TRANSFORMERS

DISTRIBUTION
PAUWELS INTERNATIONAL N.V.
Antwerpsesteenweg 167
B-2800 Mechelen (Belgium)
Tel. + 32 15 283 333
Fax + 32 15 283 300
© PAUWELS DT 03/03

WWW.PAUWELS.COM TRANSFORMING YOUR NEEDS INTO SOLUTIONS

info@pauwels.com
 Presentation of the Pauwels Group 5
Construction of a distribution transformer 6

the ferromagnetic core 6

the windings 10
the active part 12
the tank 14
finishing operations and testing 18

A comprehensive product range 20

Economic choice of transformers 22
Transformers and the environment
24

low-noise transformers 25
leakproof tanks and environmentally sound coolants 26
recyclable materials 26
radical exclusion of PCBs 27
electromagnetic compatibility 27
optimized use of raw materials 27
lower consumption of primary energy sources, due to the use
of transformers with low losses 27

Design, specifications and standards

28
Logistics
29
Quality assurance
30
Sales and customer service
32
After-sales service
33
Protection equipment
34

CONTENTS
Contacts
35

4 3
 The Pauwels Group is one of the world’s leading transformer manufacturers.
Group companies operate manufacturing plants and sales offices in three
continents, with a worldwide network of
sales agents and customers in over 135
countries.

From its base in Mechelen, Belgium, Pauwels International N.V.

acts as the overall holding company, defining the Group’s
corporate strategy and coordinating the marketing of its entire
product range.
The Pauwels Group is a full-line supplier, offering a wide
range of transformers consisting of:
liquid-filled distribution transformers
(15 kVA to 10,000 kVA/36 kV)
cast resin transformers (up to 10,000 kVA/36 kV)
power transformers (up to 575 MVA/500 kV)
auto-transformers (up to 400 MVA/500 kV)
HVDC station transformers (up to 315 MVA/500 kV DC)
This brochure provides information
about Pauwels’ liquid-filled distribution
transformers.
Our distribution transformers are usually
filled with mineral oil. As an alternative,
silicone liquid or synthetic organic esters
may be used as insulating medium and
coolant.

PRESENTATION of the Pauwels Group

The Pauwels Group’s six manufacturing plants are located in

Belgium (Mechelen and Gent)
Ireland (Cavan)
the United States of America (Washington, Missouri)
Canada (Winnipeg, Manitoba)
Indonesia (Bogor, Java)

In Saudi Arabia, distribution transformers and compact

substations are built under license from Pauwels. Main factory and headquarters of the
Pauwels Group in Mechelen, Belgium (49,500 m2)

Pauwels International N.V. and its subsidiary companies

employ a total of over 2,300 people, producing some
30,000 transformers each year with a total output of
more than 35,000 MVA. Pauwels International has a
consolidated annual turnover of some 350 million euros,
over half of which represents exports from Europe. More
than 500,000 Pauwels transformers have been produced
since the company’s formation in 1947.
Pauwels Trafo Service S.A. (Charleroi, Belgium) provides
transformer installation, repair and maintenance services.
Pauwels Contracting N.V. (Mechelen, Belgium) special-
izes in building conventional, mobile and modular
substations, and its core activities also include
transmission line projects.
Distribution transformers are manufactured in
Mechelen, Belgium (100 kVA to 10,000 kVA/36 kV)
Cavan, Ireland (15 kVA to 630 kVA/36 kV)
Washington, USA (45 kVA to 10,000 kVA/69 kV)

Winding area in Pauwels Trafo Ireland

5
 The construction of a transformer comprises two The reactive power dissipation can be lowered by limiting flux
active components: the ferromagnetic core and the disturbances and minimizing air gaps in the joints between the core legs
windings. Within the transformer industry, the core and the yokes. This is achieved by overlapping the core sheets while stack-
and windings together are normally referred to as the ing them (see page 9 under “Cutting and stacking of the core sheets”).
“active part”. The passive part of a transformer is the
cooling system, consisting of the tank and
the cooling liquid (mineral oil, silicone liquid or
synthetic organic esters).

The ferromagnetic core Evolution of the quality of magnetic steel

CONSTRUCTION of a distribution transformer

The heart of the matter: the ferromagnetic core

The cut of the core sheets and the material of the ferromagnetic core are
optimized according to the desired no-load characteristics and the
specified noise level. Extensive rationalization of the shape and the
clamping devices enables us to produce a core with minimum losses and
dimensions. This methodology optimizes the consumption of both
materials and energy, bringing benefits to the user, the environment and
the manufacturer.
The core has to be constructed in such a way as to limit the energy
losses caused by eddy currents and hysteresis to a minimum. This is
achieved by the use of silicon steel, a special soft steel with a 3.5% silicon
content, which is characterized by low hysteresis losses and high
resistivity. The core consists of a series of laminations made from very
thin sheets of steel insulated on both sides by an oxide layer (see opposite
under “Material”).
Material
The core is constructed using thin sheets of cold-rolled grain-oriented
magnetic silicon steel insulated on both sides. Conventional grain-
oriented steel (CGO steel) is used for transformers with normal
no-load loss characteristics, while transformers with reduced no-load
losses are built using higher-quality HiB steel (usually laser treated).
These steel sheets are 0.30 mm, 0.27 mm or 0.23 mm thick.
Extremely low no-load losses can be achieved only by using wound cores
made of amorphous metal. This has highly specific properties (very thin
sheets just 0.025 mm thick are used) and therefore it requires a specially
adapted design.

6 7
 Cutting and stacking of the core sheets

Minimum magnetic flux distortion in the transition areas between yokes and core legs is
achieved by optimizing the cut of the core sheets and the stacking pattern.

First of all, the core sheets are cut at an angle of 45°, thus allowing maximum flow of
magnetic flux in the rolling direction. This is extremely important because losses in grain-
The core: oriented magnetic steel are smallest in the direction of rolling. Then the sheets are stacked in
main characteristics: an overlap pattern of either single or multiple overlaps. The multiple overlap or step-lap method

The 45° cut of the core offers additional benefits in terms of lower no-load losses and noise levels. Because they

sheets guarantees optimum involve a rather more complicated production technology, step-lap cores are preferably made

flow of magnetic flux. on fully automatic cutting and stacking machines.

The oval shape allows

optimization of the core Once the sheets are stacked, the core is compressed and glued to form a firmly-bonded

section. whole. This also helps to reduce noise levels.

Low sound levels can be

achieved using the step-lap
stacking pattern.
The type of magnetic steel
is chosen according to The ferromagnetic core
CONSTRUCTION
the desired loss level.
The simple supporting
structures and clamping
devices of the core contribute
to the compactness of
the design. of a distribution transformer

Shape of core section

Typical oval-shaped core cross section
The vast majority of the distribution transformers built by Pauwels have an oval-shaped core
section, formed by combining the traditional stepped and fully filled round shape with a square
mid-section. This gives great flexibility in the height to which the steel sheets can be stacked,
thus allowing the ideal core section to be made for any design, while maintaining the use of
standard materials and dimensions. Using this method combines the benefits of a
rectangular core section (simplicity of production) with those of a round core section (excellent
short-circuit withstand capability of the windings).

Clamping devices

By using simple profiled-steel yoke clamping systems and a number of metal tensioning
bands, Pauwels has eliminated the need for either clamping bolts in the yokes (which would
distort the magnetic flux) or tie rods between the upper and lower yokes (which would require
the tank to be larger).

Fully automatic cutting and stacking machine

9
 Windings
CONSTRUCTION of a distribution transformer

LOW HIGH
RADIAL REPELLENT FORCES ACTING ON HV AND LV WINDINGS
Low voltage windings HV LV

Low voltage windings are usually made of copper or aluminium sheet CORE

conductor (foil). The benefit of this is that any high voltage ampere-turn
High voltage windings
asymmetry which might occur is compensated automatically by RECTANGULAR ROUND OVAL

an appropriate internal current distribution in the low voltage foil.
This reduces the axial stresses produced by short-circuits to a minimum
(down to 10% of those for conventional windings), thus enabling the axial
support construction to be greatly simplified.
High voltage windings are almost exclusively of layered construction.
The copper or aluminium conductors are made of one or more round or
square wires, either with an insulating enamel coating or wrapped in
insulating paper. Each design is drawn up in accordance with the specific
characteristics of the conductor material to be used.

Supplementary benefits
of foil windings are:
Greater simplicity in fitting
cooling ducts.
More even heat distribution
through the windings.
Semi-automatic winding
techniques can be used.
The sheets and connectors welded onto them are made of electrolytically
pure copper or aluminium with a rigorously guaranteed conductivity.
Designs are adapted to the thermal, electrical and chemical characteristics
of each type of conductor, thus ensuring that both versions are of
equivalent quality, whether made of copper or aluminium.
The maximum voltage between each turn is only a few tens of volts. This
allows the insulation needed between the turns (foils) to be limited to 1 or
2 sheets of fine kraft paper only a few hundredths of a millimetre thick.
According to the design specification, this insulation may be coated with
a thermo-hardening epoxy adhesive which cures and bonds during
the drying process.
Foil windings may be wound either on a winding mandrel or, preferably,
directly onto the core leg. This ensures minimum play between core and
winding, for optimum rigidity.
The structures forming the “main gap”, i.e. the insulating space separating
the low and high voltage windings, are fitted directly onto the low voltage
foil winding, thus forming a part of it. These processes all enhance
the transformer’s short-circuit withstand capability.
The insulation between the layers consists of pre-coated kraft paper,
applied either in sheet form or wound in a continuous narrow strip,
a technique which allows optimum adjustment of the insulation thickness
to the electrical gradient at each layer position.
The special diamond pattern of epoxy adhesive coated onto the kraft
paper cures during the drying process, bonding the windings into a single
structure.
The main benefits of
The high voltage winding is wound directly onto the low voltage winding,
layered windings are:
over the structures forming the main gap, giving maximum mechanical
strength, rigidity and compactness. They form a simple winding,
which allows continuous or
This mechanical strength is of the utmost importance since, in the event of semi-automatic winding.
short-circuit, the windings have to sustain very high radial repellent forces. The impulse voltage distribution
The mechanical effect of these forces is minimal in round windings, since throughout the winding is
these windings inherently have the ideal form to withstand radial stresses. predictable and controlled.
The mechanical effect is much greater in rectangular windings. In order to Axial cooling ducts are simple
combine the advantages of a rectangular core section (simplicity of to build and fit.
production) with the benefits of round windings (excellent short-circuit Any taps required can be
withstand capability), Pauwels has developed the unique concept of brought out anywhere in the
oval-shaped cores and windings (see drawing above). winding through the layers.

10 11
Assembling cores and Bushings are mounted on the
windings to build an cover, which is then fixed onto the
active part assembled active part. The next
step consists of connecting the
Assembly of cores and windings windings to the bushings.
to build an active part may be The connection methods are durable and selected so as to ensure a solid, low-resistance connection between
carried out in either of the following the linked conducting materials, including junctions between aluminium and copper components.
two ways:

If the windings have been wound
on a mandrel, the E-shaped cores
and the windings are transported
from their various construction
locations to the assembly area.
The windings are pushed over the
core legs and wedged up to fill the
spaces between the core and
winding as much as possible.
The magnetic circuit is then
completed by interleaving the
laminations of the upper yoke with
the laminations of the core legs.
Transformers are often fitted with an off-circuit tap changer. This switch allows the increase or decrease of
a certain number of turns while the transformer is disconnected from the circuit. Small variations in the nominal
supply voltage can be accomodated by adjusting the tap changer to keep the output voltage at the required value.
The off-circuit tap changer is always fitted on the high voltage side of the transformer, since this is where
the current is smallest. A second tap change switch is incorporated in transformers with dual high voltages in order
to change the high voltage. Tap changers and tap switches are controlled either by cable or by a drive shaft.
The voltage ratio of the active part is then tested, and the assembly is dried for a specified time in a forced-air
oven to remove the moisture from the insulating materials. This time depends on the quantity of insulating
materials, which in turn depends on the transformer’s rating and voltages.

If the windings have been wound

Active part
directly onto the core legs, the
three core legs are positioned on a
tilting table.
The upper and lower yokes are
then fitted highly accurately in the
same way as described above.
CONSTRUCTION of a distribution transformer

13

Functions of the transformer tank:
It forms a container for the cooling liquid.
It acts as a heat exchange surface for the
dissipation of heat losses.
It is a protective, earthed safety shell.
It provides shielding against electromagnetic field
leakage caused by current-carrying conductors.
The tank
CONSTRUCTION
Construction
The vast majority of distribution transformer tanks are
constructed with cooling fins. There is only a very
limited demand for panel radiator types. As with
radiators, the purpose of cooling fins is to increase the
available contact surface for the cooling air. However,
in hermetically sealed designs the cooling fin design
also enables a degree of flexibility which is needed to
accommodate the expansion and contraction of the
liquid as it heats and cools, due to load and ambient
temperature. This allows the tank to be totally filled
(and hermetically sealed), with the clear benefit of
prolonging the transformer’s service life expectancy
and reducing maintenance.
In exceptional cases, e.g. small ratings and severe
dimensional limitations, the fins become so small that
they are no longer flexible enough, necessitating
14
Corrugated fin wall panels
of a distribution transformer
the use of a gas cushion to allow the expansion of
the liquid. This gas cushion allows the internal pressure
to be maintained within the acceptable limits permitted
by tank flexibility. Occasionally, some customers
specify that a conservator must be fitted on top of
the transformer tank. This follows older rigid tank
design practice.
This cylindrical conservator acts as an expansion tank
for the cooling liquid when it expands as the windings
heat up. The conservator is often fitted with a gauge
glass, an air vent and an air dryer in an effort to ensure
that only dry air can come into contact with the
cooling liquid, and only at atmospheric pressure. If the
air dryer is not properly maintained, it can lose its
effectiveness and allow damp air to come in contact
with the cooling liquid.
Hermetically sealed transformers offer indisputable
advantages compared with transformers fitted with
a conservator, including:
The insulating liquid cannot come into contact with the air,
thus guaranteeing preservation of its dielectric integrity.
Reduced maintenance, e.g. no checking required of the air dryer,
no need to monitor the liquid for water ingress, etc.
They are cheaper to buy.
They occupy a smaller space, leaving more room for connections in
compact installations.
The protection equipment is often simpler than that fitted on
transformers with a conservator.
The reliability of hermetically sealed tanks is illustrated not merely by the tens of thousands of transformers
currently operating worldwide, but also by the stringent fatigue and overpressure tests carried out on
transformers of this type. Hermetically sealed tanks have been subjected to 11,000 expansion-contraction cycles,
which simulate the mechanical load on a tank over a service life of 30 years (at an average of 1 cycle per day).
The construction of these tanks is extremely simple. The bottom, top frame, corrugated fin wall panels and plain
wall panels are mounted on specially designed rotating welding tables and welded together. Small
production batch sizes resulting from the wide range of transformer designs produced do not yet allow this
process to be carried out by fully automated welding equipment. The skill and craftsmanship of highly experienced
welders and leak tests during production ensure leak-free finished tanks.
Cooling The operating temperature of liquid-filled transformers
is limited to around 100°C. While a higher operating
Heat is generated inside a transformer by the effects temperature can reduce the size, weight and cost of a
described by Joule’s law, hysteresis losses and transformer for a given power rating, it shortens its
eddy currents (see chapter “Economic choice of service life expectancy by accelerating the ageing of
transformers”). This causes a rise in the temperature of the insulating materials. Cooling is optimized in
the windings and core. The temperature will reach accordance with the maximum permissible
equilibrium when the quantity of heat generated per temperature and the total quantity of heat to be
second is equal to the quantity of heat removed dissipated, which depends on the transformer’s
per second. loss level.
15
 Finishing of powder-coated tanks

Surface treatment and painting

After welding, the tank is shot-blasted to remove Flooding

any surface impurities, leaving a clean prepared

surface for maximum adhesion of the paint coating.
Air-drying paint is then applied by spraying or flooding.
An alternative painting technique is electrostatic State-of-the-art painting line
powder coating, which is used for tank covers and
A state-of-the-art painting line, incorporating zinc phosphating, electrically
cable boxes and also for complete tanks in some
applied liquid paint and powder coating has been installed in the Irish
factories. Where powder coating is employed, further
factory. This system is one of the most up-to-date developments in the
chemical processes are needed before the powder
field of finishing and the quality obtained is comparable with that required
coating is applied.
by today’s automotive industry for modern car bodies.
Tests by independent laboratories have shown that transformer tanks
Several coats of paint are applied, to a total thickness
treated in this way can easily withstand the 2,000 hours hot salt spray
of at least 100 microns, thus guaranteeing adequate
scribed test carried out in accordance with the ASTM B117 and
protection against corrosion for a transformer installed
DIN 50021 standards.
indoors or outdoors. Tanks may be galvanized if
requested by the customer. This is often specified for
transformers which are constantly exposed to the
elements, as with pole-mounted or platform-mounted Standard tanks are equipped with:
transformers. Galvanizing is also recommended for
Powder coating line
transformers used in polluted industrial areas. securing lugs on the top frame of the tank to secure the transformer during transport
lifting lugs on the cover to lift the complete transformer and/or the active part
underbase welded to the bottom of the tank with bi-directional rollers (roller base)
filling hole on the cover (can also be used to mount an overpressure valve)
earthing terminals on tank cover and underbase or tank bottom

The tank thermometer pocket welded to the tank cover and filled with cooling liquid
drain valve at the bottom of the tank (can also be used to take oil samples)

CONSTRUCTION
State-of-the-art painting line in the Irish factory
of a distribution transformer
This standard package can be expanded to include other monitoring
and protection instruments (see chapter “Protection equipment”).

1
2
3
4
Lifting lugs
Drain valve
Thermometer pocket
Earthing terminals
8
9
10
11
Off-circuit tap changer
HV bushings
Securing lugs
Rating plate
5 LV neutral bushing 12 Underbase with rollers
6 LV bushings (roller base)
7 Filling hole

1 4 3 5 6 7

10
11

2 2 4
12
8 9
17
 Finishing operations and testing
CONSTRUCTION of a distribution transformer
Routine measurements
and tests

Measurement of voltage ratios.

Vector group test.
Measurement of high voltage
and low voltage winding
resistances.
Dielectric test of high voltage
and low voltage winding(s)
(1 minute at rated withstand
voltage and nominal
frequency). This test is also
known as the “applied
overvoltage test” and is
intended to check the
insulation of one winding
from all other transformer
components.
Double voltage test (1 minute
at double voltage and double
Testing frequency) induced via the
Mounting the active part in the tank low voltage winding. This is
In the test bay, each transformer is subjected to a number of routine also known as the “induced
Once the active part has been dried in the forced air oven, it is given a final
measurements and tests. overvoltage test” and is
comprehensive quality inspection and placed into the tank. The top cover
designed to check the
is then either bolted or welded onto the tank, as specified by the customer.
Fitting of protection equipment insulation within each
Both sealing methods are equally effective, although welding the cover
winding (turn to turn and
makes it easier to guarantee the seal is leakproof. Once routine testing is completed, the protection instruments and other
layer to layer).
accessories are fitted and the transformer is subjected to a final global
Measurement of no-load
Filling inspection. Subsequently, the rating plate (stating all the data required by
losses and no-load current.
the norm or standard) is fixed to the tank with a bracket. The transformer
The transformers are placed in a vacuum chamber and filled with Some customers specify the brand Measurement of load losses
is now ready for packing and transportation.
pre-treated liquid (filtered, dried and degassed) under deep vacuum. This and type of liquid to be used for and impedance voltage with
ensures optimum impregnation of the insulation materials by the cooling filling the transformer. Pauwels the off-circuit tap changer in
Packing and transport
liquid, giving the insulation structure maximum dielectric strength. carries stocks of several brands the nominal position.
Most transformers are filled with a high quality mineral oil which complies and types of oil, which are then For transport by road, timbers are attached to the two U-shaped profiles Measurement of the
fully with the requirements of IEC standard 60296. piped from the storage tanks forming the roller base, thus enabling the transformer to be secured to resistances of the insulating
In some cases, transformers are filled with silicone liquid (complying with through separate circuits to the the load floor of the truck. A similar procedure is followed for container system between high voltage,
the requirements of IEC standard 60836) or synthetic organic esters vacuum chamber. After a specified transport. When specifically requested by the customer, and mainly low voltage and tank
(complying with IEC 61099). The liquid acts both as a coolant and as an stabilization period, the transformer for transport by sea, the transformers are placed in strong wooden crates (Megger test).
insulating medium. is taken to the test bay. or boxes.

18 19
 In addition to standard transformer types for distribution applications, Pauwels also builds special
transformers for industrial applications. These non-standard types are the result of extensive product
development based on constant monitoring and evaluation of changing customer needs in the various
market segments. In some cases, special customer requirements have also led to the development of a
new product with its own characteristics. Our special distribution transformers have special mechanical
and/or electrical characteristics. In the majority of cases, these particular transformer types are designed
in such a way that they can be built using standard production techniques, thus requiring only a minimum
of modifications in the production process.

A comprehensive

PRODUCT RANGE
Special transformer types

The Pauwels product range includes the following special distribution transformers, although this list is
not exhaustive:

single-phase transformers (used mainly in the US, mono and tri-mono transformers
Ireland and the UK) transformers with special cable boxes
dual voltage transformers (filled with air or oil)
amorphous metal distribution transformers (AMDT) transformers with forced cooling
steep-wave transformers (by means of fans)
compact substations transformers with integrated protecting (fuses)
three-winding transformers and disconnecting equipment (such as
auto-transformers the intrinsic safe transformer “TPC” for France)
converter transformers SLIM® transformers (very compact high
generator transformers temperature transformers)
earthing transformers Big DT (DT design concept up to 12 MVA)
substations with cable boxes and connectors for
Ring Main Units (RMUs) Detailed information about our standard and special
phase shifters distribution transformers is available upon request.

21
Despite the fact that transformers are highly efficient electrical devices,
inevitably some energy is lost during their long service life. This energy loss
arises from the combination of no-load losses and load losses. These losses
convert to heat which has to be removed during operation.

ECONOMIC CHOICE of transformers

1. No-load losses (P0 ), also called iron losses (PFe ) The Total Owning Cost (T.O.C.) of a transformer may be expressed by the following formula:

No-load losses occur in the core material due to hysteresis and eddy
currents, and are present almost continuously while the transformer is
connected to the electricity supply (i.e. 8,760 hours per year).
The hysteresis losses are proportional to the product of the frequency
and the amplitude of induction to the power of x, where x varies between
1.6 and 3.5 when induction is increasing: Ph ~ f.Bx.
Eddy current losses are proportional to the square of the product of
the frequency, the amplitude of induction and the thickness (d) of the mag-
2
netic steel: Pf ~ (f.B.d)
T.O.C. = purchase price + (P0*CP0 ) + (Pk*CPk )
Installation and maintenance costs may need to be added to this formula. Of course the transformer with
the lowest T.O.C. is the best economic choice in the long term. When a customer’s price inquiry gives
capitalization values, the optimum level of losses is calculated in the design department using specially developed
software. A further advantage of lower no-load losses is the fact that the level of noise generated is usually
significantly lower, due to the lower flux density.
Thus it is often economically justifiable to replace older transformers with high loss levels by the new generation
of low-loss transformers, since their lower losses ensure a significant return on investment after only a few years.

2. Load losses (PK ), also called copper losses (PCu ) If the no-load energy losses are capitalized at a very high level, then amorphous metal core transformers
become an attractive alternative. The no-load losses of this type of transformer are some 75% lower than those
Load losses occur in the windings, the connecting conductors and the of an equivalent transformer with a conventional magnetic steel core.
tank. They are caused by the effects of Joule’s law (Ohmic losses), eddy
currents and flux leakages. Ohmic losses are equal to the product of the
2
square of the current and the resistance of the conductor: Pj = R.I
Total Owning Cost (T.O.C.) = purchase price + (P0*CP0 ) + (Pk*CPk )
These losses are proportional to the square of the load, thus a load of 50%
T.O.C. = Total Owning Cost
of the rated load produces load losses equal to approximately 25% of the
P0 = guaranteed no-load losses (Watt)
rated full-load loss values.
Pk = guaranteed load losses (Watt)
CP0 = capitalization value for no-load losses stated by the customer (euro/Watt)
Within certain limits, a manufacturer can increase or reduce no-load and/or
CPk = capitalization value for load losses stated by the customer (euro/Watt)
load losses by varying the current density, the induction level of the
magnetic steel, the choice of material for the conductors and the core, etc.
Evaluation of two distribution transformers, each with a nominal rating of 630 kVA but with different loss levels:
Lower losses always involve the use of a larger quantity of material and/or Tr. 1 630 kVA P0 = 870 Watt Pk = 5,750 Watt CP0 = 4.25 euro/Watt
higher-cost materials, thus raising the price of the transformer. However, its
Tr. 2 630 kVA P0 = 1,150 Watt Pk = 8,400 Watt CPk = 1.15 euro/Watt
energy consumption, and therefore running costs, will be lower. In order to
P0 Pk price P0*CP0 Pk*CPk T.O.C.
make an economically valid comparison of transformers with different loss
Watt Watt euro euro euro euro
levels, a value reflecting the cost of the energy losses has to be introduced.
Tr. 1 870 5,750 7,550 3,698 6,613 17,861
This value, expressed in monetary units per watt, allows financial
Tr. 2 1,150 8,400 7,000 4,888 9,660 21,548
evaluation (or capitalization) of the losses and is therefore called
“capitalization value”. The capitalization values for no-load losses (CP0 ) are
This table clearly illustrates that the lowest purchase price does not necessarily reflect the best economic alternative.
considerably higher than those for load losses (CPk ), which is logical
because no-load losses occur continuously.

22 23
 A growing importance is attached to Low-noise transformers
the negative aspects of technology on
In many countries, there are strict
people and the environment in modern
limits on the noise levels which
society. The potentially disturbing or
may be generated by trans-
hazardous aspects of transformers
formers in both urban and rural
include:
locations. The primary source of
Noise pollution. the noise produced is the
Land pollution, due to escaping oil caused by alternating magnetization of the
leaks or explosions. core steel, while the current-
The use of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) - carrying windings contribute only
very toxic chemicals - in cooling liquids. a limited amount. Pauwels uses a
Electromagnetic fields: the effects of such fields variety of techniques to limit noise
on human beings and instruments are not yet levels drastically, the most important being to reduce the induction in the
fully understood. core, producing an appropriate core shape (e.g. the step-lap method), a
Energy losses in transformers. Even though special clamping construction and the use of low-resonance tanks, etc.
transformers are generally highly efficient,
as explained earlier, some energy is lost in the This enables Pauwels to build transformers with extremely low noise
transforming process. This energy also has to levels, down to within what we refer to as “whispering level”. Building
be generated somewhere and this generation transformers with noise levels below 30 dBA (sound pressure at a distance
process has its own consequences, including of 1 m) is an illustration of this. Pauwels has also carried out pioneering
a rise in emissions of harmful combustion gases. work in the field of measurement of transformer-generated noise.
Visual pollution to the environment caused by Engineers from our Research and Development department have refined
the siting of transformers and substations the noise intensity method (introduced by Brüel and Kjær in the early
without due consideration to the impact eighties) and applied it to transformer noise measurement. This method
on the landscape. now has official recognition and is described in the IEC 60551 standard.

The noise intensity method allows more accurate measurement by

eliminating disturbances due to the near-field effect (*) and other nearby

Transformers and sources, and also enables the noise generated by the transformer to be
measured when the ambient noise level is far in excess of the

THE ENVIRONMENT transformer noise. This clearly makes the noise measurement and
evaluation process much simpler, while also allowing frequency analysis.
Besides frequency analyses, Pauwels laboratories can also carry out
vibration and resonance analyses.

Reference table dB(A)

20 rustling of leaves 70 traffic noise

30 whispering 100 heavy machine shop
40 library 120 rock concert
60 normal conversation 130 pain threshold

(*) Very close to a sound source, the air acts as a mass-spring system which stores the energy. The energy circulates without propagating and the
region in which it circulates is called the “near-field”. Only sound intensity measurements for sound power determination can be made here.

25
 Land pollution: the importance of leakproof tanks and
Transformer filled with
synthetic organic esters environmentally sound coolants
in accordance with the
IEC 61099 standard
An escape of coolant from the tank can cause land pollution and possibly
lead to the danger of fire when a spark or flame is present at the same
time. The “Wassergefährdungsklasse” or “WGK” (water pollution class) of
a liquid provides a measure of the threat posed by the liquid to
underground and surface water. This classification is based on the
biodegradability of the liquid. Most mineral oils and all silicone liquids are in
category 1, while esters are more biodegradable and classified as
category 0. A WGK of 0 is normally specified only when the transformer is
to be located in the vicinity of a water extraction area. Fire regulations and
fire insurance policy conditions often also lead to the choice of these
somewhat more expensive coolants. Their higher flash points and ignition
temperatures enable the transformer to be operated without excessively
stringent stipulations in respect of sprinkler installations or drip pans to
catch leakages, thus yielding significant reductions in installation costs.
The ingenuity of our designers, the craftsmanship of our welders,
the robustness of the materials we use and the multiple quality control
procedures carried out to check for leaks during the production process all
combine to ensure the long-term leak-free quality of our tanks.
Recyclable materials
Radical exclusion of PCBs
Pauwels operates a consistent, stringent PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) monitoring policy: the test certificate
delivered with each Pauwels transformer certifies that its PCB content is less than 1 ppm (part per million).
Oil deliveries or transformers returned for overhaul or servicing are never accepted before an oil sample analysis
has provided conclusive proof that the liquid is PCB-free.
Pauwels’ customer service department acts as an intermediary for the collection and treatment of transformers
filled or contaminated with harmful PCBs by introducing the owner to officially accredited specialist waste disposal
companies.
Electromagnetic compatibility
All current-carrying conductors and machines create an electromagnetic field which can have an interfering effect
on sensitive (e.g. electronic) equipment. Therefore all products must be made with the highest possible
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC): they must not produce a disruptive field or be affected by other fields in their
vicinity. Pauwels liquid-filled transformers are ideal in this respect: their tank acts as a natural electromagnetic
screen, reducing the effect of external fields to negligible values.
Optimized use of raw materials
Extensive optimization has enabled Pauwels to succeed in building very compact transformers. Today’s 1,000 kVA
model is the size of the 630 kVA transformer of just a few years ago, for example. This optimization and
rationalization have simultaneously yielded significant savings in raw materials (copper, aluminium, magnetic steel,
metal, etc.) and coolants.

C
One of the central themes of the Pauwels corporate policy is the quest to
reduce raw material consumption to a minimum. Waste materials from the Lower consumption of primary energy sources, due to the use of transformers with
production process are collected and carefully sorted for sale as scrap for low losses
recycling. A similar policy is followed by the specialist companies breaking
Pauwels also contributes to a cleaner and safer environment by offering low-loss transformers. Electricity utilities
old transformers for scrap. Today’s Pauwels transformers are designed to
using low-loss transformers will clearly need to generate less electricity to satisfy the same energy demand.
facilitate the highest possible degree of recycling. Over 90% of
Generating less electricity involves lower consumption of primary energy sources (coal, gas and oil), thus
the materials used can be recovered by simple procedures. Special
reducing emissions of the harmful combustion gases which cause phenomena such as acid rain and depletion of
attention is paid to environmental impact even in the choice of the
the atmospheric ozone layer.
smallest components, as illustrated clearly by the use of asbestos-free
gaskets, for example.

✖
Transformers and

THE ENVIRONMENT
Evolution of the weight of a 400 kVA transformer

26 27
 DESIGN
specifications and standards

LOGISTICS
The complex chain of processes,
from initial offer through to final
delivery, is managed by the logistics
department. In view of the strongly
Pauwels transformers are designed to meet all the most recent national
international character of the
and international standards such as IEC, ANSI/IEEE, CEN/CENELEC, BS,
Pauwels Group’s business, this
DIN/VDE, NEMA and CSA, etc. Within the distribution transformers
requires flawless organization and
product group, the product development department is responsible for
extensive experience.
managing and updating the internal standards database. Engineers from
this department play an active role in a wide range of engineering
standards committees and international working groups, where they are
able to keep up-to-date with the latest developments in technical
standards.

design drawings
stock control reservations
purchasing

planning
factory
delivery of materials
distribution
of drawings drawings & planning test bay
production
final control
customer info
order status

Pauwels has designed standard transformer models for a large number of

markets, each fully meeting or even exceeding the national standards and
requirements of each market. Other transformers are standardized to the
specifications of individual major customers such as electricity utilities,
large contractors and heavy industrial companies. All other transformers
are designed individually to meet the customer’s specific requirements.
This approach has enabled Pauwels to achieve extensive automation
in the design and construction areas, leading directly to an ability to
offer attractive prices and fast delivery. The high degree of customer
satisfaction and the numerous accreditations achieved after stringent
approval procedures illustrate the success of the Pauwels product
development strategy.
Quality logistics management produces fast delivery times, punctual and complete delivery, and correct and rapid
handling of administrative procedures. Careful construction of the Group’s computer network and information
systems has built a superbly efficient information flow system connecting all the various departments of the
Pauwels organization. The group operates a Just-In-Time material flow system, optimized using specialized
computer software, automated warehousing systems and firm contracts with accredited suppliers.
Pauwels supplies transformers to customers in over 135 countries around the world. This requires the assistance
of specialist transporters with wide experience in multi-mode transportation. In addition to the complexities
specific to long-distance destinations, complicated logistical problems can arise when transformers have to be
installed in locations where access is difficult.

28 29
The high reputation of
Pauwels transformers is
a product of the Commitment to quality runs throughout the company: Research and
Development, Design, Production, Quality Control, Logistics and
comprehensive attention Administrative Services. The Human Resources department maintains
to quality. an ongoing programme of quality consciousness and quality
enhancement training for all the company’s employees.

Operating a certified quality system to ISO 9001 standards is merely a

precondition for achieving consistent quality. Within the Pauwels
organization, quality control is carried out at each design and production
phase through a self-assessment system.

Each workstation has a description of the tasks to be carried out and

the accompanying quality control procedures. A component is passed on
to the next workstation only after the worker concerned has carried out
the specified quality control procedures and approved the component. Any
material or component failing a quality test is rejected immediately.

Thus each worker checks his (her) own production and regards the next
workstation as his (her) customer. The quality department monitors all
quality control documents and carries out additional inspections at
strategic points in the production process. This allows immediate action to
be taken and any modifications to be made as required.

Materials purchased from approved suppliers are subject to goods inwards

checking which can vary from simple identification to comprehensive
testing in the physical chemistry laboratory. All raw material and
component suppliers must meet ISO standards.

Each transformer is subjected to the full range of specified tests before

release to the customer. Testing to IEC or ANSI specifications includes all
routine tests and measurements and may be complemented by type
and/or special tests. These supplementary tests are carried out either on
the customer’s request or as part of an internal sampling procedure to
ensure continuous quality monitoring.

All testing is performed within the company with the exception of dynamic
short-circuit tests, which are contracted out to accredited external
laboratories such as KEMA, LABORELEC, EDF, CESI, FGH and other
independent testing institutions. Many customers have carried out quality
audits and inspections in the various Pauwels facilities and repeat them
regularly to assure themselves of a consistently high quality level.

In addition to the national and international standards, e.g. IEC, ISO, etc.,
some customers also use their own measuring and testing schemes
which often involve tests in independent laboratories.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
certified to ISO 9001 and based on self-assessment
SALES AND AFTER-SALES
CUSTOMER SERVICE service

Sales

The Pauwels Group sales organization is structured to ensure the shortest

possible lines of communication between customers and Group companies.
This goal is achieved by working through a network of small, efficient sales
offices and specialist representatives with an expert knowledge of local
conditions and of the customer’s requirements.

Sales offices operate in France, Italy, the USA, Colombia, Indonesia,

Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Nigeria and Zimbabwe.

Customer service The Pauwels organization offers an extensive range of support services to
customers after delivery of their transformers, including:
Inquiries and orders are handled by multidisciplinary customer service teams, where technical, commercial and
administrative skills are blended exactly as needed to deliver what each different customer type demands:
the right product at the right time at the right price. a 24-hour helpline, with teams on permanent
standby to carry out all possible urgent
Each customer service team is therefore specialized in processing inquiries and orders with very specific repairs, etc.
characteristics in terms of customer requirements and/or transformer types. This results in a high degree of maintenance and repairs to transformers either
overall customer responsiveness illustrated by timely return of fully detailed quotations, high delivery reliability on-site or in our well-equipped workshops
with orders and fast information exchange throughout the contract period ensuring well informed customers. oil sampling - to assess the insulating
The customer service teams work closely together with the Logistics Department (Purchasing, Planning, condition of the liquid
Transport and Invoicing) and the After-Sales Department in order to guarantee the highest possible levels of - to analyze dissolved gases
customer satisfaction. - to determine PCB content
drying, degassing and filtration of the coolant
oil cleansing to remove PCBs
supply of spare parts
provision of replacement transformers
modifications such as:
- connections (e.g. bottom entry
or top entry cables)
- replacement or conversion of
accessories such as Buchholz
relays, liquid level indicator
gauges, pressure relays, etc.
overhaul and replacement of the off-circuit
tap changer
increasing transformer power capacity by
converting to forced cooling
(installation of fans, etc.)
training for customers’ maintenance staff
advice to customers on how to operate and
Production facilities maintain their transformers
Subsidiary companies
Regional offices
Agents & sales contacts

32 33