Acta Futura 6 (2013) 5367

!: 10.2420/AF06.2013.53
Acta
Futura
Physarum machincs lor spacc missions
Axbvvw Ab~:~:zxv

Unconventional Computing Center, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

Abstract. A Physarum machinc is a
programmablc amorphous biological computcr
cxpcrimcntally implcmcntcd in plasmodium ol
Physarum polycephalum. Vc ovcrvicw a rangc ol
tasks solvablc by Physarum machincs and spccu
latc on how thc Physarum machincs could bc uscd
in luturc spacc missions.
1 Prototypes of unconventional computers
An unconvcntional computing applics principlcs ol in
lormations proccssing in physical, chcmical and biolog
ical systcms in dcsign ol luturc and cmcrgcnt comput
ing paradigms, architccturcs and implcmcntations |21,
2, 62|. Tc cld is proud with its thcorctical achicvc
mcnts, c.g. mcmbranc computing, quantum comput
ing, hypcrcomputation and articial immunc systcms,
yct can boast about only a lcw cxpcrimcntal laboratory
prototypcs ol unconvcntional computcrs. Tcy includc
chcmical rcactiondiusion proccssors |1|, cxtcndcd
analog computcrs |41|, microuidic circuits |28|, gas
dischargc systcms |49|, chcmotactic droplcts |35|,
cnzymcbascd logical circuits |33, 48|, crystallization
computcrs |9| (Fig. 1), gcomctrically constraincd chcm
ical computcrs |50, 42, 31, 64, 30|, molccular logical
gatcs and circuits |60, 39|. Slimc mould Physarum poly-
cephalum (Fig. 2) is onc ol thc most rcccnt candidatcs
lor a rolc ol gcncralpurposc amorphous living com
putcr |13|.

Corrcsponding author. mail: andrcw.adamatzkyCuwc.ac.uk

2 Physarum polycephalum
P. polycephalum bclongs to thc spccics ol ordcr Physar-
ales, subclass Myxogastromycetidae, class Myxomycetes,
division Myxostelida. !t is commonly known as a truc,
accllular or multihcadcd slimc mould. Plasmodium
is a vcgctativc phasc, a singlc ccll with a myriad ol
diploid nuclci. Tc plasmodium is visiblc to thc nakcd
cyc (Fig. 3). Tc plasmodium looks likc an amorphous
ycllowish mass with nctworks ol protoplasmic tubcs.
Tc plasmodium bchavcs and movcs as a giant amocba
(Fig. 5). !t lccds on bactcria, sporcs and othcr microbial
crcaturcs and microparticlcs |59|.
Accllular slimc mould P. polycephalum has a rich lilc
cyclc |59|: lruit bodics, sporcs, singlcccll amocbas, and
syncytium. !n its plasmodium stagc, P. polycephalum
consumcs microscopic particlcs, and during its lorag
ing bchaviour thc plasmodiumspans scattcrcd sourccs ol
nutricnts with a nctwork ol protoplasmic tubcs (Fig. 8).
Tc plasmodium optimiscs its protoplasmic nctwork
that covcrs all sourccs ol nutricnts and guarantccs ro
bust and quick distribution ol nutricnts in thc plasmod
iums body. Plasmodiums loraging bchaviour can bc in
tcrprctcd as a computation |43, 44, 45, 46|: data arc
rcprcscntcd by spatial ol attractants and rcpcllcnts, and
rcsults arc rcprcscntcd by structurc ol protoplasmic nct
work |13|. Plasmodium can solvc computational prob
lcms with natural parallclism, c.g. rclatcd to shortcst
path |44| and hicrarchics ol planar proximity graphs |3|,
computation ol planc tcsscllations |53|, cxccution ol
53
Acta Futura 6 (2013) / 5367 A. Adamatzky
I:cuvv +. Crystallisation based unconventional computer.
(a) Hot ice computer approximates Voronoi diagram of a planar
data set. Crystallisation was inoculated in several sites of planar
data set. Edges of Voronoi diagramare represented by boundaries of
crystallisation domains. (b) Potassium ferricyanide crystallisation
computer approximates paths out of a labyrinth. Crystallisation
was initiated in a central chamber of the labyrinth. Path between
outside channel and the central chamber is represented by crystal
needles. See deails in [9].
logical computing schcmcs |63, 11|, and natural implc
mcntation ol spatial logic and proccss algcbra |56|.
Plasmodium can bc cultivatcd on a nonnutricnt or a
nutricnt agar. Vhilc grown on a nutricnt agar thc plas
modium propagatcs as an omnidircctional wavc. n
a nonnutricnt agar plasmodium propagatcs as a trav
clling localisation (Fig. 5), and bchavcs likc a wavc
lragmcnt in a subcxcitablc mcdium |4, 5|. Vhilc
prcscntcd with a conguration ol attractants, c.g. oat
akcs (Fig. 8), on a nonnutricnt substratc, thc plas
modiumdcvclops activc zoncs that cxplorc thc substratc
and propagatc towards thc oat akcs. Ncighbouring oat
akcs coloniscd by plasmodiumarc usually conncctcd by
protoplasmic tubcs. istribution ol chcmoattractants
and position ol initial inoculation ol plasmodiumarc in
put data lor Physarum machincs. Structurc ol thc pro
toplasmic nctworks and/or domains occupicd by plas
modium arc rcsults ol computation in Physarum ma
chincs. Propagating activc zoncs can bc considcrcd as
clcmcntary proccssors ol Physarum machincs.
3 Physarum machines
APhysarummachinc is a programmablc amorphous bi
ological computing dcvicc cxpcrimcntally implcmcntcd
in plasmodium ol P. polycephalum |13|. A Physarum
machinc is programmcd by congurations ol rcpclling
and attracting gradicnts. Amcchanics ol Physarumma
chincs is bascd on thc lollowing uniquc lcaturcs ol P.
polycephalum:
Physarum is a living, dynamical rcactiondiusion
pattcrn lormation mcchanism.
Physarum may bc considcrcd as cquivalcnt to a
mcmbranc bound sub cxcitablc systcm: cxcitation
stimuli providcd by chcmoattractants and chcmo
rcpcllcnts (Fig. 6).
Physarummay bc rcgardcd as a highly ccicnt and
living micromanipulation and microuidic trans
port dcvicc.
Physarum is scnsitivc to illumination and AC clcc
tric clds and thcrclorc allows lor parallcl and non
dcstructivc input ol inlormation.
Physarum rcprcscnts rcsults ol computation by
conguration ol its body (Fig. 2).
Physarum is thus a computing substratc which trans
lorms data rcprcscntcd in spatially cxtcndcd chcmical
and physical stimuli to rcsults rcprcscntcd in a topology
ol protoplasmic nctworks.
Plasmodium can bc cultivatcd on a nonnutricnt (c.g.
Sclcct agar, Sigma Aldrich) or a nutricnt agar (c.g.
Corn Mcal Agar). Vhilc grown on a nutricnt agar
thc plasmodium propagatcs as an omnidircctional wavc.
n a nonnutricnt agar plasmodium propagatcs as a
travclling nitc localisation, and bchavcs likc a wavc
lragmcnt in a subcxcitablc mcdium |4, 5|, most implc
mcntations discusscd in thc papcr arc donc on a non
nutricnt agar. Tus by active zone wc mcan cithcr om
nidircctional growing pattcrn (on nutricnt substratc) or
in majority ol cxamplcs a localiscd growing pat
tcrn (on nonnutricnt substratc). Vhilc prcscntcd with
a conguration ol attractants, c.g. oat akcs (Fig. 8a), on
a nonnutricnt substratc, thc plasmodium dcvclops ac
tivc zoncs (Fig. 8d) that cxplorc thc substratc and prop
agatc towards thc oat akcs. Ncighbouring oat akcs
coloniscd by plasmodium(Fig. 8b) arc usually conncctcd
by protoplasmic tubcs (Fig. 8c). istribution ol chcmo
attractants and position ol initial inoculation ol plas
modium arc input data lor Physarum machincs. Struc
turc ol thc protoplasmic nctworks and/or domains oc
cupicd by plasmodium arc rcsults ol computation in
Physarum machincs. Propagating activc zoncs can bc
considcrcd as clcmcntary proccssors ol Physarum ma
chincs.
Vc illustratc mcchanics ol computation in Physarum
on an approximation ol \oronoi diagram ol a planar sct.
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Physarum Machincs lor Spacc Missions
I:cuvv :. Physarum propagating on an artistic impression of galaxy. See original picture in public domain NASA/JPL-Caltech [47].
I:cuvv . Physarum propagates on a bare plastic surface.
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Acta Futura 6 (2013) / 5367 A. Adamatzky
I:cuvv . Physarum spanning sources of nutrients with its pro-
toplasmic network. Physarum was inoculated on the northmost
ake. Physarum propagates source. Oat akes not yet colonised
by Physarum are in the south-east part.
A planar \oronoi diagram (\) ol thc sct P is a parti
tion ol thc planc into such rcgions that, lor any clcmcnt
ol P, a rcgion corrcsponding to a uniquc point p P
contains all thosc points ol thc planc which arc closcr to
p than to any othcr nodc ol P. claunay triangulation
(T) is a dual graph ol \ |51|.
n a nutricnt substratc P. polyccphalum approxi
matcs \. n a nonnutricnt substratc thc plasmod
ium approximatcs T. Plasmodium growing on a nu
tricnt substratc lrom a singlc sitc ol inoculation cx
pands circularly as a typical diusivc or cxcitation wavc.
Vhcn two plasmodium wavcs cncountcr cach othcr,
thcy stop propagating. To approximatc a \ with
Physarum, wc physically map a conguration ol pla
nar data points by inoculating plasmodia on a substratc
(Fig. 9a). Plasmodium wavcs propagatc circularly lrom
cach data point (Fig. 9bc) and stop whcn thcy collidc
with cach othcr (Fig. 9d). Tus, thc plasmodium wavcs
approximatc a \, whosc cdgcs arc thc substratcs loci
not occupicd by plasmodia (Figs. 9d). Tc situation bc
comcs dicrcnt whcn Physarum machinc is givcn thc
samc sct ol data (planar points rcprcscntcd by oat akcs
I:cuvv . Localised Physarum propagates on agar gel. is is ex-
ample of how Physarum forms a dissipative soliton like structures.
Slime mould active zone exhibits characteristic wave-front with
tail of protoplasmic tubes trailed behind. e active zone resembles
wave-fragments (dissipative solitons) in Belousov-Zhabotinsky
medium [4, 13]. e active zone is an elementary processor of a
multi-processor Physarum machine.
I:cuvv 6. Controlling Physarum with repellents. Physarum
wave-fragment travelling north-east collides with a grain of salt
(white disc) and splits into two independent fragments; one frag-
ments travels north-west another south-east.
coloniscd by plasmodium) but placcd on a nonnutricnt
substratc. 8cing drivcn by chcmoattractants thc plas
modium in cach planar point dcvclops just lcw localiscd
activc zoncs, which grow towards gcographically ncigh
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Physarum Machincs lor Spacc Missions
I:cuvvy. Decentralised decision making by Physarum. Oat akes
with plasmodium were placed in south part of Petri dish. Virgin
oat akes were placed in the north part. Obstacles were represented
by capillary tubes placed on an sagar surface. Optimal from
Physarum machine point of view paths connected source and
destination sites are seen as pronounced protoplasmic tubes.
bouring oat akcs (planar points). Tus thc akcs bc
comc conncctcd by cnhanccd protoplasmic tubcs, which
up to somc dcgrcc ol accuracy rcprcscnt cdgcs ol
thc T (Figs. 9c) |3|.
4 Application domains of Physarum
machines
Futurc spacc missions could bcnct lromPhysarumma
chincs bccausc living and hybrid lunctional matcrials
madc ol P. polycephalum will play a rolc ol spccialiscd
proccssors solving tasks ol
computational gcomctry (approximation ol
\oronoi diagram ol arbitrary gcomctrical shapc,
concavc and convcx hulls),
imagc proccssing (dilation, crosion, opcning and
closing, imagc cxpansion and shrinking, comput
ing conncctcd componcnts ol imagc, and im
agc translation, cdgc dctcction, cdgc complction,
boundary dctcction, lcaturc tracking, and, imagc
rccognition),
graphthcorctic computing (approximation ol
proximity graphs. Graph rcstructuring, trans
lormation bctwccn cyclic graphs as claunay
I:cuvv 8. Plasmodium of P. polyccphalum on a data set on an
agar gel. (a) Virgin oat akes. (b) Oat akes colonised by the plas-
modium. (c) Protoplasmic tubes. (d) Active zones, growing parts
of the plasmodium.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (c)
I:cuvv . Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation com-
puter by Physarummachines. (ad) Approximation of VDby slime
mould on nutrient agar gel. (a) Sites of plasmodium inoculation
represent planar data points to be sub-divided by edges of VD.
(bc) Experimental snapshots of growing plasmodia. (d) Bisectors of
VDare represented by loci of substrate not occupied by plasmodium,
bisectors computed by classical technique are shown by straight lines.
(e) DT approximated by Physarum on a non-nutrient substrate.
triangulation and Gabricl graph and acyclic graphs
as minimum spanning trcc and Stcincr trcc,
optimisation (computation ol spanning trccs and
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Acta Futura 6 (2013) / 5367 A. Adamatzky
I:cuvv +o. Protoplasmic tube self-repaired after being ruptured
by applying load of 0.2 g.
obstaclc lrcc shortcst paths),
ncuromorphic proccssors (inlormation proccssing
and scnsorial lusion on plasmodial trccs), and
gcncral purposc computing dcviccs with architcc
turc ol KolmogorovUspcnsky storagc modica
tion machincs.
Tc slimc moulds computing potcntial and rcsistancc
to cnvironmcntal lactors can bc incrcascd by hybridis
ing protoplasmic nctworks with ncw lunctional matcri
als, biomorphic mincralisation, biosynthcsis ol mctal
nanoparticlcs, production ol biowircs, and coating
protoplasmic nctworks with with conductivc polymcrs.
Combincd with convcntional clcctronic componcnts
in a hybrid chip, Physarum nctworks will radically
improvc thc pcrlormancc ol digital and analog cir
cuits. Physarum machincs arc analogous to rcaction
diusion chcmical systcms cncapsulatcd in a growing
clastic mcmbranc. Tc machincs can bc madc hybrid,
i.c. combining dcad (but coatcd with conductors) and
living parts ol slimc mould in communication chan
ncls. Physarum machincs can bc powcrcd dircctly and
ccicntly by biochcmical powcr, labricatcd using scll
growth and scllorganisation, and controllably shapcd
into two and thrccdimcnsional structurcs. Physarum
machincs arc robust to physical damagc and cxhibit a
substantial dcgrcc ol scllrcpair (Fig. 10).
Hybrid (livc and coatcd with conductors) Physarum
machincs can pcrlorm computation by classical mcans
ol clcctrical chargc propagation, by travclling wavcs ol
contraction, and by a physical propagation ol thc slimc
moulds body.
!n tcrms ol classical computing architccturcs, thc
lollowing charactcristics can bc attributcd to hybrid
Physarum machinc |6|:
Massivc parallclism: thcrc arc thousands ol clc
mcntary proccssing units, oscillatory bodics, in a
slimc mould coloniscd in a Pctri dish,
Massivc signal intcgration: Mcmbranc ol plas
modium is ablc to intcgratc massivc amounts ol
complcx spatial and timcvarying stimuli to cl
lcct local changcs in contraction rhythm and, ul
timatcly, global bchaviour ol thc plasmodium,
Local conncctions: microvolumcs and oscillatory
bodics ol cytoplasm changc thcir statcs, duc to
diusion and rcaction, dcpcnding on statcs ol, or
conccntrations ol, rcactants, shapc and clcctrical
chargcs in thcir closcst ncighbours,
Parallcl input and output: Physarum computcs by
changing its shapc, can rccord computation opti
cally, Physarum is light scnsitivc, data can bc in
puttcd by localiscd illumination,
Fault tolcrancc: bcing constantly in a shapc chang
ing statc, Physarum machinc rcstorcs its architcc
turc cvcn altcr a substantial part ol its protoplasmic
nctwork is rcmovcd.
cvclopmcnt ol Physarum machincs bring bcncts
to scvcral clds ol scicncc, tcchnology and cnginccring,
lcw arc cxcmplicd bclow.
Futurc clcctronic dcsigns will bc intcgratcd at a ccl
lular scalc, whcrc growing Physarum nctworks will
bc lorming a skclcton ol conductivc and inlorma
tion proccssing clcmcnts ol thc circuits. Futurc bio
clcctronic dcsigns rcquirc novcl computational ap
proachcs: Physarum machincs ocr robust and rcli
ablc mcthods lor controllcd dcvclopmcnt ol novcl hard
warc componcnts and systcms, including high dcnsity ol
computing clcmcnts and vcry low powcr consumption.
Novcl and cmcrgcnt computing paradigms and archi
tccturcs laboratory prototypcs and modcls ol novcl
computing substratcs will bc bascd on prototypcs ol
Physarum machincs, thus cnabling thosc working in
naturcinspircd computing to acccss original comput
ing algorithms and cxpcrimcntal proccdurcs. A bio
nctwork bascd computcrs cmploying Physarum ma
chincs can bc built on in broad varicty ol ways: changc
ol intcrlacc (optical, clcctrical, chcmical, mcchanical),
changc ol intcrnal structurc ol growing nctworks lor
inlormation transmission and proccssing, units can bc
massproduccd chcaply and can bc sharcd among labs
without incurring additional cxpcnscs, hybrid units
combining scvcral typcs ol biological substratcs and
convcntional hardwarc can bc madc with units sharcd
among labs.
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Physarum Machincs lor Spacc Missions
Tc complcx systcms community will bcncts lrom
Physarum computing lor thc control ol thc growing ar
chitccturc and lunctions ol disordcrcd unrcliablc nct
works, and computational paradigms ol growing, and
structurally dynamic, random computing nctworks.
Tcory ol computation logical schcmcs and com
putational circuits dcvclopcd in Physarum machincs
will bclong to a class ol hybrid, digitalanalog systcms,
which arc a lcrtilc subjcct ol rcscarch at thc cdgc ol
analog, mcchanical and discrctc computation. 8cnc
ts arc cnvisagcd also in thc clds ol scllasscmbly, scll
rcgcncrativc systcms, survivability and laulttolcrancc ol
novcl computing schcmcs. Physarum is capablc ol rcl
ativcly quick rccovcry altcr damagc and constantly cx
plorc spacc availablc and compctition lor rcsourccs.
Growing protoplasmic tubcs ol slimc mould could bc
uscd as thc architcctural skclcton to build bioclcctronic
circuits to providc conncctions bctwccn living tissuc and
computcrs, such as brainmachinc intcrlaccs. Similar
dcviccs madc with convcntional tcchnology tcnd to bc
rigid and must bc cncapsulatcd to protcct thc clcctrical
circuits lrom thc moisturc inhcrcnt in biology.
Furthcr wc illustratc computing abilitics ol Physarum
which could bc usclul in luturc spacc missions in
lcw cxamplcs ol cxpcrimcntal laboratory studics.
5 Physarum logical gates
Givcn crossjunction ol agar channcls and plasmod
ium inoculatcd in onc ol thc channcls, thc plasmod
ium propagatcs straight through thc junction |11|, thc
spccd ol propagation may incrcasc il sourccs ol chcmo
attractants prcscnt (howcvcr prcscncc ol nutricnts docs
not acct dircction ol propagation). An activc zonc,
or a growing tip, ol plasmodium propagatcs in thc ini
tially choscn dircction, as il it has somc kind ol incrtia.
8ascd on this phcnomcnon wc dcsigncd two 8oolcan
gatcs with two inputs and two outputs, scc Fig. 11ab.
!nput variablcs arc x and y and outputs arc p and q.
Prcscncc ol a plasmodium in a givcn channcl indicatcs
Tvu:n and abscncc F~isv. ach gatc implcmcnts
a translormation lrom x, y p, q. xpcrimcntal
cxamplcs ol thc translormations arc shown in Fig. 11.
Plasmodium ol P. polycephalum implcmcnts two
input twooutput 8oolcan gatc P
1
: x, y xy, x +
y. Plasmodium inoculatcd in input y ol P
1
propa
gatcs along thc channcl yq and appcars in thc output
q (Fig. 11c). Plasmodium inoculatcd in input x ol P
1
propagatcs till junction ol x and y, collidcs to thc im
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (c)
(l ) (g) (h)
(i)
I:cuvv ++. Physarum logical gates. (ab) Geometrical structure of
Physarumgates P
1
(a) and P
2
(b): x and y are inputs, p and q are
outputs. (ce) Experimental examples of transformation x, y
p, q implemented by Physarum gate P
1
. (c) 0, 1 0, 1.
(d) 1, 0 0, 1. (e) 1, 1 1, 1. (fi) Experimen-
tal examples of transformation x, y p, q implemented by
Physarum gate P
2
. (f ) 0, 1 1, 0. (g) 1, 0 0, 1.
(hi) Two snapshots (taken with 11 h interval) of transformation
1, 1 0, 1.
passablc cdgc ol channcl yq and appcars in output q
(Fig. 11d). Vhcn plasmodia arc inoculatcd in both in
puts x and y ol P
1
thcy collidc with cach othcr and thc
plasmodium originatcd in x continucs along thc routc
xp. Tus thc plasmodia appcar in both outputs p and q
(Fig. 11c).
Plasmodium ol P. polycephalum implcmcnts two
input twooutput gatc P
2
: x, y x, xy. !l input
!: 10.2420/AF06.2013.53 59
Acta Futura 6 (2013) / 5367 A. Adamatzky
x is cmpty, plasmodium placcd in input y ol P
2
propa
gatcs dircctly towards output p (Fig. 11l ). Plasmodium
inoculatcd in input x ol P
2
(whcn input y is cmpty) trav
cls dircctly towards output q (Fig. 11g). Tus translor
mations 0, 1 1, 0 and 1, 0 0, 1 arc implc
mcntcd. Tc gatcs structurc is asymmctric, xchanncl
is shortcr than ychanncl. Tcrclorc thc plasmodium
placcd in input x ol P
2
usually passcs thc junction by
thc timc plasmodiumoriginatcd in input y arrivcs at thc
junction (Fig. 11h). Tc yplasmodium mcrgcs with x
plasmodium and thcy both propagatc towards output q
(Fig. 11i). xtcnsion ol gcl substratc altcr output q docs
usually lacilitatc implcmcntation ol thc translormation
1, 1 0, 1.
6 Path nding and routing
Mazcsolving is a classical task ol bionics, cybcrnctics
and unconvcntional computing. A typical stratcgy lor a
mazcsolving with a singlc dcvicc is to cxplorc all pos
siblc passagcs, whilc marking visitcd parts, till thc cxit
or a ccntral chambcr is lound. Scvcral attcmpts havc
bccn to outpcrlorm Shannons clcctronic mousc Tc
scus |52| using propagation ol disturbanccs in unusual
computing substratcs, including cxcitablc chcmical sys
tcms, gasdischargc, and crystallisation. Most cxpcri
mcntal prototypcs wcrc succcsslul yct sucrcd lrom thc
computingsubstratcs spccic drawbacks |14|. 8clow
wc bricy outlinc laboratory cxpcrimcnt on path nd
ing with Physarumguidcd by a diusion ol an attractant
placcd in thc targct sitc.
!n laboratory cxpcrimcnts wc uscd plastic mazcs |14|,
70 mm diamctcr with 4 mm widc and 3 mm dccp chan
ncls (Fig. 12a). Vc llcd channcls with agar gcl as a
nonnutricnt substratc. An oat akc was placcd in thc
ccntral chambcr ol thc mazc and thc plasmodium was
inoculatcd in thc most pcriphcral channcl ol thc mazc.
A typical cxpcrimcnt is illustratcd in Fig. 12. Al
tcr its inoculation thc plasmodium startcd cxploring its
vicinity and at rst gcncratcd two activc zoncs propa
gating clock and contraclockwisc (Fig. 12ab). Scv
cral activc zoncs arc dcvclopcd to cxplorc thc mazc
(Fig. 12d). 8y thc timc diusing chcmoattractants
rcachcd distant channcls, onc ol thc activc zonc al
rcady bccamc dominant and supprcsscd anothcr activc
zoncs (Fig. 12c). !n cxamplc shown activc zonc trav
clling contraclockwisc inhibitcd activc zoncs propa
gating clockwisc. Tc dominating activc zonc thcn
lollowcd thc gradicnt ol chcmoattractants insidc thc
(a) (b)
(c) (d)

I:cuvv +:. Experimental maze-solving with plasmodium of P.
polyccphalum. Plasmodium is inoculated in peripheral channel,
east part of the maze, and a virgin oat ake is placed in central
chamber. (a) Scanned image of the experimental maze, protoplas-
mic tubes are light-coloured. (b) Binarised image, major protoplas-
mic tubes are thick black lines. (c) Scheme of plasmodium propaga-
tion, arrows symbolise velocity vectors of propagating active zone.
(d) Locations of active growing zones, sprouted by plasmodium
during exploration of the maze. See details in [14].
mazc, navigatcd along intcrscctions ol thc mazcs chan
ncls and solvcd thc mazc by cntcring its ccntral cham
bcr (Fig. 12c). Physarum machincs do not always nc
an optimal solution but thcy always nd somc solu
tion, rathcr optimal lor givcn conditions and corts, and
rarcly lail (Fig. 2).
Physarum machincs can wcll act in an opcn air,
procccd to long distanccs on a nonlricndly substratcs
and yct pcrlorm tasks satislactory. Tus, slimc mould
path nding on thrccdimcnsional nylon tcrrains ol
Gcrmany, Russia, UK and USA is discusscd in |18|.
Two snapshots ol Physarum propagation arc shown in
Fig. 13.
7 Wires, transportation and building
Vhcn inoculatcd on a substratc with scattcrcd sourccs
ol nutricnts Physarum propagatcs towards thc sourccs
60 !: 10.2420/AF06.2013.53
Physarum Machincs lor Spacc Missions
I:cuvv +. Physarummachines navigate elevations on three-dimensional nylon models of continents. (a) Slime mould navigate around
mountains in USA. (b) Slime mould passes through Central Siberian Plateau north of Enashimsky mountain, in the region of Tura city.
See details in [18].
!: 10.2420/AF06.2013.53 61
Acta Futura 6 (2013) / 5367 A. Adamatzky
I:cuvv +. Towards Physarumwires. Control of magnetic nano-
particles in protoplasmic network. Position of 2520 mm N52
neodymium magnet is shown by grey disc. Segments of the tubes
closest to the magnet exhibit black colour indicating a high concen-
tration of the internalised magnetic material.
I:cuvv +. Bio-inspired architectures designed by Team:Spores.
Courtesy of Team:Spores [58].
and spans thcm with a nctwork ol protoplasmic tubcs.
Structurc ol thc nctwork may vary bctwccn cxpcrimcnts
howcvcr statistically most common planar graphs ap
proximatcd arc proximity graphs: rclativc ncighbour
hood graph, Gabricl graph and skclctons |13|. A
topological structurc ol protoplasmic nctwork is always
in a ux but a gcncral tcndcncy is that typically an acyclic
proximity graph a spanning trcc is built at rst. Tc
spanning trcc is thcn translormcd into a rclativc ncigh
bourhood graph or a Gabricl graph. Furthcr dcvclop
mcnt ol thc protoplasmic nctwork lcads to lormation ol
a claunay triangulation.
Vhcn conguration ol nutricnts matchcs a cong
uration ol major urban arcas ol a country, thc plas
modium ol P. polycephalum approximatcs a human
I:cuvv +6. Physarum derived wearable devices. Drawing by
eresa Schubert, Bauhaus-Universitt Weimar, Germany [55].
madc transport nctwork, motorways and highways ol
thc country. !n |17| wc dcvclopcd a simplc and uscr
lricndly tcchniquc lor cvaluating manmadc transport
systcms using slimc mould P. polycephalum. Tc cxpcri
mcntal laboratory mcthods arc cost ccicnt and rcquirc
littlc il any spccialiscd cquipmcnt. Vc lound that thc
slimc mould P. polycephalum approximatcs bcst ol all
motorways in 8clgium, Canada and China. Tc coun
trics studicd can bc arrangcd in thc lollowing dcsccnd
ing ordcr ol biorationality: 8clgium, Canada, China,
!taly, Malaysia, Tc Ncthcrlands, 8razil, Gcrmany,
Mcxico, UK, Alrica and USA |17|.
!n |17| wc undcrtook a comparativc analysis ol thc
motorway and protoplasmic nctworks. Vc lound that
in tcrms ol absolutc matching bctwccn slimc mould nct
works and motorway nctworks thc rcgions studicd can
bc arrangcd in thc lollowing ordcr ol dccrcasing match
ing: Malaysia, !taly, Canada, 8clgium, China, Alrica,
thc Ncthcrlands, Gcrmany, UK, Australia, !bcria, Mcx
ico, 8razil, USA. Vc comparcd thc Physarum and thc
motorway graphs using such mcasurcs as avcragc and
longcst shortcst paths, avcragc dcgrccs, numbcr ol indc
pcndcnt cyclcs, thc Harary indcx, thc indcx and thc
Randi indcx. Vc lound that in tcrms ol thcsc mcasurcs
motorway nctworks in 8clgium, Canada and China arc
most anc to protoplasmic nctworks ol slimc mould
62 !: 10.2420/AF06.2013.53
Physarum Machincs lor Spacc Missions
|Alrica|
|Australia|
|China|
|USA|
I:cuvv+y. Exemplar congurations of protoplasmic networks de-
veloped by slime mould P. polyccphalum on major urban areas U
obtained in experimental laboratory studies [17].
P. polycephalum. Vith rcgards to mcasurcs and topo
logical indiccs wc dcmonstratcd that thc Randi indcx
could bc considcrcd as most biocompatiblc mcasurc ol
transport nctworks, bccausc it matchcs incrcdibly wcll
thc slimc mould and manmadc transport nctworks, yct
ccicntly discriminatcs bctwccn transport nctworks ol
I:cuvv +8. Physarum spanning oat akes imitating stars clusters
on the infrared image of the Centre of the Milky Way Galaxy. See
source at [40].
dicrcnt rcgions.
Tc biological mcchanisms |17|, undcrlying thc op
timal nctwork lormation in Physarum machincs could
bc cmploycd in dcsign ol largc scalc transportation and
communication nctworks, whcn c.g. major clustcrs,
stars and mattcr lormations arc rcprcscntcd by sourccs
ol chcmoattractants and nutricnts (Figs. 2 and 18). Tc
Physarum built transportation nctworks will assist path
planning tasks |29, 66, 34, 19| lor spacc ships and spacc
stations, intraplanctary transportation |36|. Tc dy
namical graphs dcvclopcd by thc slimc mould may lorm
a basis lor luturc and cmcrgcnt routing protocols and
topology control ol communication nctworks |37, 57|
and optimisation ol wirclcss nctworks |67|.
Tcsc bchavioural trait ol Physarum can bc uscd to
cxccutc bioinspircd routing ol conductivc path
ways in Physarumbuilt clcctronic circuits, c.g. by
loading thc slimc mould with conductivc nano
bcads (Fig. 14), scc also |38|
growing ol a largcscalc dwcllings which archi
tccturc can bc tuncd dcpcnding on cnvironmcn
tal conditions (Fig. 15), structurcs build by anothcr
singlc ccll organismSyringammina fragilissima |61|
provc lcasibility ol thc approach, and
growth ol wcarablc biohybrid nctworks ol dis
tributcd scnsorial, computing and actuating clc
mcnts (Fig. 16), rst attcmpts ol growing lunc
tional nctworks lor transportation ol substanccs
wcrc succcsslul |13|.
!: 10.2420/AF06.2013.53 63
Acta Futura 6 (2013) / 5367 A. Adamatzky
a)
b)
I:cuvv +. Image of Physarum growing on a nutrient agar su-
perimposed on an false colour composite image of Cartwheel galaxy.
PIA03296: AStellar Ripple. NASA/JPL-Caltech [23]. (a) Image
of the whole Physarum expanding pattern. (b) Zoomed segment of
Physarum showing changing topology of protoplasmic tubes: inoc-
ulation site is on the left and wave front is on the right.
8 Physarum networks and Cosmic Web
n a nutricnt substratc Physarum cxpands as an om
nidircctional wavc, c.g. as a classical cxcitation wavc
in a twodimcnsional cxcitablc mcdium (Fig. 19a). !t
shows a pronounccd wavc lront, compriscd ol a vcry
dcnsc nctwork ol protoplasmic tubcs. Tcrc arc scvcral
ordcrs ol tubcs which arc scasily dicrcntiablc by thcir
width (Fig. 19b). cnsity ol thc protoplasmic nctwork
dccrcascs towards inoculation sitc, thc cpiccntrc ol thc
wavc pattcrn. Morphological transitions ol thc slimc
moulds nctwork s during cxpansion, colonisation and
dcvclopmcnt bcar rcmarkablc rcscmblancc to thc Cos
mic Vcb |65, 8, 24|. Vcblikc spatial arrangcmcnt ol
galaxics and masscs into clongatcd lamcnts ol Cosmic
Vcb |65| arc rcprcscntcd by wavclragmcnt likc activc
growing zoncs and colonics ol Physarum. Morpholo
gics ol shcctlikc walls and dcnsc compact clustcrs |65|
arc typical lor thc slimc mould growing on a nutricnt
agar. Largc ncarcmpty void rcgions |65| arc lormcd in
thc protoplasmic nctworks duc to rclcasc ol mctabolitcs
into a substratc surrounding protoplasmic shccts and
compctition bctwccn thc protoplasmic tubcs. A hicrar
chical naturc ol mass distribution in Cosmic Vcb |65|
is rcprcscntcd by hicrarchics ol protoplasmic tubcs and
thcir dcgrccs ol branching.
9 Conclusion
Slimc mould ol P. polycephalum is a uniquc living sub
stratc which implcmcnts distributcd scnsing, massivc
parallcl inlormation proccssing, dcccntraliscd dccision
making and concurrcnt actuation and manipulation.
Physarum machincs arc cxpcrimcntal prototypcs ol un
convcntional computing dcviccs implcmcntcd in thc
slimc mould ol P. polycephalum. Vc bricy introduccd
Physarum machincs and cxcmplicd thcir lunctional
ity on 8oolcan logic and path nding tasks. Vc spccu
latcd that in luturc spacc missions Physarum machincs
could bc uscd as onboard amorphous computcrs lor
routc planning and nctwork communication, as wcll as
smart living matcrials lor growing clcctrical comput
ing circuits, dcvcloping dwcllings and inhabitablc cn
closurcs, and labrication ol wcarablc scnsing, comput
ing and actuating dcviccs. Morcovcr, thc slimc mould
per se can bc an idcal analog modclling substratc to study
a dcvclopmcnt ol galaxics and cvolution ol cosmic mat
tcr.
10 Acknowledgement
Tc rcscarch was partly supportcd by uropcan Com
mission grant Physarum Chip: Growing Comput
crs lrom Slimc Mould, programmc typc Scvcnth
Framcwork Programmc, subprogrammc arca Uncon
vcntional Computation (UCMP), projcct rclcrcncc
316366. ! thank TAM:SPRS, cspccially Gracc
Chung and Prccty Anand lor discussions on architcc
tural potcntial ol Physarum, and ! amgratclul to Tcrcsa
Schubcrt lor hcr imprcssion ol slimcwarc.
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