subcooled region, and hence, heat transfer correlations from researchers (Kattan et al., 1998; Wojtan et al., 2005; Cheng et al., 2008; Triplett et al., 1999) are not suitable for micro-scale subcooled boiling. Research is currently being undertaken to investigate the micro-scale phenomena and to characterize interfacial heat transfer process in subcooled boiling. The phenomena on bubbles condensation in subcooled liquid had been explored by previous literature, presenting discussions on bubble collapse rate and corresponding condensation heat transfer rate. Isenberg and Sideman (1970) studied bubble condensation in immiscible liquids. Chen and Mayinger (1992) analyzed heat transfer for both attached bubbles and departing bubbles at the bubble interface in subcooled liquid experiment. Zeitoun et al. (1995) performed experiments for a subcooled water-steam bubble ow in a vertical conduit. Most correlations from previous experimental studies were based on bubbles rising in stagnant liquid. Warrier et al. (2002) analyzed bubble collapse rates through experimental data; the correlations given by Warrier et al. (2002) accounted for both the effect of forced convection heat transfer and the thermal boundary layer during vapor bubble condensation. The above mentioned works were based on experiments on macro-scale subcooled boiling wherein bubbles lift off from the superheated layer and ow into unconned space. However, in micro-channels, bubbles grow in temperature elds with a large gradient so interfacial heat transfer is not uniform. For example, evaporation and condensation may coexist at the interface. The inuence of the Marangoni heat ux induced by surface tension on the nucleation process in a two-phase ow has been studied by previous literature (Young et al., 1959; Petrovic et al., 2004; Li and Peterson, 2005; McGrew et al., 1966). Due to the large temperature gradient of subcooled boiling in the micro-channel, the Marangoni ow is shown as

relatively signicant, especially during high degrees of subcooling. Thus, the inuence of surface tension on interfacial heat transfer should be analyzed. Petrovic et al. (2004) showed that when wall heat ux is large enough for bubbles to overcome surface tension, the bubbles can grow quickly and lift off. Hence, before any bubble rises from the heated wall, the effect of the Marangoni ow on interfacial heat transfer should be signicant in subcooled boiling. Up to now, experimental studies are being performed to explore boiling curves in micro-scale boiling situations. Harirchian and Garimella (2008) presented the effects of microchannel size on local ow boiling heat transfer and boiling curve. In their work, if the width of the micro-channel was more than 400 mm, the heat transfer coefcients corresponding to xed wall heat ux and boiling curve were independent of channel size. Then, heat transfer coefcient and boiling curve were independent of mass ux in the nucleate boiling region, but they were affected by mass ux in the convective boiling. Predictions from the pool boiling situations yielded large discrepancies in forced convective boiling situations. Fig. 2 shows the subcooled boiling curves of the microchannel from experiments (Lee and Mudawar, 2008a,b) and

Fig. 2 e Subcooled boiling curves for m [ 2 g sL1, Tin [ 0  C: (a) De [ 200 mm; (b) De [ 334.1 mm.

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prediction correlations of macro- and micro-scale boiling of Rohsenow et al. (1998) and Liu et al. (2005). Table 1 shows the experimental data for nucleate boiling and the predictions of correlations. Experimental results differed from the predicted curve given in Rohsenow et al. (1998). Unlike the macro-scale boiling curve, the subcooled boiling in microchannel has low wall superheat under the same heat ux, and the onset of nucleate boiling (ONB) is delayed. In addition, Eq. (1) of Liu et al. (2005) cannot effectively predict the onset of subcooled boiling for De 334.1 mm, as shown in Fig. 2(b). The Marangoni heat ux is calculated by the correlation of Petrovic et al. (2004), as shown in Fig. 2. Comparison of experimental data for Marangoni heat ux with prediction of correlation is listed in Table 1. At the subcooled boiling zone with a great degree of subcooling, the Marangoni heat ux is high; only a few bubbles nucleate and grow slowly while the liquid is abundant in the channel, as shown in experiments from Lee and Mudawar (2008a). In Fig. 2, the heat transfer ux of subcooled boiling consists of a single-phase convective heat ux (margin between line DE and curve BCE) and bubble boiling heat ux (curve BCE); the dashed line (D) is the singlephase convective heat ux. Point E is the ONB point of the highly subcooled boiling zone. After this event, boiling heat ux increases quickly. The developed subcooled boiling begins at point A. The Marangoni heat ux is lower than wall heat ux, indicating that bubbles can easily overcome surface tension and can grow quickly, as evidenced by Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b). The effects of micro-channel size on boiling curve are shown in Fig. 2 as well. As heat ux rises, wall temperature becomes increasingly dependent on it, and boiling curves vary with sizes of the channel. For a xed base area heat ux, the bottom wall temperature slightly decreases with an increase in aspect ratio. According to the experimental data from Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b), the slope of the boiling curve increases sharply due to transition between the single-phase and the nucleate boiling regions, as shown in Fig. 2. In the experiments about boiling in mini- and micro-channels, some authors (Harirchian and Garimella, 2008; Lie and Lin, 2006; Dutkowski, 2010) have reported temperature over shoot phenomena (nucleation hysteresis) in their experiments. However, in some cases (Bergles and Kandlikar, 2003; Lee and Garimella, 2008; Owhaib et al., 2004; Sung and Mudawar, 2009) there were not temperature over shoot observed in nucleate boiling region. Besides boiling conditions, thermal boundary conditions, thermophysical properties of medium, wall material, and size of heated wall may all affect the boiling process (Chai et al., 2000). The boiling phenomena are too complicated, more work need to be done on the mechanism of hysteresis and interactions among nucleation sites. According to the reasons stated above, studies on subcooled boiling in a micro-channel should be carried out continuously. This paper focuses on the numerical simulation of bubble behavior during subcooled boiling in a microchannel. Interfacial evaporation and condensation during bubble growth and collapse are investigated. The effect of surface tension and channel size at the onset of subcooled boiling and heat transfer is also discussed.

MAE (number of data points)

203.4% (340)

8.23% (116)

Harirchian and Garimella (2008), Liu et al. (2005), Bergles and Kandlikar (2003), Lee and Garimella (2008), Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b).

Harirchian and Garimella (2008), Liu et al. (2005), Bergles and Kandlikar (2003), Lee and Garimella (2008), Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b), Dutkowski (2010).

Experimental data

Table 1 e Comparison of experimental data for nucleate boiling with predictions of correlations.

Petrovic et al. (2004)

8.6% (21)

s     p 2sC 4 wc ww 2sC 4 wc ww q 2 Tsat q (1) Tw Tsat Hc Hc rv hlv kf 1 2h4 rv hlv kf 1 2h4

(2)

where values of Csf and n come from Pioro (1999). Petrovic et al. (2004)

r!0:33  n cp m s kf grl rv

Correlation

kl qMa 1 0:00841Ma1=2 Tw Tf Rb

Rohsenow et al. (1998)

cp DTb q Csf hlv mhlv

Liu et al. (2005)

(3)

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In previous documentation on liquid-vapor ow simulation, the volume-of-uid (VOF) method has been adopted because of its stability. It was proven by Zhuan and Wang (2010) that VOF could be used for two-phase ows in microchannels. To realize interface tracking of the two-phase ow, piecewise linear interface calculation (PLIC) is used, with consideration of the surface tension force, which has been modeled previously with the continuum surface force (CSF) method (Brackbill et al., 1992; Brackbill and Kothe, 1996). Recently, some improved methods and algorithm had been carried out to increase the accuracy of interface tracking (Seifollahi et al., 2008; Shirani et al., 2005; Lo rstad and Fuchs, 2004; Francois et al., 2006).

2.2.

Bubble surface heat and mass transfer model

2.2.1. Heat and mass transfer during bubble growth in the wall superheated layer
Bubble nucleation occurs when the wall superheat Eq. (1) of Liu et al. (2005) is satised. The model of Plesset and Zwick (1954) has been used (Thome et al., 2004; Zhang and Chat, 1999; Zhuan and Wang, 2010) to predict bubble growth. This equation is r 12al t (13) R Ja p where the Jakob number is Ja rl cpl Tw Tsat rv hlv (14)

2.
2.1.

Theoretical models
Governing equations

Supposing that the bubble shape is spherical, the heat transfer rates in the bubble surface can be obtained by   dm0b qb hlv Dm0b hlv m0b;t0 dt hlv m0b;t0 (15) dt

The sum of all phase volume fractions should keep a constant al av 1 (4)

2.2.2. Interfacial heat transfer during bubble condensation in the subcooled uid
Some studies have focused on condensing bubbles in subcooled liquids (Isenberg and Sideman, 1970; Chen and Mayinger, 1992; Zeitoun et al., 1995; Warrier et al., 2002). In a study of Park et al. (2007), the condensing process was divided into two phases: heat transfer-controlled phase and inertia-controlled phase. In our simulation, a simplied process for bubble collapse is considered. When a bubble lifts off and ows into the subcooled uid, the vapor temperature decreases and interfacial condensation occurs. Subsequently, the size of the bubbles decreases slightly. The bubble interface becomes unstable when the vapor temperature is lower than the saturated temperature corresponding to local uid pressure. Under this context, due to surface tension and liquid drag force, the bubbles break up and collapse quickly. In ambient subcooled liquids, the interfacial heat transfer of bubbles can be shown as Qlv hc Ab Tv Tl where (16)

The continuity equations for the volume fractions of all phases are val S V$! y al vt rl vav S V$! y av vt rv (5)

(6)

Mixed density is averaged by the volume fraction, similar to what is done for other mixed properties such as conductivity, viscosity, etc. r al rl av rv The momentum equation is v ! 2 T r y V$r! y! y Vp V$ m V! y V! y mV$! yI vt 3 ! r g F
vol

(7) ! 8

The energy equation is v rE V$! y rE p V$kVT Q vt (9)

hc

Nuc kl db

(17)

Surface tension force is taken into account with the continuum surface force (CSF) model, and is reformulated into an equivalent body force using Fst v sk! n (10)

The bubble condensation Nusselt number of Warrier et al. (2002) can be expressed as Nuc where Prl ml cpl kl rl cpl Tsat Tl rv hlv (19) h c db 1=2 9=10 0:6Reb Prl1=3 1 1:2Jac Fo2=3 kl (18)

Interface curvature and the surface tension are written as ! n Vai kx V$! n (11) (12)

Jac

(20)

The geometric reconstruction interpolation scheme is used in the VOF solution. The Pressure-Implicit with Splitting of Operators (PISO) is considered as the pressureevelocity coupling method, which allows for keeping the solution stability with high values of under-relaxation factors (Ferzieger and Peric, 1996; Issa, 1986).

Comparison of experimental data with predictions of Eq. (18) for bubble condensation Nusselt number is listed in Table 2. Due to the high subcooling of inlet liquid, the inuence of the temperature on surface tension and viscosity cannot be ignored. Herein, the temperature-dependent properties of

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Table 2 e Comparison of experimental data with predictions of correlation for bubble condensation Nusselt number. Experimental data
Eq. (18) from Warrier et al. (2002) where 20 < Reb < 700, 1.8 < Prl <2.9, and 12 < Jac < 100. Warrier et al. (2002)

MAE (number of data points)

5.7% (260)

vapor and liquid are considered as the polynomial functions during calculation.

2.3.

Simulation domain and numerical solution

Supposing that the uid compressibility is neglected, the mean relative roughness in the micro-channel surface is less than 1%. The calculated channel is the same as those mentioned in experiments from Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b). The boundary conditions and uid properties are derived from the data in the references. The top of the channel is adiabatic, and the uniform heat ux is distributed at the bottom of the channel. In the present study, assuming that the uid ows evenly into the channels, the ow boiling of HFE 7100 in the microchannel is simulated. In this calculation, the time steps of 107 s or 108 s are chosen for the calculations. The stability criterion is then satised and the required accuracy obtained. The grids are hexahedral, and Rb > h [h max(Dx, Dy, Dz)]. With two uniform grids of h 10 mm and h 15 mm in the computational domain, the number of cells is set at 1,367,834 and 452,866 respectively. The grids and the time steps satisfy the accuracy of the mass conservation.

3.
3.1.

Results and discussion

Bubble behavior in subcooled boiling

Fig. 3 shows the volume fraction of the bubbles on the bottom wall. In Fig. 3 (a), few bubbles nucleate at the channel wall within a certain distance. During nucleation, coalescence seldom occurs. The simulation is consistent with experimental observations made by Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b). At the onset

of nucleation in subcooled boiling, bubbles grow in the thin superheated layer at low superheat degree near the wall. Bubble growth rate is low and the bubbles are small. In addition, according to calculated results, bubbles are usually observed at the wall while departing bubbles seldom appear upstream, suggesting that bubbles grow slowly in the superheated liquid layer near the wall while some departing bubbles condense and collapse quickly in the subcooled uid. Therefore, decreasing the inlet temperature leads to decreased bubble growth rate, reduced bubble departure size, reduced coalescence effects, and delayed occurrence of slug ow. Fig. 3(b) shows the bubble nucleation in high heat ux. The wall superheat degree increases with heat ux. The superheat layer thickens as well. Consequently, the growth rate of nucleate bubbles increases, and some small bubbles coalesce into large ones near the outlet. The larger departing bubbles become distorted due to drag force. Therefore, bubble growth is closely related to heat ux in a micro-channel. The high heat ux thickens the superheated layer at the bottom wall, as shown in Fig. 4. Subsequently, its superheated degree increases. Then, bubbles grow more quickly on the wall and form large bubbles. The simulation shows that bubble behavior is inuenced by heterogeneous temperatures in uid. During bubble ows in the surrounding subcooled region, vapor temperature decreases and interfacial condensation occurs. Hence, the size of bubbles decreases. Fig. 5 shows how bubbles ow in the middle region of the micro-channel. There is an apparent bulk ow of micro-bubbles. The superheat layer thickens and temperature increases along the ow direction; these assist in the fast growth of bubbles and their coalescence into large bubbles. However, since the surrounding liquid is subcooled, the temperature of lift-off bubbles decreases and bubble interface condenses. Some of them shrink and collapse. Unlike in saturated ow wherein bubbles quickly expand and form slugs, bubbles in subcooled

Fig. 3 e Volume fraction of bubbles at the bottom wall for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ 0  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1 (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/ h [ 2): (a) ow boiling near the outlet region (q [ 60 W cmL2); (b) ow boiling near the outlet region (q [ 150 W cmL2).

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Fig. 4 e Temperature eld for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ L30  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1, q [ 290 W cmL2: (a) horizontal section upstream; (b) cross-section of an outlet.

boiling are dispersed. In particular, at high subcooled degree of inlet liquid, the bulk of the bubble ow dominates a wide range of ow pattern; in saturated boiling, the micro-channel ow is in either slug or annular ow mode. Fig. 6 shows the behavior of bubbles condensing in the subcooled liquid. One large bubble is broken down into several small bubbles due to interfacial condensation and disturbance of liquid ow. The small bubbles, along with the ow of the subcooled uid, condense and collapse quickly. Fig. 7 shows the simulation for the ow of liquid HFE7100 in the micro-channel for De 334.1 mm, Tin 30  C, G 1340 kg m2 s1, and q 75 W cm2. This presents the evolution of the thermal boundary layer. Fig. 7(a) shows the difference in temperature increase between the bottom wall and the uid along the ow direction. Fig. 7(b) shows the heat transfer coefcient is high at the inlet. The thermal boundary layer is thickened along the ow direction, while the heat transfer coefcient decreases quickly. Thus, under this condition, the uid is located in the thermal-developing region. Large temperature gradient exists in the thermal boundary layer, so the temperature

distribution observed along the interface of the growing bubbles on the wall is not uniform. In addition, as the bubbles lift off the wall and ow with the subcooled uid, the temperature of the bubble interface changes. Therefore, when the thermal-developing region dominates the micro-channel, the signicant heterogeneous temperature causes non-uniformity of interfacial evaporation and condensation in subcooled boiling. Nucleate bubbles cannot grow on the wall until the liquid near the wall satises a certain thermodynamic condition. Using equations by ClapeyroneClausius and YoungeLaplace, the superheat equation for the bubble nucleation can be derived. The superheat equation corresponding to lift-off size is    2s (21) Tb;equilibrium Ts 1 rv hlv rlif where Ts is the saturation temperature corresponding to uid pressure. Fig. 8 shows the simulation of bubble growth and lift off from the ONB point. The height of the lift-off bubble is around 130 mm. The temperature on the bubble top is 338 K, which is

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Fig. 5 e Flow boiling in the middle region of micro-channel for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ L30  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1, q [ 140 W cmL2 (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2).

slightly higher than the saturated temperature Ts (337 K). The bubble may continue expanding. In Fig. 9, with different subcooling degrees at the inlet, the simulated temperatures of the top of the lift-off bubbles are compared with results based on Eq. (21) (De 334.1 mm, G 1340 kg m2 s1). The simulated results are slightly higher than the data from Eq. (21).

Fig. 6 e Bubble condensation and collapse during subcooled ow boiling in a micro-channel for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ L30  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1, q [ 140 W cmL2: (a) 0 ms; (b) 1 ms; (c) 2 ms (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2).

According to Figs. 8 and 9, if the lift-off diameter is bigger than the thickness of the superheated layer, then bubble evolution will be unstable due to interfacial condensation. Furthermore, with high heat ux and superheat, a bubble expands to a large size and touches the subcooled liquid, and the temperature of the bubble top decreases. Rapid condensing at the bubble top may cause bubble interface oscillation, which then leads to bubble breaking or collapse. Some experiments in literature show that while there were high heat ux and large degrees of subcooling, the coalesced bubbles on the heated surface were broken into many ne bubbles, similar to the results of micro-bubble emission boiling (MEB) (Suzuki et al., 2005; Wang and Cheng, 2009). Therefore, bubble behavior in subcooled boiling is inuenced mainly by lift-off diameter, heat ux, and degree of subcooling. The process of bubble lifting off can be analyzed through the force balance model (Situ et al., 2005; Saffman, 1965; Auton, 1987; Mei and Klausner, 1994). At the vertical direction, there are the growth force, surface tension force, buoyancy force, and shear force. Bubble surface tension and buoyancy force may be neglected because lift-off diameter is dominated mainly by the balance of growth force and shear force, which are controlled by heat and mass ux. This suggests that bubble lift-off size increases with heat ux, but with a decrease of mass ux. Based on Eq. (21), when the bubble lift-off diameter is less than the superheated layer size, the bubble is heated and grows up at a steady state. However, if heat ux is increased to a certain degree, the bubble attaches to the wall with a big lift-off size corresponding to increased growth force. Under this condition, the bubble overtops the superheated layer and touches the subcooled uid. Whether a bubble expands or shrinks, it is governed by the balance between evaporation in the microlayer and interfacial condensation. Furthermore, as vapor temperature decreases to a critical value, the bubble would not be able to maintain its stable state; consequently, it vanishes or collapses.

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Fig. 9 e A comparison of the upside temperature of bubbles based on the results obtained from simulation and the results from Eq. (21), for De [ 334.1 mm, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1, Ts, out [ 63.6  C.

Fig. 7 e Simulation for ow of liquid HFE 7100 in a single micro-channel for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ L30  C: (a) mean temperature of uid and bottom wall temperature along the ow direction; (b) heat transfer coefcient along the ow direction.

3.2.

Analysis of errors

In the calculation, errors in the pressure jump are compared to estimate accuracy in interface tracking. The error of pressure jump is evaluated as follows: eDP jDP DPexact j DPexact (22)

Fig. 8 e Bubble growth and lift off in the superheated layer near the ONB point for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ L30  C, Ts, L2 L1  s , q [ 200 W cmL2. out [ 63.6 C, G [ 1340 kg m

Fig. 10 e Relative error in the calculation of pressure during bubble growth for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ 0  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1: (a) h [ 10 mm (Rmin/h [ 2), h [ 15 mm (Rmin/h [ 2); (b) min [ 2 g sL1 (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2), min [ 5 g sL1 (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2).

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where DP is the pressure jump through the bubble interface. The value is given by DPexact sk (23)

Fig. 10 (a) shows the error of pressure jump, which increases with grid size and bubble radius. It demands many ne grids to obtain reasonable accuracy for the micro-bubble. In addition, the error increases with large bubbles. The drag force from the liquid inuences the shape of a bubble signicantly, and the bubble is deformed easily, as shown in Fig. 3(b). Therefore, it is difcult to increase accuracy efciently for large deformed bubbles inside the wobbling region by rening the grid. In Fig. 10(b), the error of pressure jump increases with mass ow rate. High mass ow rate enhances the disturbance around the bubble interface. Thus, the bubbles deform markedly. The relative error of pressure jump cannot be used to estimate the accuracy of interface tracking when the bubbles are disturbed by drag force. The accuracy resolving the bubble boundary layer is inuenced by uid velocity; however, rening grids alone may not be sufcient to obtain a satisfying accuracy. Fig. 11 shows the shape of the bubbles located at the bottom wall near the outlet with contours of av 1010, 0.5, 1e1010. This implies that phase transport does not suffer from excessive numerical divergency. In numerical calculation, the small residual from mass imbalance is often acceptable because it hardly inuences the solution on ow eld. However, the residual in the two-phase ow may act as the mass source and accumulate over iteration. Furthermore, while calculating over a long period, the mass residual may transform as a signicant error inuencing the accuracy in interface tracking. Lo rstad and Fuchs (2004) employed high-order surface tension VOF model to simulate

wobbling air bubbles in water at the channel diameter of 1.82 < D < 6 mm. Their proposed highly accurate surface tension model could be used successfully for wobbling ows with bubble deformation without being affected by the accumulation of mass residual. In this simulation, the mass residual is less than 1015 kg s1 at time t 0.89 s (D < 200 mm). There is no false divergency of av appearing on large bubbles (Fig. 11). The accuracy of interface tracking does not suffer from the accumulation of residuals in the simulation because the bubbles nucleate, lift off, and ow away very quickly. Moreover, due to connement from the channel and ow disturbance, bubbles begin to deform in the micro-channel when their diameters reach about 60e80 mm. Such dimension is less than the limit of the rising bubble in water in macro-scale. In literature (Duineveld, 1995), a diameter of 1.82 mm is the limit between the axisymmetric rise of bubbles and deformed bubbles.

3.3.

Flow pattern in subcooled boiling

Bubble ow and slug ow are usual ow patterns in subcooled boiling. However, slug ow and annular ow are usually observed in saturated boiling. Clearly, in subcooled boiling, bubble growth and coalescence are suppressed by interfacial condensation, an effect of the subcooled liquid. Thus, the appearance of annular ow is delayed. Fig. 12 shows the comparison between the void fraction of saturated boiling in a round tube from simulation and the experimental data from Revellin et al. (2006). A high void fraction appears at high quality where slug and annular ows exist. However, in subcooled boiling, slug ow and vapor blanket only appear with low vapor quality and annular ow seldom occurs.

Fig. 11 e Bubble shape and ow eld at the bottom wall near the outlet for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ 0  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1: (a) t [ 0.745 s, the contours are shown for av [ 10L10, 0.5, 1e10L10, (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2); (b) t [ 0.89 s, the contours are shown for av [ 10L10, 0.5, 1e10L10, (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2).

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Fig. 12 e Void fraction at the outlet for D [ 500 mm, L [ 70.70 mm, G [ 1000 kg mL2 sL1, and Tsat [ 30  C, DsTsub [ 3  C.

The simulation of bubble evolution in subcooled boiling is compared with experimental results from Lee and Mudawar (2008a) (Fig. 13). They correspond with each other in a majority of range. Bubble and slug ows dominate subcooled boiling, as shown in Fig. 13.

shown in Fig. 14(a). Along the ow direction, the Marangoni heat ux decreases gradually with decreased temperature gradient. In addition, with low wall heat ux, because the degree of superheat is low near the wall, bubbles grow slowly, as shown in Fig. 3(a). At this period, bubble growth is suppressed by surface tension, and small bubbles with low void fractions are distributed within the micro-channel, In Fig. 14(b), as the wall heat ux increases to q 178 W cm2, the downward slope of Marangoni heat ux increases more compared with that in Fig. 14(a) (q 64.9 W cm2). The degree of superheat increases markedly with wall heat ux, facilitating the fast growth of bubbles in the thick superheat layer, as shown in Fig. 3(b). In Fig. 14(c), the large heat ux is set at q 218 W cm2. The degree of superheat of the thick superheated layer is higher than the heat ux in Fig. 14(a) and (b), and the Marangoni ow is weakened. Interfacial condensation almost diminishes, and high superheat degree near the wall increases evaporation heat ux at the interface. At this period, bubbles are affected by wall heat ux; their growth rates become very large. In Fig. 14, the Marangoni heat ux decreases with increasing wall heat ux. Its slope falls down sharply because of the sharply diminishing surface tension on bubbles. The higher the wall heat ux, the higher the downward slope of Marangoni heat ux and the higher the bubble growth rate.

5. 4. Marangoni heat ux on the bubble interface near the wall

In subcooled boiling, bubbles grow on the wall in relation to large temperature gradient. Herein, the Marangoni heat ux resulting from the temperature gradient is apparent. Based on Eq. (3) of Petrovic et al. (2004), the Marangoni heat ux can be calculated. A comparison between the Marangoni heat ux and wall heat ux is made in Fig. 14. At the onset of boiling with low wall heat ux of q 64.9 W cm2, the Marangoni heat ux on bubble interface is higher than the wall heat ux, as

Effects of micro-channel geometry on ONB

Fig. 15 shows the effect of micro-channel size on ONB. With the same inlet temperature and mass ux of liquid, the qONB at De 200 mm is higher than at De 334.1 mm. The high aspect ratio increases the ratio of heat dissipation from the sidewall to total heat dissipation. The aspect ratio for De 200 mm is higher than De 334.1 mm. Thus, with the same heat ux from the heated area, the degree of superheat at bottom for the former is less than the latter. Thus, the nucleation process is delayed, as shown in Fig. 15. The bubble also grows slowly because of the low superheat for De 200 mm with high aspect ratio.

Fig. 13 e Flow pattern for De [ 334 mm, Tin [ 0  C, Tsat [ 63.6  C, q [ 65e300 W cmL2 (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2).

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6.

Heat transfer in subcooled boiling

Fig. 16 compares the simulated ow boiling heat transfer with experimental data given by Lee and Mudawar (2008a,b) (De 200 mm). In Fig. 16(a), Tin 0  C, and the slope of simulation is lower than the experimental data; in Fig. 16(b), Tin 30  C, and the simulated result is almost in accordance with experimental data. Although deviation still exists between simulation and experiment, it is not much. In the

Fig. 15 e A comparison of ONB between De [ 334.1 mm and De [ 200 mm for Tin [ 0  C, m [ 2 g sL1, q [ 60e400 W cmL2.

subcooled boiling, bubble growth can be inuenced by adjacent bubbles. Meanwhile, some random factors may appear during bubble collapse and coalescence, which could inuence interfacial heat transfer to some extent (Fig. 17).

Fig. 14 e The qMa and q versus uid temperature for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ 0  C, m [ 2 g sL1: (a) q [ 64.9 W cmL2; (b) q [ 178 W cmL2; (c) q [ 218 W cmL2.

Fig. 16 e Heat ux versus wall temperature for subcooled boiling for De [ 200 mm, m [ 2.0 g sL1: (a) Tin [ 0  C; (b) Tin [ L30  C.

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Fig. 17 e Temperature eld on the bottom of the wall near the outlet for De [ 334.1 mm, Tin [ 0  C, G [ 1340 kg mL2 sL1, q [ 63 W cmL2 (h [ 10 mm, Rmin/h [ 2).

In Fig. 17, the temperature drop of nucleation sites on the bottom of the wall is about 5  C and the temperature drop of region surrounding the nucleation sites is less than 1  C. Bubbles nucleate and grow on the bottom, and the temperature eld of the nucleation site on the wall rapidly decreases, since some heat is transferred to the growing bubble from the wall by evaporation of the micro-layer underneath the bubble. Consequently, activation of nucleation at adjacent sites will be depressed. Because of high subcooling degree, the temperature of bulk ow at the outlet is still less than the saturated value. Flashing phenomenon cannot occur in liquid under this case. Liquid occupy a majority of boundary layer and bubbles appear near the outlet. Both single-phase convection and nucleate boiling heat transfer coexist in boundary layer. In nucleate boiling, the wall temperature is inuenced by some factors, such as degree of subcooling, channel size, roughness, contact angle of bubble, bubbles growth rate, frequency of bubble generation and nucleation site density distribution. Effect of these factors on the wall temperature drop at the onset of nucleate boiling is complicated. If ONB occurs near the inlet and liquid is saturated, the nucleate boiling covers the channel and the ashing may be ignited. A large amount of heat is transferred to bubbles from the wall and the liquid. The wall temperature will drop apparently and boiling hysteresis appears. On the other hand, with high degree of subcooling of liquid, ONB occur near the outlet. Bubble generation frequency and nucleation site density are low. Hence single-phase convective heat transfer is considerable. Lifting bubbles may condense and collapse in subcooled liquid. The wall temperature drop by evaporation does not affect ONB signicantly. For the two-phase ow, the modied Jatp and Wetp are expressed as Jatp cpf DTsub;in hlv G2 De rl rv s (24)

is higher than Tin 0  C, as shown in Fig. 18(a). Jatp denotes the ratio of single-phase heat transfer to latent heat. The Jatp number for Tin 30  C is higher than Tin 0  C, which indicates that the singe-phase heat transfer brought by high degree of subcooling is considerable. As a result, the heat transfer in subcooled boiling increases with the degree of subcooling.

Wetp

(25) Fig. 18 e (a) Variation of heat transfer with Ja; (b) variation of heat transfer with We (De [ 200 mm, Ts, out [ 63.6  C).

Fig. 18(a) shows the effect of the degree of subcooling on the subcooled boiling heat transfer. The heat ux for Tin 30  C

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Fig. 18(b) shows the effect of surface tension on subcooled boiling. Wetp denotes the ratio of inertial force to the surface tension. The Wetp number for Tin 30  C is lower than Tin 0  C, while the boiling heat ux for the former is higher than the latter. This denotes that the suppression of surface tension on bubble growth is apparent in high degrees of subcooling. Surface tension increases with the degree of subcooling. Consequently, the incipient heat ux for nucleation also increases.

Appendix. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found online at doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2010.12.004.

references

7.

Conclusions

Through simulation, we analyzed the process of bubble growth, condensation, and collapse in subcooled boiling in the micro-channel. Bubble behavior in subcooled boiling is different from that in saturated boiling. In subcooled boiling, bubble growth and collapse are controlled by the degree of subcooling, lift-off diameter, heat ux, and mass transfer. Nucleate bubbles cannot grow on the wall until the boundary layer near the wall satises the necessary thermodynamic condition. When the size of the bubbles goes beyond the superheated layer, the interface condenses partly and the bubbles reach an unstable state. After lift-off, most bubbles condense and some of them collapse in the bulk liquid. However, in saturated boiling, lift-off bubbles expand and coalesce quickly and form a slug ow. In subcooled boiling, due to the subcooled liquid, an annular ow seldom occurs in the wide range of mass and heat uxes; in saturated boiling, the slug and annular ows usually appear in the microchannel. At a high degree of subcooling, the surface tension is considerable. At the initial time of nucleation, the interface is controlled by Marangoni heat ux. The bubble is suppressed by the surface tension and grows slowly thereafter. As the wall heat ux increases, the Marangoni heat ux diminishes and the growth rate of the bubble increases quickly. Bubbles grow quickly and lift off. Subsequently, the developed subcooled boiling is formed. Thus, at a high degree of subcooling, surface tension inuences the evolution of subcooled boiling to some extent. In subcooled boiling, the bubble ow occurs with higher heat ux compared with saturated boiling at the same mass ux. Therefore, a high degree of subcooling delays ONB to some extent. In addition, ONB is also inuenced by microchannel size. With high aspect ratio, the nucleation process is delayed and the bubbles begin to grow slowly. The simulation of the ow pattern corresponds to experiments in a wide range of heat and mass ux. Differences exist between heat transfer from the simulation and in the experiments. More work should be conducted to increase the accuracy of the simulation for interfacial heat and mass transfer under subcooled boiling conditions.

Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50576054)

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