FRICTION STIR WELDING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Submitted By Manoj Balu V B Roll no: 135506

Abstract
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process that involves joining of metals without fusion or filler materials. The frictional heat is produced from a rapidly rotating non-consumable high strength tool pin that extends from a cylindrical shoulder. The tool serves two primary functions which are heating of work piece and movement of material to produce the joint. The heating is accomplished by friction between the tool and the work piece and plastic deformation of work piece. The localised heating softens the material around the pin and a combination of tool rotation and translation leads to movement of material from the front of the pin to the back of the pin. The process is particularly applicable for aluminium alloys but can be extended to other products also. Plates, sheets and hollow pipes can be welded by this method. The process is also suitable for automation. The weld produced is of finer microstructure and superior in characteristics to that parent metal. FSW finds application in shipbuilding, aerospace, railway, electrical and automotive industry. By the modifications of tools and by the use of latest technologies in micro structural analysis FSW can be used effectively for all materials which are considered as non welded by fusion method with minimum defects and less energy usage. Compared to fusion process FSW produces leak proof strengthened weightless joints which are highly applicable for aerospace applications.

Introduction
Welding is a metal joining process in which similar or dissimilar metals or alloys are joined with or without the application of pressure, with or without the application of filler materials. Solid state welding is a group of welding processes which produces coalescence at temperatures essentially below the melting point of the base materials being joined, without the addition of filler materials, Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process that involves joining of metals without fusion or filler materials by applying force by the tool, The frictional heat is produced from a rapidly rotating nonconsumable high strength tool pin that extends from a cylindrical shoulder. The process is particularly applicable for aluminium alloys but can be extended to other products also. Friction stir welding (FSW) was invented at The Welding Institute (TWI) of UK in 1991 as a solid-state joining technique, and it was initially applied to aluminium alloys. The difficulty of making high-strength, fatigue and fracture resistant welds in aerospace aluminium alloys, such as highly alloyed 2XXX and 7XXX series, has long inhibited the wide use of welding for joining aerospace structures. These aluminium alloys are generally classied as non-wieldable because of the poor solidication microstructure and porosity in the fusion zone. Also, the loss in mechanical properties as compared to the base material is very signicant. These factors make the joining of these alloys by conventional welding processes unattractive. Some aluminium alloys can be resistance welded, but the surface preparation is expensive, with surface oxide being a major problem so a relatively new technique was developed which was named as friction stir welding. The basic concept of FSW is that a non consumable rotating tool with a specially designed pin and shoulder is inserted into the abutting edges of sheets or plates to be joined and traversed along the line of joint .The tool serves two primary functions which are heating of work piece and movement of material to produce the joint. The heating is accomplished by friction between the tool and the work piece and plastic deformation of work piece. The localised heating softens the material around the pin and a combination of tool rotation and translation leads to movement of material from the front of the pin to the back of the pin. As a result of this process a joint is produced in solid state. Because ofvarious geometrical features of the tool, the material movement around the pin can be quite complex During FSW process, the material undergoes intense plastic deformation at elevated temperature, resulting in generation of fine and equiaxed recrystallized grains. The fine microstructure in friction stir welds produces good mechanical properties,FSW is considered to be the most significant development in metal joining in a decade due to its energy efficiency, environment friendliness, and versatility. As compared to the conventional welding methods, FSW consumes considerably less energy. No cover gas or flux is used, thereby making the process environmentally friendly. The joining does not involve any use of filler metal and therefore any Aluminium alloy can be joined without concern for the compatibility of composition, which is an issue in fusion welding. Friction stir welding can be applied to various types of joints like butt joints, lap joints, T butt joints, and fillet joints. Recently friction stir processing (FSP) was developed by Mishra as a generic tool for micro structural modification based on the basic principles of FSW. In this case, a rotating tool is inserted in a monolithic work piece for localized micro structural modification for specific property enhancement

Working principle
In friction stir welding (FSW) a cylindrical, shouldered tool with a profiled probe is rotated and slowly plunged into the joint line between two pieces butted together. The parts have to be clamped onto a backing bar in a manner that prevents the abutting joint faces from being forced apart. Frictional heat is generated between the wear resistant welding tool and the material of the work pieces. This heat causes the latter to soften without reaching the melting point and allows traversing of the tool along the weld line. The maximum temperature reached is of the order of 0.8 of the melting temperature of the material. The plasticized material is transferred from the leading edge of the tool to the trailing edge of the tool probe and is forged by the intimate contact of the tool shoulder and the pin profile. It leaves a solid phase bond between the two pieces. The process can be regarded as a solid phase keyhole welding technique since a hole to accommodate the probe is generated. and then filled during the welding sequence. The non-consumable tool has a circular section except at the end where there is a threaded probe or more complicated flute; the junction between the cylindrical portion and the probe is known as the shoulder. The probe penetrates the work piece whereas the shoulder rubs with the top surface. The tool has an end tap of 5 in 6 mm diameter and a height of 5 to 6 mm (may vary with the metal thickness). The tool is set in a positive angle of some degree in the welding direction. The design of the pin and shoulder assembly plays a major role on how the material moves during the process. Different types of tools are mounted on the tool machine.

Process parameters
FSW involves complex material movement and plastic deformation. Welding parameters,

tool geometry, and joint design exert significant effect on the material flow pattern and temperature distribution, thereby influencing the micro structural evolution of material.

Tool geometry
Tool geometry is the most influential aspect of process development. The tool geometry plays a critical role in material flow and in turn governs the traverse .As mentioned earlier, the tool has two primary functions: (a) localized heating, and (b) material flow. In the initial stage of tool plunge, the heating results primarily from the friction between pin and work piece. Some additional heating results from deformation of materialate at which FSW can be conducted.The tool is plunged till the shoulder touches the work piece. The friction between the shoulder and work piece results in the biggest component of heating. From the heating aspect, the relative size of pin and shoulder is important, and the other design features are not critical. The shoulder also provides confinement for the heated volume of material. The second function of the tool is to stir and move the material. The uniformity of microstructure and properties as well as process loads are governed by the tool design. Generally a concave shoulder and threaded cylindrical pins are used.

But by increasing technology and some improvement in understanding of material flow, the tool geometry has evolved significantly. Complex features have been added to alter material flow, mixing and reduce process loads. For example, Whorl TM and MX Triflute TM tools developed by TWI are shown in the below figure..

Pins for both tools are shaped as a frustum that displaces less material than a cylindrical tool of the same root diameter. Typically, the WhorlTM reduces the displaced volume by about 60%, while the MX TrifluteTM reduces the displaced volume by about 70%. The design features of the WhorlTM and the MXTrifluteTM are believed to (a) reduce welding force, (b) enable easier flow of plasticized material, (c) facilitate the downward augering effect, and (d) increase the interface between the pin and the plasticized material, thereby increasing heat generation. It has been proved that aluminium plates with a thickness of up to 50 mm can be successfully friction stir welded in one pass using these two tools. A 75 mm thick 6082Al-T6 FSW weld was made using WhorlTM tool in two passes, each giving about 38 mm penetration., the major factor determining the superiority of the whorl pins over the conventional cylindrical pins is the ratio of the swept volume during rotation to the volume of the pin itself, i.e., a ratio of the dynamic volume to the static volume that is important in providing an adequate flow path. Typically, this ratio for pins with similar root diameters and pin length is 1.1:1 for conventional cylindrical pin, 1.8:1 for the WhorlTM and 2.6:1 for the MX TrifluteTM pin. For lap welding, conventional cylindrical threaded pin resulted in excessive thinning of the top sheet, leading to significantly reduced bend properties. For lap welds, the width of the weld interface and the angle at which the notch meets the edge of the weld is also important for applications where fatigue is of main concern. Recently, two new pin geometriesFlared-TrifuteTM with the flute lands being machined out and A-skewTM with the pin axis being slightly inclined to the axis of machine spindle were developed for improved quality of lap welding. The design features of the Flared-TrifuteTM and the AskewTM are (a) increase the ratio between of the swept volume and static volume of the pin, thereby improving the flow path around and underneath the pin, (b) widen the welding region

due to flared-out flute lands in the Flared-TrifuteTM pin and the skew action in the AskewTM pin, (c) provide an improved mixing action for oxide fragmentation and dispersal at the weld interface, and (d) provide an orbital forging action at the root of the weld due to the skew action, improving weld quality in this region. Compared to the conventional threaded pin, Flared-TrifuteTM and A-skew TM pins resulted in: (a) over 100% improvement in welding speed, (b) about 20% reduction in axial force, (c) significantly widened welding region (d) a reduction in upper plate thinning by a factor of >4. Flared-TrifuteTM pin reduced significantly the angle of the notch upturn at the overlapping plate/weld interface, whereas AskewTM produced a slight downturn at the outer regions of the overlapping plate/weld interface, which are beneficial to improving the properties of the FSW joints. Further, various shoulder profiles were designed in TWI to suit different materials and conditions. These shoulder profiles improve the coupling between the tool shoulder and the work pieces by entrapping plasticized material within special re-entrant features. Considering the significant effect of tool geometry on the metal flow, fundamental correlation between material flow and resultant microstructure of welds varies with each tool. Computational tools, including finite element analysis (FEA), can be used to visualize the material flow and calculate axial forces.

Flared-TrifluteTM tools developed by The Welding Institute (TWI), UK: (a) neutral flutes, (b) left flutes, and (c) right hand flutes..

A-SkewTM tool developed by The Welding Institute (TWI), UK: (a) side view, (b) front view, and (c) swept region Encompassed by skew action.. Commonly used tool materials Tool steel PCBN tools W based tools Coated tools

The FSW tool is subjected to stress and high temperature particularly for the welding of hard alloys such as steels and titanium alloys. There are 3 types of FSW tools.

Fixed
o The fixed probe tool corresponds to a single piece Comprising both the shoulder and probe o This tool can only weld a work piece with a constant thickness due to the fixed probe length. o If the probe wears significantly or breaks the whole tool must be replaced.

ADJUSTABLE TOOL
The adjustable tool consist of two independent pieces i.e. separate shoulder and probe, to allow adjustment of the probe length during FSW. In this design, the shoulder and probe can be manufactured using different materials and probe can be easily replaced when worn are damaged . The adjustable probe length can allow welding of variable and multiple gauge thickness work pieces

SELF REACTING TOOL (Bobbin type tool)

The bobbin type tool is made up of three pieces. Top Shoulder Probe

 Bottom shoulder The tool can accommodate multiple gauge thickness joints due to the adjustable probe length between the top and bottom shoulder. No backing anvil is needed but the bobbin type tool can only work perpendicular to the work piece surface.

Welding parameters
For FSW, two parameters are very important: tool rotation rate (v, rpm) in clockwise or Counter clockwise direction and tool traverse speed (n, mm/min) along the line of joint. The rotation of tool results in stirring and mixing of material around the rotating pin and the translation of tool moves the stirred material from the front to the back of the pin and finishes welding process. Higher tool rotation rates generate higher temperature because of higher friction heating and result in more intense stirring and mixing of material. In addition to the tool rotation rate and traverse speed, another important process parameter is the angle of spindle or tool tilt with respect to the work piece surface. A suitable tilt of the spindle towards trailing direction ensures that the shoulder of the tool holds the stirred material by threaded pin and move material efficiently from the front to the back of the pin. Further, the insertion depth of pin into the work pieces (also called target depth) is important for producing sound welds with smooth tool shoulders. The insertion depth of pin is associated with the pin height. When the insertion depth is too shallow, the shoulder of tool does not contact the original work piece surface. Thus, rotating shoulder cannot move the stirred material efficiently from the front to the back of the pin, resulting in generation of welds with inner channel or surface groove. When the insertion depth is too deep, the shoulder of tool plunges into the work piece creating excessive flash. In this case, a significantly concave weld is produced, leading to local thinning of the welded plates. Preheating or cooling can also be important for some specific FSW processes. For materials with high melting point such as steel and titanium or high conductivity such as copper, the heat produced by friction and stirring may be not sufficient to soften and plasticize the material around the rotating tool. Thus, it is difficult to produce continuous defect-free weld. In these cases, preheating or additional external heating source can help the material flow and increase the process window. On the other hand materials with lower melting point such as aluminium and magnesium, cooling can be used to reduce extensive growth of recrystallized grains and dissolution of strengthening precipitates in and around the stirred zone.

Microstructure Classification
This classification is primarily based on aluminium alloys since the behaviour of aluminium alloys is not typical of most metallic materials, and therefore the scheme cannot be broadened to encompass all materials. The contribution of intense plastic deformation and high-temperature exposure within the stirred zone during FSW results in recrystallization and development of texture within the stirred zone and precipitate dissolution and coarsening within and around the stirred zone. Based on micro structural characterization of grains and precipitates four distinct zones are there A. Unaffected Material B. Heat affected zone (HAZ)

C. Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) D. Weld nugget (Part of thermo-mechanically affected zone) Unaffected material or parent metal: This is material remote from the weld, which has not been deformed, and which although it may have experienced a thermal cycle from the weld is not affected by the heat in terms of microstructure or mechanical properties. Heat affected zone (HAZ): In this region, which clearly will lie closer to the weld centre, the material has experienced a thermal cycle, which has modified the microstructure and/or the mechanical properties. However, there is no plastic deformation occurring in this area. Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ): In this region, the material has been plastically deformed by the friction stir welding tool, and the heat from the process will also have exerted some influence on the material. In the case of aluminium, it is possible to get significant plastic strain without recrystallisation in this region, and there is generally a distinct boundary between the recrystallised zone and the deformed zones of the TMAZ. In the earlier classification, these two sub-zones were treated as distinct micro structural regions. However, subsequent work on other materials has shown that aluminium behaves in a different manner to most other materials, in that it can be extensively deformed at high temperature without recrystallisation. In other materials, the distinct recrystallised region (the nugget) is absent, and the whole of the TMAZ appears to be recrystallised. Weld Nugget: The recrystallised area in the TMAZ in aluminium alloys has traditionally been called the nugget. It has been named that the area immediately below the tool shoulder (which is clearly part of the TMAZ) should be given a separate category, as the grain structure is often different here. The microstructure here is determined by rubbing by the rear face of the shoulder, and the material will be cooled below its maximum.

A Unaffected Material B. Heat affected zone (HAZ) C. Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) D. Weld nugget (Part of thermo-mechanically affected zone)

Suitable materials for FSW

. The following aluminium alloys could be successfully welded to yield reproducible high integrity welds within defined parametric tolerances 2000 Series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium and copper. 3000 Series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium and copper. 4000 series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium and silicon,

5000 series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium 6000 series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium, magnesium and silicon 7000 series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium and zinc 8000 series aluminium which is an alloy of aluminium and lithium The technology of friction stir welding has been extended to other materials also, on which researches are going on . Some of them are as followsCopper and its alloys Lead Titanium and its alloys Magnesium and its alloys Zinc Plastics Mild steel It has been proved that FSW is a much more efficient and cleaner process than conventional adhesive bonding in plastics. But it is yet to be made cost and material effective. Ceramics is another field where FSW could be very useful in the future.FSW of Mild Steel Steel can be friction stir welded, but the essential problem is that tool materials wear rapidly. The sample becomes red hot during welding Since the tool gets red hot it is necessary to protect it against the environment using a shielding gas. So generally FSW is avoided for mild steel. This is not such a great disadvantage since there are more efficient methods to weld mild steel

Advantages of FSW
The process is environment friendly since no fumes or spatter is generated and no shielding gas is required. A non consumable tool is used since the weld is obtained in solid phase, gravity does not play any part and hence the process can be done in all positions (vertical, horizontal, overhead or orbital). No grinding, brushing or pickling is required. Since the temperature involved in the process is quite low, shrinkage during solidification is less. One tool can be typically used for up to 1000 metres of weld length (6000 series aluminium alloy). No fusion or filler materials are required. No oxide removal necessary as in fusion welding. The weld obtained is of superior quality with excellent mechanical properties and fine micro structure. The process is cost effective since mechanical forming after welding can be avoided. Dissimilar metals can be welded. Automation is possible. Good dimensional stability and repeatability. Improved leak proofness as compared to other welding. Decreased fuel consumption in light weight aircraft, automotive and ship applications. Improved materials use (e.g., joining different thickness) allows reduction in weight Only 2.5% of the energy needed for a laser weld. The weld is in principle flush with the parent material, improved repeatability. The FSW operation comprises a small number of variables which it is easy to monitor which includes tools, feeding rate, rpm, and position of tool. This also permits close tolerances.. The heat affected zone is considerably smaller in the case of FSW joints than with fusion welding. This means an increase in strength and a reduction in distortion.,

Applications of FSW
Shipbuilding and marine industries

The shipbuilding and marine industries are two of the first industry sectors which have adopted the process for commercial applications. The process is suitable for the following applications: Panels for decks, sides, bulkheads and floors Aluminium extrusions Hulls and superstructures Helicopter landing platforms Offshore accommodation Marine and transport structures Masts and booms, e.g. for sailing boats refrigeration plant Aerospace industry At present the aerospace industry is welding prototype parts by friction stir welding. Opportunities exist to weld skins to spars, ribs, and stringers for use in military and civilian aircraft. This offers significant advantages compared to riveting and machining from solid, such as reduced manufacturing costs and weight savings. Longitudinal butt welds and circumferential lap welds of Al alloy fuel tanks for space vehicles have been friction stir welded. The process could also be used to increase the size of commercially available sheets by welding them before forming. The friction stir welding process can therefore be considered for Wings, fuselages, empennages Cryogenic fuel tanks for space vehicles ,Aviation fuel tanks , External throw away tanks for military aircraft , Military and scientific rockets , Repair of faulty MIG welds . Railway industry The commercial production of high speed trains made from aluminium extrusions which may be joined by friction stir welding has been published. Applications include, High speed trains , Rolling stock of railways, underground carriages, trams , Railway tankers and goods wagons , Container bodies etc. They are also used for Land transportation, Electrical industries, construction industries etc.

Limitations
Welding speeds are moderately slower Work pieces must be rigidly clamped Backing bar required Keyhole at the end of each weld Requirement of different length pin tools when welding materials of varying thickness Hole at the end of FSW Retractable pin tool

Two major drawbacks of FSW is the requirement for different length pin tools when welding materials of varying thickness and a keyhole at the end of the weld may be overcome with the help of a retractable pin tool developed by NASA. The automatic retractable pin tool uses a computer controlled motor to automatically retract the pin into the shoulder of the tool at the end of the weld preventing keyholes. This design allows the pin angle and length to be adjusted for changes in material thickness.

Conclusion
FSW process has been an excellent substitute for alloys that have inherent fusion welding problems. FSW ensures a constant and high quality of joint. Friction stir welds will not encounter problems like porosity, alloy segregation, hot cracking and welds are produced with good surface finish and thus no post weld cleaning is required.AS in traditional fusion welding, butt and lap joint designs are the most common joint configurations in friction stir welding. However, no special preparation is needed for the butt and lap joints of friction stir welding. Two clean metal plates can be easily joined together in the form of butt or lap joints without concern about the surface conditions of the plates. Compared to the traditional fusion welding, friction stir welding exhibits a considerable improvement in strength, ductility, fatigue and fracture toughness. Moreover, 80% of yield stress of the base material has been achieved in friction stir welded aluminium alloys with failure usually occurring within the heat-affected region Efforts are on to make the process more flexible. This joining technique is energy efficient, and eco friendly. So it is a futuristic technology. Researches are going on to improve its applications in many field and by the addition of new technologies like friction stir processing (FSP) which is developed for micro structural modification of metallic materials and by designing tools for decreasing the force applied and to increase the welding thickness FSW may become applicable to all fields where fusion welding is difficult due to these technological advantages.

References
1 2 3 Friction stir welding and processing by Rajiv S. Mishra, Murray W. Mahoney Friction stir welding and processing by K V Jata Metallurgy of welding brazing and soldering by Lancaster