CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

In late 1991 a very novel and potentially world beating welding method was conceived at
TWI. The process was duly named friction stir welding (FSW), and TWI filed for world-
wide patent protection in December of that year. TWI (The Welding Institute) is a world
famous institute in the UK that specializes in materials joining technology. Consistent
with the more conventional methods of friction welding, which have been practiced since
the early 1950s, the weld is made in the solid phase, that is, no melting is involved.
Compared to conventional friction weldingFSW uses a rotating tool to generate the
necessary heat for the process. Since its invention, the process has received world-wide
attention and today two Scandinavian companies are using the technology in production,
particularly for joining aluminum alloys.

Also, FSW is a process that can be automated. It is also a cleaner and more efficient
process compared to conventional techniques.

During this process, the tool rotation creates conditions for the generation of energy by
friction between the tool and the work piece, as well as through the plastic deformation of
the material.

Both energies heat the plates, enabling their joining at tem-peratures lower than the
melting point of the materDuring this process, the tool rotation creates conditions for the
generation of energy by friction between the tool and the work piece, as well as through
the plastic deformation of the material.

Both energies heat the plates, enabling their joining at temperature lower than the melting
point of the material. To increase the amount of heat generated due to friction and the
mixing of materials, the tool probe is generally threaded. The high-quality strength of the
friction-stir welded materials may be accredited to the plastic deformation and below
melting point solidification.

The heat transfer process is one of the most important aspects in the FSW study. A good
understanding of the heat transfer process in the work piece can be helpful in predicting
the thermal cycles in the welding work piece, and the hardness in the weld zone,
subsequently, can be helpful in evaluating the weld quality.

1
A known temperature distribution is also important for calculating the temperature-
dependent viscosity when modeling material flow.

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use,
conversion, and exchange of thermal energy(heat) between physical systems. Heat
transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction and transfer of
energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve
heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur
simultaneously in the same system.

1.1 Working principle

Fig 1.1 welding diagram

In friction stir welding (FSW) a cylindrical, shouldered tool with a profiled probe
is rotated and slowly plunged into the joint line between two pieces butted together. The
parts have to be clamped onto a backing bar in a manner that prevents the abutting joint
faces from being forced apart. Frictional heat is generated between the wear resistant
welding tool and the material of the work pieces. This heat causes the latter to soften
without reaching the melting point and allows traversing of the tool along the weld line.
The maximum temperature reached is of the order of 0.8 of the melting temperature of
the material.

The plasticized material is transferred from the leading edge of the tool to the
trailing edge of the tool probe and is forged by the intimate contact of the tool shoulder
and the pin profile. It leaves a solid phase bond between the two pieces. The process can
be regarded as a solid phase keyhole welding technique since a hole to accommodate

2
the probe is generated, then filled during the welding sequence

1.2 Description of the rotating tool pin

Fig 1.2 Different types of tools used

Fig 1.3 Tool mounted on the machine

The non-consumable tool has a circular section except at the end where there is a
threaded probe or more complicated flute; the junction between the cylindrical portion
and the probe is known as the shoulder. The probe penetrates the work piece whereas the
shoulder rubs with the top surface. The tool has an end tap of 5 in 6 mm diameter and a
height of 5 to 6 mm (may vary with the metal thickness). The tool is set in a positive
angle of some degree in the welding direction.

The design of the pin and shoulder assembly plays a major role on how the material
moves during the process.

1.3 Microstructure Classification

The first attempt at classifying microstructures was made by P L Thread gill (Bulletin,
March 1997). This work was based solely on information available from aluminum
alloys.

However, it has become evident from work on other materials that the behavior of

3
aluminum alloys is not typical of most metallic materials, and therefore the scheme
cannot be broadened to encompass all materials. It is therefore proposed that the
following revised scheme is used.

This has been developed at TWI, but has been discussed with a number of appropriate
people in industry and academia, and has also been provisionally accepted by the Friction
Stir Welding Licensees Association. The system divides the weld zone into distinct
regions as follows:

Fig 1.4 schematic diagram of welding joint

A. Unaffected material
B. Heat affected zone (HAZ)
C. Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ)
D. Weld nugget (Part of thermo-mechanically affected zone)

Unaffected material or parent metal: This is material remote from the weld, which has
not been deformed, and which although it may have experienced a thermal cycle from the
weld is not affected by the heat in terms of microstructure or mechanical properties.

Heat affected zone (HAZ): In this region, which clearly will lie closer to the weld
center, the material has experienced a thermal cycle, which has modified the
microstructure and/or the mechanical properties.

However, there is no plastic deformation occurring in this area. In the previous system,
this was referred to as the "thermally affected zone". The term heat affected zone is now
preferred, as this is a direct parallel with the heat affected zone in other thermal
processes, and there is little justification for a separate name.

4
Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ): In this region, the material has been
plastically deformed by the friction stir welding tool, and the heat from the process will
also have exerted some influence on the material.

In the case of aluminum, it is possible to get significant plastic strain without

recrystallization in this region, and there is generally a distinct boundary between the
recrystallized zone and the deformed zones of the TMAZ.

In the earlier classification, these two sub-zones were treated as distinct microstructural
regions. However, subsequent work on other materials has shown that aluminum behaves
in a different manner to most other materials, in that it can be extensively deformed at
high temperature without recrystallization. In other materials, the distinct recrystallized
region (the nugget) is absent, and the whole of the TMAZ appears to be recrystallized.

Weld Nugget: The recrystallized area in the TMAZ in aluminum alloys has traditionally
been called the nugget.

Although this term is descriptive, it is not very scientific. However, its use has become
widespread, and as there is no word which is equally simple with greater scientific merit,
this term has been adopted. A schematic diagram is shown in the above Figure which
clearly identifies the various regions. It has been suggested that the area immediately
below the tool shoulder (which is clearly part of the TMAZ) should be given a separate
category, as the grain structure is often different here.

The microstructure here is determined by rubbing by the rear face of the shoulder, and
the material may have cooled below its maximum. It is suggested that this area is treated
as a separate sub- zone of the TMAZ. During the FSW process the tool penetrates into
the work piece, then moves along the joint line at a constant speed The material in front
of the rotating tool pin is plastically deformed and stirred back to the trail edge of the tool
pin in the welding.

This continuous “stir” process makes it difficult to model the heat input from the pin.
First, the material plastic flow process is very complicated, making it almost impossible
to determine the temperature distribution of the relocated material that is stirred from the
front edge to the aft edge of the tool pin. Secondly, the tool pin is non-consumable in the
welding, and modeling a moving tool pin in the work piece is also not easy. The heat
input from the tool pin is simplified as a moving heat source.

In this paper, a moving coordinate has been introduced to model the transient three-
5
dimensional heat transfer process for FSW. s. Welding is achieved with one tool that is
in contact with weld pieces.

1.4 Factors affecting weld quality

1. Type of metal
2. Angle of tool
3. Traversing speed of the tool
4. Spinning speed of tool
5. Pressure applied by the pin tool
Research is going on to combine the above factors in order to control the process in a
better way.

1.5 Other materials

The technology of friction stir welding has been extended to other materials also, on
which researches are going on . Some of them are as follows-

1. Copper and its alloys

2. Lead
3. Titanium and its alloys
4. Magnesium and its alloys
5. Zinc
6. Plastics
7. Mild steel
Companies practicing and developing FSW are spending a lot of money on improving its
use for plastics. It has been demonstrated that FSW is a much more efficient and cleaner
process than conventional adhesive bonding in plastics.

But it is yet to be made cost and material effective. Ceramics is another field where FSW
could be very useful in the future.

6
 CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE SURVEY
Kah P., Rajan R. et.al [1], Martikainen J., Suoranta Investigation of weld defects in
friction-stir welding and fusion welding of aluminium alloys. Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng.
2015;10:26. doi: 10.1186/s40712-015-0053-8.

Choi W.J., Morrow J.D. et.al [2], Pfefferkorn F.E., Zinn M.R. The Effects of Welding
Parameters and Backing Plate Diffusivity on Energy Consumption in Friction Stir
Welding. Procedia Manuf. 2017;10:382–391.doi: 10.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.011.

Khan N.K., Bajaj D. et.al [3], Siddiquee A.N., Khan Z.A., Abidi M.H., Umer U.,
Alkhalefah H. Investigation on Effect of Strain Rate and Heat Generation on Traverse
Force in FSW of Dissimilar

Zhang Y., Sato Y.S. et.al [4], Kokawa H., Park S.H.C., Hirano Aerospace Grade.
Materials. 2019;12:1641.doi: 10.3390/ma1210164 S. Grain structure and microtexture in
friction stir welded commercial purity titanium. Sci.Technol.Weld.Join. 2010;15:500–
505. doi: 10.1179/136217110X12785889549624.

Derazkola H.A., Simchi A et.al [5], An investigation on the dissimilar friction stir
welding of T-joints between AA5754 aluminum alloy and poly(methyl methacrylate)
Thin-Walled Struct. 2019;135:376–384. doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2018.11.027.

Lambiase F., Paoletti A. et.al [6], Di Ilio A. Forces and temperature variation during
friction stir welding of aluminum alloy AA6082-T6. IntJ.Adv.Manuf.Technol.
2018;99:337–346. doi: 10.1007/s00170-018-2524-6.

Sreenivas P. et.al [7], Anil Kumar R., Sreejith P.S. Effect of applied axial force on FSW
of AA 6082-T6 aluminium alloys. Int. J. Mech. Eng. Technol. 2017;8:88–99.

Yan J., Sutton M.A et.al [8]., Reynolds A.P. Process-structure- property relationships for
nugget and heat affected zone regions of AA2524-T351 friction stir welds. Sci.
Technol. Weld. Join. 2005;10:725–736. doi: 10.1179/174329305X68778.

Arora A., Nandan R. et.al [9], Reynolds A.P., DebRoy T. Torque, power requirement and
stir zone geometry in friction stir welding through modellingandexperiments. Scr.Mater.
2009;60:13– 16. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2008.08.015.

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Leitão C., Louro R. et.al [10], Rodrigues D.M. Using torque sensitivity analysis in
accessing Friction Stir Welding/Processing conditions. J.Mater.Process.Technol.
2012;212:20512057.doi: 10.1 016/j.jmatprotec.2012.05.009.

Mehta M., Chatterjee K., De A et.al [11]. Monitoring torque and traverse force in friction
stir welding from input electrical signatures of driving motors. Sci. Technol.
Weld. Join. 2013;18:191–197. doi: 10.1179/1362171812Y.0000000084.

Papahn H., Bahemmat P. et.al [12], Haghpanahi M., Pour Aminaie I. Effect of friction
stir welding tool on temperature, applied forces and weld quality. IET Sci.
Meas. Technol. 2015;9:475–484. doi: 10.1049/iet-smt.2014.0150.

Andrade D.G., Leitão C. et.al [13], Dialami N., Chiumenti M., Rodrigues D.M.
Modelling torque and temperature in friction stir welding of aluminium alloys. Int. J.
Mech. Sci. 2020;182:105725. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2020.105725.

Barbini A., Carstensen J. et.al [14], Dos Santos J.F. Influence of Alloys Position, Rolling
and Welding Directions on Properties.

Cavaliere P., De Santis A., et.al [15] Panella F., Squillace A. Effect of welding
parameters on mechanical and microstructural properties of dissimilar AA6082–AA2024
joints produced by friction stirwelding. MaterDes. 2009;30:609616.doi:
10.1016/j.matdes.2008.05.044.

Abd Elnabi M.M. et.al [16], Elshalakany A.B., Abdel- Mottaleb M.M., Osman T.A., El
Mokadem A. Influence of friction stir welding parameters on metallurgical and
mechanical properties of dissimilar AA5454AA7075aluminualloys. J.Mater. Res.
Technol. 2019;8:1684–1693. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2018.10.015.

Jesus J.S., Costa J.M. et.al [17], Loureiro A., Ferreira J.M. Assessment of friction stir
welding aluminium T-joints. J. Mater.

Astarita A., Squillace A. et.al [18], Scala A., Prisco A. On the Critical Technological
Issues of Friction Stir Welding T-Joints of DissimilarAluminumAlloys. J.Mater. Eng.
Perform. 2012;21:1763–1771. doi: 10.1007/s11665-011-0073-3.

Tavares S.M.O. et.al [19], Castro R.A.S., Richter Trummer V., Vilaça P., Moreira
P.M.G.P., de Castro P.M.S.T. Friction stir welding of T-joints with dissimilar aluminium
alloys: Mechanical joint characterisation. Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 2010;15:312–318.
doi: 10.1179/136217109X12562846839114

8
Manuel N., Galvão I. et.al [20], Leal R.M., Costa J.D., Loureiro A. Nugget Formation
and Mechanical Behaviour of Friction Stir Welds of Three Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys.
Materials. 2020;13:2664. doi: 10.3390/ma13112664.

Manuel N. et.al [21], Silva C., Moreira J., Loureiro A. Friction stir welding of T-joints
in dissimilar materials: Influence of tool geometry and materials properties.
Mater.Res.Express. 2019;6:10652 8. doi: 10.1088/2053-1591/ab3748.

Manuel N. et.al [22], Costa J.M., Loureiro A. Effect of Material Properties and Process
Parameters on Morphology and Strength of Friction-Stir-Welded Dissimilar T-Joints. J.
Mater. Eng. Perform. 2019;28:5233–5244. doi: 10.1007/s11665-019-04240-7.

Abnar B. et.al [23], Kazeminezhad M., Kokabi A.H. Effects of heat input in friction stir
welding on microstructure and mechanical properties of AA3003-H18 plates. Trans.
Nonferrous. Met. Soc. China. 2015;25:2147–2155. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(15)63826-
2.

ASTM et.al [24]. E8/E8M-16a, Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic
Materials. ASTM International; West Conshohocken, PA, USA: 2016.

Leitão C. et.al [25], Galvão I., Leal R.M., Rodrigues D.M. Determination of local
constitutive properties of aluminum friction stir welds using digital image correlation.
Mater.Des. 2012;33:69– 74. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2011.07.009.

Schmidt H. et.al [26], Hattel J., Wert J. An analytical model for the heat generation in
friction stir welding. Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2004;12:143–157. doi:
10.1088/0965-0393/12/1/013.

Siddiqui M.A. et.al [27] Effect of Process Parameters on Temperature Distribution,

Strain Rate and Flow-Stress During Friction Stir Welding of Aluminium Alloy. Int. J.
Res. Eng. Technol. 2016;5:26–32. doi: 10.15623/ijret.2016.0518007.

Galvão I. et.al [28], Leitão C., Loureiro A., Rodrigues D.M. Study of the welding
conditions during similar and dissimilar aluminium and copper welding
based on torque sensitivity analysis. Mater.Des. 2012;42:259264.doi:
10.1016/j.matdes.2012.0 5.058

Banik A. et.al [29], Deb Barma J., Saha S.C. Effect of Threaded Pin Tool for Friction
Stir Welding of AA6061-T6 at Varying Traverse Speeds: Torque and Force Analysis.
Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans.Mech. Eng. 2020;44:749–764.doi: 10.1007/s40997-

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01900289

Aldanondo E. et.al [30], Vivas J., Álvarez P., Hurtado I. Effect of Tool Geometry and
Welding Parameters on Friction Stir Welded Lap Joint Formation with AA2099-T83
and AA2060-T8E30 AluminiumAlloys. Metals. 2020;10:872.doi: 10.3390/met10070872

10
 CHAPTER 03
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 OBJECTIVES OF HEAT GENERATION DURING FRICTION STIR

WELDING PROCESS

1. Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition.

2. Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten
material.

3. No consumables — A threaded pin made of conventional tool steel, e.g., hardened

H13, can weld over 1 km (0.62 mi) of aluminium, and no filler or gas shield is
required for aluminium.

4. Easily automated on simple milling machines — lower setup costs and less
training.

5. Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.

6. Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over- matching,

thus reducing the need for expensive machining after welding.

7. Can use thinner materials with same joint strength.

8. Low environmental impact.
9. General performance and cost benefits from switching from fusion to friction.

3.2 METHODOLOGY
3.2.1 What is FW?

Friction welding is a solid state process that is achieved through frictional heat.
This heat is generated by a controlled rubbing of two components until material reaches
its plastic state, at which time plasticized material begins to form layers that intertwine
with one other.

The friction welding machine controls this rubbing through a series of unique
parameters for rotational speed (rpm’s), axial force and time. Once these parameters are
established, they are recorded, stored and repeated with each cycle of the machine.

11
The Process Description
1. Parts are loaded into welder, one in rotating spindle and the other in a stationary
clamp. (Special tooling may be required if parts don’t have a natural axis of
symmetry.);

2. Components in spindle is brought up to pre-determined rotational speed and then

a pre-determined axial force is applied;

3. These conditions are maintained for a pre-determined amount of time until

desired temperatures and material conditions exist;&

4. Rotational speed is then stopped and increased axial force is applied until desired
upset is obtained. Components are then unloaded and cycle is repeated.

Friction welding is a process that is currently used in many different industries. The key
is to fully understand the process and its advantages, then have the ability to visualize
how it could be utilized in specific applications you may have. American Friction
Welding offers any technical support necessary to assist you in that process. We extend
an open invitation for you to tour our facility and see the process first hand.

The operations during FSW consist of several phases of action—each phase can be
described as a time period where the welding tool and the work piece are moved relative
to each other. In the first operation, the tool is plunged vertically into the joint line
between the work pieces, while the tool is rotating. This action takes place in the plunge
period.

The plunge period is followed by the dwell period, where the tool is held steady relative
to the work piece but still rotating. The mechanical interaction, due to the velocity
difference between the rotating tool and the stationary work piece, produces heat by
frictional work and material deformation. This heat dissipates into the surrounding
material, the temperature rises and the material softens.

FIG 3.1 SCHEMATIC OF WELD SET UP

12
FIG 3.2 SIDE VIEW OF FSW SHOWING CONICAL SHOULDER.

THE CAP ACT AS A ESCAPE VOLUME DURING PLUNG OPERATION

After these two operations the initiated by moving either the tool or the work piece
relative to each other, along the joint line. The traverse velocity is in the range of 1–10
mm s−1 depending on welding parameters, i.e. rotation speed, plunge force or plunge
depth and tilt angle, but also tool design and weld piece properties. When the weld
distance is covered, the tool is pulled out of the work piece leaving behind an exit hole
as a footprint of the tool.

A schematic representation of the set-up is illustrated in figure 3.1. Figure 3.2 shows a
simplified tool design. In general, two tool surfaces are needed to perform the heating
and joining processes in the friction stir weld.

The shoulder surface is the area where the majority of the heat is generated, whereas the
probe surface is where the An analytical model for the heat generation 145 Figure 3.1.
Schematic of the weld set-up and definition of orientations. Figure 3.2. Side view of the
FSW tool showing the conical shoulder cap and threaded probe. The cap acts as escape
volume during plunge operation. work pieces are joined together and only a fraction of
the total heat is generated. Second, the shoulder confines the underlying material so void
formation and porosity behind the probe are prevented.

The conical tool shoulder helps establish a pressure under the shoulder, but also acts as
an escape volume for the material displaced by the probe during the plunge action (figure
3.2). Newer tool designs employ special features, e.g. multifacets, threads and flutes
which are thought to produce advantageous conditions to assist the joining process, but
the simple cylindrical probe shape has proven to work satisfactorily. The probe height is

13
limited by the work piece thickness; the probe tip must not penetrate the work piece, or
damage the backing plate or support frame is unavoidable.

Previous works on modelling the FSW process include analytical thermal models, finite
element (FE) based solid thermal and thermomechanical models, and computational fluid
dynamic models. Some of these models include heat generation from the FSW tool and
assumptions are made regarding the interface condition, which all have their drawbacks
and limitations.

In the model by Chao and Qi the heat generation comes from the assumption of sliding
friction, where Coulomb’s law is used to estimate the shear or friction force at the
interface. Furthermore, the pressure at the tool interface is assumed to be constant,
thereby enabling a radially dependent surface heat flux distribution as a representation of
the friction heat generated by the tool shoulder, but neglecting that generated by the
probe surface.

Frigaard et al model the heat input from the tool shoulder and probe as fluxes on squared
surfaces at the top and sectional planes on a three-dimensional model and control the
maximum allowed temperature by adjustment of the friction coefficient at elevated
temperatures. Russell and Shercliff base the heat generation on a constant friction stress
at the interface, equal to the shear yield stress at elevated temperature, which is set to 5%
of the yield stress at room temperature.

The heat input is applied as a point source or line source as in the normal version 146 H
Schmidt et al of Rosenthal’s equations, but the solution is modified to account for the
limited extent of the plate width. Colegrove uses an advanced analytical estimation of the
heat generation for tools with a threaded probe to estimate the heat generation
distribution. The fraction of heat generated by the probe is estimated to be as high as
20%, which leads to the conclusion that the analytical estimated probe heat generation
contribution is not negligible.

In parallel with the analytical model, Colegrove and Shercliff developed a material flow
model, which addresses the influence of threads on the material flow. An advanced
viscous material model is introduced and the influence of different contact conditions
prescribed as the boundary condition is analyzed. A thorough presentation of analytical
estimates of heat generation in FSW is also included in .Reynolds et al introduced a two-
dimensional solid mechanical FE model using ABAQUS Explicit and a two- dimensional

14
CFD model using Fluent, and the main objective is to reveal the material flow around the
probe. The FE model includes two different sub-models with different contact conditions
at the probe/matrix interface: (i) the slipping interface and (ii) the frictional contact
model.

The matrix surrounding the probe is exposed to a prescribed temperature field obtained
from an experiment, hence accounting for the thermal material response. The flow results
are qualitatively compared with experimental flow visualization via the marker insert
technique. Some of the limitations of the models are the missing influence from the tool
shoulder and the lack of heat generation.

The two-dimensional CFD model gives similar results as the two-dimensional FE model,
which uses a prescribed boundary condition at the tool probe/matrix interface. Recently,
Khandkar et al , introduced a torque based heat input model, where the torque/power
known from experiments is used in the expression for the heat source. Inverse modelling
for estimation of the friction coefficient/heat source is not necessary as opposed to the
models presented by.

This enables investigation of other important parameters, e.g. different heat transfer
coefficients at the bottom of the work piece, work piece/backing plate gap conductance
and backing plate conductivity. Similarly, the work done by Shi et al uses the
experimentally observed mechanical power as input in a thermomechanical three-
dimensional FE model. They investigated the influence of tool loads (torque and plunge
force) on the residual stresses. Song and Kovacevic investigated the influence of the
preheating/dwell period on the temperature fields. They assume a sliding condition and
used an effective friction coefficient and experimental plunge force in the heat source
expression. The objective of this work is to estimate the heat generation based on
assumptions for different contact conditions at the tool/matrix interface in FSW joints.

One major difference comparing the present model with previous models known from
literature is the flexibility included in the analytical description, both with respect to the
contact condition, e.g. sliding/sticking and tool design, e.g. conical surfaces and threads.
Second, using the analytical model in comparison with the experimental result estimates
which contact condition will be present at the tool/matrix interface.

Experimental welding conditions The experiment reported in this work was performed at

15
the DLR facility (German Aerospace Research) using an adapted CNC milling machine.
The welding set- up consists of two 3.0 mm thick aluminum panels, 60 mm wide and 150
mm long.

FIG 3.3 WORKPIECE GEOMETRY AND WELD PARAMETERS

The plates are joined through a 105 mm long weld path, starting 15 mm from one edge
and finishing 30 mm from the other edge (see figure 3.3).

The material used in the experimental weld is a heat treatable T3 alloy, whose thermo
mechanical properties are known in the range from 28˚C to 371˚C [20]. The observed
maximum temperature during the experiment is 400˚C at the centerline.

Therefore, the yield An analytical model for the heat generation 147 Figure 3.3 Work
piece geometry and welding parameters. Stress–strain data for 2024 T3 estimated as 21
MPa at 0% plastic strain and 25 MPa at 100% plastic strain. The welding tool has an
interchangeable threaded probe of 6 mm diameter, thread spacing of 0.8 mm and probe

16
length of 3.5 mm.

The shoulder has a cone angle of 10◦ giving an effective probe height of 2.5 mm, leaving
a 0.5 mm root layer between the probe tip and the back of the plate. 2.1. Welding
parameters Welds were performed at a rotational speed of 400 rpm (41.8 rad s−1), a
welding speed of 120 mm min−1 (2 mm s−1), a tilt angle of 1˚ and an effective plunge
depth of 0.2 mm. During the welding process, data acquisition enables monitoring of the
mechanical load on the milling head, including the torque on the rotating axis and the
plunge force.

When modelling the FSW process, the contact condition is the most critical part of the
numerical model Reynolds et al and Colegrove . In this case, the Coulomb 148 H
Schmidt et al law of friction is applied to describe the shear forces between the tool
surface and the matrix. In general, the law estimates the contact shear stress as friction =
µp = µσ (1) where µ is the friction coefficient, p and σ are the contact pressures.

Analyzing the contact condition of two infinitesimal surface segments in contact,

Coulomb’s law predicts the mutual motion between the two segments—whether they
stick or slide. The top surface segment originates from the tool and moves with a velocity
of ωr, where ω is the rotational speed and r is the distance from the surface segment to
the rotation axis. The lower surface segment originates from the matrix, and the velocity
is part of the solution.

Let us assume that the matrix is stationary, and contact is about to be initiated. Applying
a normal displacement to the tool, produces a mutual bulk response from the matrix and
tool, which alters the contact pressure from zero to a state dependent pressure. A
complex, dynamic state builds up, which is simplified by assuming the tool response to
be rigid, as compared to the softer aluminum matrix. The response from the
matrix is described by the behavior of the matrix surface velocity and the reaction shear
stress of the interior just below the contact surface.

The normal interpretation of Coulomb’s law is based on rigid contact pairs, without
respect to the internal stress, however, this is not sufficiently representative for this
model. Thus, a more FSW- specific interpretation of the law is described. For this, the
three following contact states are defined. Sticking condition.

17
The matrix surface will stick to the moving tool surface segment, if the friction shear
stress exceeds the yield shear stress of the underlying matrix.

In this case, the matrix segment will accelerate along the tool surface (finally receiving
the tool velocity), until an equilibrium state is established between the contact shear
stress and the internal matrix shear stress.

At this point, the stationary full sticking condition is fulfilled. In conventional Coulomb’s
friction law terms, the static friction coefficient relates the reactive stresses between the
surfaces.

If the contact shear stress is smaller than the internal matrix yield shear stress, the matrix
segment volume shears slightly to a stationary elastic deformation, where the shear
stress equals the ‘dynamic’ contact shear stress. This state is referred to as the sliding
condition. Partial sliding/sticking. The last possible state between the sticking and sliding
condition is a mixed state of the two.

In this case, the matrix segment accelerates to a velocity less than the tool surface
velocity, where it stabilizes. The equilibrium establishes when the ‘dynamic’ contact
shear stress equals the internal yield shear stress due to a quasi-stationary plastic
deformation rate. This is referred to as the partial sliding/sticking condition. In this
model, there is no difference between the dynamic and the static friction coefficients.

It is convenient to define a contact state variable, δ, which relates the velocity of the
contact points at the matrix surface relative to the tool point in contact. This parameter is
a dimensionless slip rate defined as δ = vmatrix vtool = 1 − γ˙ v tool (2) γ˙ = vtool −
vmatrix (3) where ˙γ is the slip rate and vtool is the position dependent tool velocity of
ωr. summarizes the relationship between the different contact conditions. As seen, δ acts
as a state parameter for the interfacial contact condition. The contact state at the interface
in FSW has An analytical model for the heat generation 149

Definition of contact condition, velocity/shear relationship and state variable

(dimensionless slip rate). Condition Matrix velocity Tool velocity Shear stress State
variable Sticking vmatrix = vtool vtool = ωr τfriction > τyield δ = 1 Sticking/sliding
vmatrix < vtool vtool = ωr τfriction τyield 0 <δ< 1 Sliding vmatrix = 0 vtool = ωr
τfriction < τyield δ = 0

18
Heat generation contributions in analytical estimates. previously been addressed by
Colegrove and Reynolds. They established models to predict heat generation and
material flow using the contact condition as boundary condition in their models, and the
results are then compared to experimental observations. Still, it has not yet been revealed
which contact condition is the most applicable for FSW. 4. Analytical estimation of heat
generation Three different analytical estimations are suggested, all of which are based on
a general assumption of uniform contact shear stress τ contact and further distinguished
by assuming a specific contact condition.

In the first estimation, a sticking interface condition (δ = 1) is assumed and in the second
estimation a pure sliding (δ = 0) interface described by a Coulomb friction condition is
assumed. In the case of the sticking condition, the shearing is assumed to occur in a layer
very close to the interface and in the sliding condition the shear is assumed to take place
at the contact interface. These two types of estimation are distinguished by the
assumptions under which the shear stress τcontact is introduced.

The third estimation is used in the case where the partial sliding/sticking condition is
assumed. During the FSW process, heat is generated at or close to the contact surfaces,
which have complex geometries according to the tool geometry, but for the analytical
estimation, a simplified tool design with a conical or horizontal shoulder surface, a
vertical cylindrical probe side surface and a horizontal (flat) probe tip surface is assumed.
The conical shoulder surface is characterized by the cone angle α, which in the case of a
flat shoulder, is zero.

The simplified tool design is presented in figure 4, where Q1 is the heat generated under
the tool shoulder, Q2 at the tool probe side and Q3 at the tool probe tip, hence the total
heat generation, Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 + Q3. To derive the different quantities, the surface
under examination is characterized by either being conical, vertical or horizontal and the
surface orientations relative to the rotation axis are decisive for the expressions.

The expressions for 150 H Schmidt et al Figure 5. Schematic drawing of surface

orientations and infinitesimal segment areas. (a) Horizontal (seen from above). (b)
Vertical. (c) Conical/tilted. Projection of conical segment area onto horizontal and
vertical segments. each surface orientation are different, but are based on the same
equation for heat generation: dQ = ω dM = ωrdF = ωrτ contact dA ., The following
derivations are analytical estimations of heat generated at the contact interface between a

19
rotating FSW tool and a stationary weld piece matrix.

The mechanical power due to the traverse movement is not considered, as this quantity is
negligible compared to the rotational power.

A given surface of the tool in contact with the matrix is characterized by its position and
orientation relative to the rotation axis of the tool

If the tool rotation axis is vertical (along the z-axis), then a flat shoulder surface would be
horizontal or in the θ r-plane. A cylindrical surface on the tool would be vertical or in the
θz-plane. The following subscripts have been used to characterize the orientation of
the surface: − = Horizontal (perpendicular to the rotation axis, circular surface). | =
Vertical (parallel to the rotation axis, cylindrical surface). \ = Conical (tilted with respect
to rotation axis, conical surface).

Horizontal. In order to calculate the heat generation from a horizontal circular tool
surface rotating around the tool centre axis, an infinitesimal segment on that surface is
investigated. The infinitesimal segment area dA− = r dθ dr is exposed to a uniform
contact shear stress τcontact. This segment contributes with an infinitesimal force of dF−
= τcontact dA− and torque of dM− = r dF−.

The heat generation from this segment is dQ− = ωr dF− = ωr2 τcontact dθ dr (5)
where r is the distance from the investigated area to the centre of rotation, ω is the
angular velocity, and r dθ and dr are the segment dimensions. Vertical. For a cylindrical
surface on the tool, the heat generation from an infinitesimal surface segment with the
area of dA| = dθ dz is dQ| = ωr dF| = ωr2 τcontact dθ dz (6) where dz is the segment
dimension along the rotation axis. An analytical model for the heat generation 151
Conical. In the case of a conical surface segment, a similar approach is adopted

Natural aspects of FSW Today, there is a need to check new mechanical strategy
with respect with its impact on the earth. Warily thought of HSE (Health, Safety, and
Environment) issues at the workplace is of prime fundamental to any industry. It is
standard for makers to screen the characteristic impact of any industry. Grinding Friction
stir welding offers different environmental ideal conditions stood out from other
joining strategies

20
FIG 3.4 The distance by which tool shoulder impinges the work piece top surface

Terminology in FSW and Its Significance Various terminologies that are used in FSW
technique are shown in Fig. Definitions of different nomenclatures used in FSW are as
follows: Advancing side: It is the side of the plate where direction of tool rotation is same
as that of the tool travel. Retreating side: It is the side of the plate where direction of
tool rotation is opposite to that of the tool travel. Tool shoulder: It is the part of the tool,
which comes in contact with the top surface of the workpiece. It is mainly responsible for
the maximum amount of heat generation, and also mixing of material on the top surface.
Tool pin: It is the part of the tool the plate along the weld line, and is responsible for the
mixing of material inside the work piece. Spindle tilt angle (α): It is the angle
between the normal to workpiece top surface and the axis of the tool.

Flash formation is reduced by providing a tilt to the tool. It generally ranges from 1° to
4°. 6 Friction Stir Welding: Scope and Recent Development 183 Plunge depth: It is the
distance by which tool shoulder impinges the work piece top surface. Plunge depth is
specified when higher contact area is required for heat generation. Process Variables and
Their Effects Process variables play important roles in producing a good weld.

21
Therefore, it is important to understand the process variables, and their effects on the
process. Process variables can be classified into three different categories, as mentioned
in Process variables: Selection of proper combination of process parameters is crucial, as
they have varied influence on the output variables like temperature and material flow
behavior.

Heat generation is directly proportional to the rotational speed of the tool. With the
increase in rotational speed, relative velocity between tool and work piece increases, and
thus frictional heat input increases.

On the other hand, welding velocity has an inverse effect on heat generation. This is
because of the fact Welding direction Advancing side Retreating side Rotational direction
Shoulder α Pin Plunge depth Work piece surface Terminologies used in FSW process
184 R. Jain et al. that with the increase in welding velocity, contact time between the
work piece and tool reduces, and hence heat generation reduces; and at the same time
lower welding speed hampers the productivity of the process.

Tilt angle helps in reducing the flash formation. Tilt angle should be given toward
trailing edge of the tool. Design parameters: Dimension and geometry of tool shoulder
and pin play a vital role in the defect-free FSW process. Optimum shoulder diameter is
important because higher heat generation can lead to loss in traction between work piece
and tool, leading to improper mixing of material due to slippage.

On the opposite side, lower heat generation may not soften the work piece properly.
Shoulder geometry can be flat, concave, or convex depending upon the welding
requirement. Concave shoulder leads to less ribbon formation as it contains viscous
material better than other two due to its geometry, but at the same time contact area is
reduced. Normally concavity of 5°–20° is considered.

Flat shoulder is the most commonly used as it gives larger contact area, but tendency of
ribbon flash formation is higher in this case. However, this can be reduced by using
proper tilt angle toward trailing edge of the tool. Tool pin height should be properly
chosen such that mixing of the material takes place in through thickness direction, but
higher pin height dimension can lead to sticking of material on the backing plate.

Though there is no empirical relation to calculate pin height, experience suggests that
difference between work piece thickness and pin height should not be more than 0.5 mm,
and the ratio between the diameter of shoulder to that of pin should lie between 3 to 5 [3,

22
7, 24–26]. These parameters largely depend upon the work piece material and cross-
section of the pin. Cross-section of the pin is important for proper mixing of material.

Various cross-sections of pin like cylindrical, conical, threaded cylindrical, square etc.
have been used in the research work out of which square-shaped pin geometry performs
better than the rest . Material parameters: Loss of heat takes place from tool and work
piece; this largely dictates the quality of the weld. Anvil material (backing plate) should
be rigid enough to provide sufficient reaction force; and work piece material should not
stick to the anvil material; otherwise, it will deteriorate the quality of the weld.

As, discussed, different process parameter have varied effects on output variables. Few
process parameters complement each other for, e.g., larger shoulder diameter can
successfully weld by using lower rpm, and vice versa. Therefore, in order to achieve a
sound weld, it is mandatory to select the combination of process parameters
appropriately, and thus independent choice of parameter by neglecting the influence of
other will not serve the purpose.

Process variables in FSW process Process variables Design variables Material parameters
Tool rotational speed Pin geometry and its dimension Tool material Welding speed
Shoulder geometry and its dimension Work piece material Tool tilt angle Joint
configuration Back up material Plunge depth 6 Friction Stir Welding: Scope and Recent
Development 185 Mechanism of Material Flow

The overall joining technique in FSW is a simple one, but material flow behavior during
welding is reasonably complex, as it largely depends on the pin geometry. Material flow
pattern changes as cross-section of pin geometry changes.

For example, no material flow is observed along the thickness direction with cylindrical
pin because direction of resultant tangential velocity lies in horizontal plane only,
whereas in tapered cylindrical pin, resultant tangential velocity of tool has two
components (due to tapered shaped), one in horizontal plane and other in vertical plane
and this vertical velocity component is responsible for vertical material flow.

Similarly, dynamic mixing of material takes place with square- or triangular-shaped pin
because, difference in static and dynamic swept volume, pulsating effect is generated and
results in better mixing of material, while it does not occur with either cylindrical- or
conical shaped pin geometry. Material flow pattern in a plane varies across the thickness
of material.

23
Tracer material is used to study material flow pattern during a FSW process. Tracer
material such as steel, or copper, or tungsten carbide is embedded on the faying surface in
different directions before the start of the weld, and it flows along with the material
during welding. Once, welding is finished, distribution of tracer material on the weld
zone helps in understanding the material flow pattern

Most of the researchers agree with the fact that, material from the front of the weld (both
from advancing and retreating side), flows to retreating side and then get deposited
toward advancing side of the weld in a scattered fashion, while vertical movement of the
material largely depends upon the pin profile as discussed Defects in FSW A good
understanding on the effect of combination of process parameters and physics of the
process is required to get a defect-free weld.

As discussed earlier, each process parameter is vital and optimum combinations of those
parameters lead to formation of the sound weld. Thorough understanding on various
defects and their mechanisms of formation can also help in eliminating them. Different
types are defects are categorized based on the physics of their formation

Classification of various FSW defects Improper heating Excessive heating Defects due to
faulty design Kissing bond Nugget collapse Oxide entrapment Tunnel defect Ribbon
flash Lack of penetration Lack of fill Root flaw Excessive indentation Surface galling
186 R. Jain et al. Kissing bond: It is a type of defect that occurs in the solid-state joining
processes.

Joining between two sides occurs at a small portion. Insufficient softening of material
leads to improper mixing or fusion of material. Static load bearing capacity of the kissing
bonded materials is less.

Higher heat input by increasing tool rotational speed or proper selection of pin geometry
can be a remedy of this defect. Tunnel defect: Formation of cavity due to insufficient
material flow near the advancing side, or due to too high welding speed.

It occurs due to lack of plunge force or proper welding speed. Lack of fill: It is a surface
void formed due to insufficient plunge force or plunge depth. Proper plunge force or
tilt angle can eliminate this defect. Nugget collapse: It occurs due to excessive
softening of material due to high heat generation.

It can be avoided by controlling the tool rotational speed or by reducing the shoulder
diameter. Ribbon flash: It occurs because shoulder is unable to contain the viscous
24
material beneath it. Tilt angle and concave tool shoulder can eliminate this defect. Root
flaws: Excessive heat generation softens work piece to a high extent; and under
compressive load, material tends to stick with the backing plate.

This can be controlled by selection of proper process parameters and proper choice of pin
height. Surface galling: It is a series of void visible on advancing side of material due to
excessive softening of work piece. This occurs due to excessive heat generation and can
be controlled by proper selection of process parameters.

Oxide entrapment: Aluminum has a strong affinity toward oxygen, and thus forms a layer
of a hard and brittle layer of aluminum oxide. This oxide layer, especially on the abutting
edges, mixes with material during welding. Surface preparation before welding can be a
remedy of this problem.

Lack of penetration I occurs due to smaller pin length compared to the desired one.
Excessive indentation: It occurs because of a very high plunge force resulting in
excessive flash formation (also called excessive indentation

Recent Experimental Advancement in FSW Various research activities are being carried
out across the globe into various aspects of FSW to improve the process capabilities. The
biggest challenges in FSW process are to get a defect-free weld; to reduce the force
generation during the process, and to come up with a better surface finish; and to
plastically deform the welded sample having dissimilar components.

Keeping above challenges in mind, in this section three different experimental research
works are discussed, addressing the solution to the above stated issues.

First, a twin-tool concept is discussed which helps in eliminating different FSW defects;
second, an ultrasonic-coupled FSW process is explained.

This research work focuses to improve the weld surface quality and to reduce the force
generation during the process; and the other research work focuses on formability of
friction 6 Friction Stir Welding: Scope and Recent Development 187 stir welded blank.
The formability study of tailor-welded blanks is a thrust area in various industries. FSW
is a complex phenomenon in terms of choice of optimized process parameters.

As discussed in earlier section, a lot of associated variables influence the process; and a
proper combination of those variables only can lead to a defect-free weld. Few
researchers have suggested multi-pass FSW as an alternative approach to achieve a

25
defect-free weld, but multi-pass FSW reduces productivity, and it is difficult to choose
the time gap in between two passes. In this section, a twin- tool concept in FSW is
discussed. This setup is developed indigenously, replacing multi-pass FSW, to have
improved productivity and to eliminate various defects arising due to insufficient
heat generation in a conventional single-pass FSW process Multi-Pass Friction Stir
Welding/Processing Since FSW is not a fusion welding technique, melting of the mating
materials does not occur. Hence, problems such as porosity, solidification cracking, or
heat-affected liquation cracking do not appear as a defect in FSW. As discussed earlier
about the complexity of this process, formation of defects like lack of fill, tunnel defect,
nugget collapse, and kissing bond are some of the major problems generated due to
imbalance in material flow, or due to other factors such as welding and process
parameters .

Though temperature does not go beyond the melting temperature of the parent material,
the heat generation, because of friction and plastic deformation, affects the
microstructural behavior such as grain coarsening, dynamic recrystallization, dissolution
of precipitates, and grain orientation with growth.

The improper process parameters in FSW process give rise to either a too hot or a too
cold weld condition. One of the major drawbacks in conventional single tool FSW
technique is the insufficient heat generation.

This cold weld condition is due to wrong selection of process parameters or insufficient
material flow which gives rise to defects like void formation and nonbonding. Work
hardening is one of the problems arises during cold weld conditions. As a result, dry slip
situation comes between the tool pin and the work piece material .

The lack of surface fill or void, and channel formation are the main defects arising due to
insufficient heat generation. The insufficient heat generation causes improper material
mixing, and thus responsible for nonbonding. This was analyzed by Kim et al.

They found that at a higher welding speed with lower tool rotational speed, heat
generation is insufficient, which causes improper bonding resulting defects like cavity or
groove formation. Apart from this, one more defect is analyzed which is termed as
abnormal stirring. This type of defect mainly occurs when both the welding and
rotational speeds are very high.

26
They found that due to unequal temperature generation between upper and lower parts,
there is an abnormal stirring, which also results in discontinuous flow of material in the
stir zone. Therefore, getting a good weld in FSW process is also a challenging task till
date. Optimization of a proper combination with hit and trial technique on process 188
R. Jain et al. parameters is still a part of research work in the area of FSW.

In order to overcome those defects, extensive research is being carried out in the area of
multi-pass FSW technique. In this field, repair of a defective part is done instead of
throwing or rejecting the welded sample as a scrap. This is also termed as a rewelding
process, where the same tool passes over the processed area with the parametric
condition. Some of the published research works are narrated here in this section.

Brown et al performed five overlapping passes and found that there is no need of any
adjustment for multi-pass welding. Further there is a significant reduction in feed force
when welding is done over the previous weld.

However, grain size, hardness, and temperature during welding are unaffected with the
number of passes. Again, there is a gradual reduction of residual stress with the increase
in pass number. Compared to the as-cast base metal, an improvement in both hardness
and tensile properties were observed by Nataka et al.

sing multi-pass FSP. Elimination of cold flake and distribution of Si particles over the
aluminum matrix were the main reasons of improvement in mechanical properties.

He et al showed a comparative study between single and two- pass FSW, tested on skin-
stringer (an equilateral right angled structure used in air craft) structure to get a defect-
free welding. Results showed that the strengths of single and two-pass welded samples
are more or less same, but the average peel strength of two- pass weld is twice as that of
the single-pass weld.

Leal and Louriero investigated the effect of overlapping FSW passes using two variants
of Al alloys (AA5083-O and AA 6063- T6). In their observation, they conclude that the
quality as well as strength of the weld not only depends on the process parameters but
also on the material type and treatment used during welding.

Barhami et al. examined the effect of two-pass with SiC reinforced particles by switching
the pin geometry from tapered to square one.

27
They found the ductile fracture mode with superior hardness on SiC reinforced joint for
both the passes. On the other hand, Maet al. reported that there is no effect of
overlapping passes on size, aspect ratio or distribution of the Si particle while performing
five- pass FSP with 50 % overlap on cast A365.

As FSP is one of the most promising techniques for grain refinement and flaw removal,
many researchers used multi-pass FSP to improve the properties of as-cast material.

To achieve super plastic deformation, grain boundary sliding is one of the crucial
mechanisms which are used by Johannes and Mishra They used this to demonstrate the
effectiveness of multiple passes to create larger area of super plastic materials. Similarly,
Ma et al. used two-pass FSP to enhance the elongation rate with a rise in temperature,
both in the middle as well as in the transitional area, after two passes.

Multi-pass FSP, compared to the base metal, improved corrosion resistances as

experimentally reported by Surekhaet al.

Multiple passes can also be able to overcome the difficulty related to abnormal grain
growth, where high value of rotational speed was found to be the most influential
parameter

To avoid the use of multi-pass FSW/FSP, two-tool-FSW concept has been developed at
TWI in several variants and is referred to as a Twin-Stir [group. One of those techniques
is the Tandem twin-stir technique.

It uses two FSW tools (with or without counter rotation) positioned one in front of the
other. Friction Stir Welding: Scope and Recent Development

3.2.2 The Types of Friction Welding

1. Friction Welding (FW) is a group of solid-state welding processes using heat

generated through mechanical friction between a moving work piece, with the
addition of an upsetting force to plastically displace material. Many dissimilar
metal combinations can be joined and there are a number of process variations
including

2. Spin Welding- "Four different phases can be distinguished in the vibration

welding process; the solid friction phase, the transient phase, the steady-state
phase and the cooling phase.

28
 In the solid friction phase, heat is generated as a result of the friction between the
two surfaces. This causes the polymer material to heat up until the melting point is
reached. The heat generated is dependent on the applied tangential velocity and the
pressure.

In the second phase, a thin molten polymer layer is formed which grows as a result
of the ongoing heat generation. In this stage heat is generated by viscous
dissipation. At first only a thin molten layer exists and consequently the shear-rate
and viscous heating contributions are large. As the thickness of the molten layer
increases the degree of viscous heating decreases.

Thereafter, (start of third phase) the melting rate equals the outward flow rate
(steady state). As soon as this phase has been reached, the thickness of the molten
layer is constant. The steady-state is maintained until a certain "melt down depth"
has been reached at which point the rotation is stopped.

3. Linear Friction Welding

Fig 3.5 Principle of linear friction welding

29
 Fig. 3.6 Linear friction welded titanium blocks

State of the Art of Linear Friction Welding Linear friction welding (LFW, Fig.3.4) has
been demonstrated for virtually all types of engineering alloys, such as titanium (Fig.3.5),
nickel based alloys, aluminum, steel, stainless steel and inter metallic.

The process can be used to join a variety of complex profiles, giving good
functionality. It is technically, commercially and environmentally a very attractive
process. It is ideally suited to both mass production and to the manufacture of specialized
components required in limited numbers.

If different components are produced, only the tooling to hold the work pieces needs to
be changed and different welding parameters may need to be set.

Fig. 3.7 TWI's electro-mechanically actuated linear friction

welding machine

30
Fig.3.8. Mechanism to develop linear reciprocating motion with variable amplitude
in TWI's electro-mechanical LFW machine.

In the early 1980s the first concepts were developed to use linear reciprocating motion
for non-round parts. A major break-through was made by reducing the amplitude at the
end of the weld cycle instead of slowing down the frequency to terminate the friction
phase.

As a consequence, the work pieces were accurately aligned with respect to each other. In
1990 the first dedicated linear friction welding machine for welding metals was
commissioned at TWI (Fig.3.7 & 3.8)

31
 Fig.3.9 Electromechanical linear friction welding machine built by Blacks
Equipment
Electromechanical linear friction welding machine built by Blacks Equipment and used
by MTU Aero Engines Munich in the series production of aero engine blisk .When using
this electro-mechanical linear friction welding machine, it was demonstrated that
excellent weld quality could be achieved by this process. This helped companies such
as Rolls Royce, MTU Aero Engines (Fig.3.9) and Pratt & Whitney to introduce linear
friction welding into their commercial production.

32
 Fig. 3.10 Joining of blades to disks by linear friction welding to produce blisk

One area for potential application of linear friction welding machines is the manufacture
or repair of blisk (blades on disks) of aero engines and stationary turbines.

Linear friction welding could be used by producers of stationary turbines as well as by

producers of aero-engines. It seems to be the ideal process for joining blades to disks
(Fig.3.10), as the melting point of the work pieces is not reached during the operation.

Friction Surfacing - "Friction Surfacing is a process derived from friction welding

whereby a coating material, in rod form (termed the MechtrodeTM) is rotated under
pressure, generating a plasticized layer in the rod at the interface with the substrate. By
moving a substrate across the face of the rotating rod a plasticized layer between 0.2-
2.5mm thick is deposited The coating is thus the product of a hot forging action, as
opposed to the casting mechanism inherent in welding and spraying processes. This
important difference means that many of the defects commonly associated with these
techniques are avoided.

Friction Stud Welding - "In early 1998, friction stud welding was performed
commercially at a depth of 1,300 feet (394m) and involved the friction welding of anode
continuity tails to riser base piles using a work-class ROV. The friction welding
equipment used was a Circle Technical Service Ltd HMS 3000, which is hydraulically-
driven, electronically-controlled, and rated to a depth of 3,000 feet (910m).

Based on this concept, the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) initiated another
program to evaluate underwater friction stud welding for use in submarine rescue. The

33
program required interfacing the HMS 3000 friction stud welder with the Navy's
atmospheric diving suit (ADS), rated to 2,000 feet (606m).

The feasibility of this concept was demonstrated in 2001 by Oceaneering International

using their WASP ADS and the HMS 3000 friction stud welding system.

Friction stud welding provides the capability to weld a pattern of studs to the hull of a
disable submarine, to which a pad-eye can be attached for the SRC haul-down cable and
life support gas can be provided by means of a hot tap process using hollow studs.

Combined with ADS, the system provides rescue capabilities well beyond 300 feet
(91m).

Concurrent with the Navy's application for underwater friction stud welding for
submarine rescue, Oceaneering pursued the application commercially for offshore
platform repairs.

However, initial research showed that there was a limited amount of accurate public
information on the mechanical properties of underwater friction stud welding. As such,
the use of this process for any offshore repair without a full evaluation for mechanical,
corrosion, and fatigue would not be acceptable."

Friction Stir Welding - "Friction stir welding (FSW) is a novel welding technique
invented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991. FSW is actually a solid-state joining
process that is a combination of extruding and forging and is not a true welding process.
Since the process occurs at a temperature below the melting point of the work piece
material, FSW has several advantages over fusion welding. Some of the process
advantages are given in the following list. FSW is energy efficient FSW requires
minimal, if any, consumables. FSW produces desirable microstructures in the weld and
heat-affected zones FSW is environmentally "friendly" (no fumes, noise, or sparks) FSW
can successfully join materials that are "unweldable" by fusion welding methods. FSW
produces less distortion than fusion welding techniques. Friction stir welding uses a
cylindrical, shouldered tool with a profiled pin that is rotated and slowly plunged into the
joint line between two pieces of sheet or plate material, which are butted together.

34
 3.2.3 Development of low cost linear friction welding machines

An international project on linear friction welding of metals, which is partly funded by

the European Community, is currently being conducted by 8 organizations.

This project is designed to drastically reduce the cost of linear friction welding
equipment, in order to make the technology more accessible to potential users especially
from the power generation, automotive and aerospace industrial sectors.

Fig.3.11 Linear friction welding of titanium in normal atmosphere

Linear friction welding has been demonstrated for virtually all types of engineering
alloys, such as titanium (Fig.11), steel, stainless steel, aluminum and inter-metallic, but
the uptake of the process by industry has been impaired by the high capital cost of
existing mechanical linear friction welding machines.

Novel solutions have been devised to reduce the manufacturing cost of the equipment,
mainly based around more efficient use of the power sources required and by use of
stored energy concepts.

35
 Fig.3.12. Artist impression of the Linear Friction machine

Workshop drawings of all modules of a prototype machine have been produced (Fig.12),
and the components are currently being machined or purchased. The prototype machine
was trademarked Linear Friction by TWI and has been designed to weld work pieces
with a maximum weld area of 2000 mm2.

The Linear Friction machine does not need any balancing, and its oscillator is driven by a
hydraulic power pack through 8 accumulators, which can provide an oil flow of up to 750
l/min.

It can vibrate at frequencies of 25-125 Hz with amplitudes of up to ±3mm. An axial

force of up to 150 KN (15 t) can be applied during the friction phase.

The force can then be increased to 200 KN (20 t) to permit consolidation during forging.

Fig.3.13. Principle of Linear Friction Welding

36
 Linear friction welding (Fig3.13) can be used to join a variety of complex
profiles. It is technically, commercially and environmentally a very attractive process,
and is ideally suited to both mass production and to the manufacture of specialized
components required in limited numbers.

If different components have to be welded, only the tooling to hold the work
pieces needs to be changed and different welding parameters may need to be developed.

The technology of friction welding is becoming more widely accepted in many

industry sectors, as the economic benefits and the high quality that it provides are
increasingly recognized.

After the world-wide acceptance of rotary friction welding, this progress has been
significantly helped by the advent of innovative variants on the process, such as vibration
welding of plastics, friction stir welding and friction surfacing.

Friction welding processes are very energy efficient compared to most

competitive welding processes. Routine maintenance of friction welding machines is
generally not expensive, and no consumables such as filler wire, flux or shielding gas are
required, even for environmentally sensitive materials such as titanium alloys. As friction
welding processes are substantially automated, quality and reproducibility are high
compared to alternative manual welding processes.

Friction processes are generally tolerant to wide changes in the welding

parameters without compromising quality, thus reliability is high.

The consortium of this project consists of five small and medium sized enterprises
(SMEs) from three countries, supported by one larger company, and two research and
development organizations.

The project will put European SMEs in a strong position to supply what is firmly
believed to be a large and sustainable market in Europe and the rest of the world.

The project 'Development of Low Cost Linear Friction Welding Machines' is

jointly funded by the industrial consortium and the European Commission under their
CRAFT Initiative (Co- operative Research Action for Technology).

The project is co-ordinate by Blacks Equipment in Don Caster (UK) and managed
by TWI in Great Abington near Cambridge (UK) on behalf of the consortium. The total
budget is 1.25 million Euro and involves an effort of more than 71/2 man-years.

37
3.2.4 Thermoplastic friction welding processes

Linear friction welding (also known as vibration welding) of thermoplastics involves

rubbing together, under axial force, two injection-molded components in a linear
reciprocating motion.

The frequency of the vibration is typically between 100 and 240Hz with a peak-to-peak
vibration movement of 1 to 4mm.

Rotational friction welding (or spin welding) is rubbing together plastic parts, under axial
force, while a component is rotated in the continuous circular motion. The typical
rotation speed is between 1200 and 3500rpm.

Orbital welding involves rubbing together the thermoplastic parts, under axial force, in an
orbital motion at the interface. Similar to linear friction welding, the frequency of
operation is around 200Hz with an off-axis deflection between 1 and 2mm.

The orbital motion has been adapted on some equipment to give a multi-directional, non-
uniform vibration pattern.

The final friction welding process, angular friction welding, is designed to allow circular
components to be welded in a vibration mode.

The components are rubbed together in a reciprocating motion, through a few degrees
(typically 2 to 5°), during the welding process giving an arc of vibration motion at the
component interfaces.

Process operation:
In all the thermoplastic friction welding processes, the heat generated by the rubbing
action must be sufficient to melt and flow the plastic at the weld interface. Sufficient heat
is generated by a combination of weld time, weld force and interface velocity,
determined by either the reciprocating or rotational motion.

38
 Fig.3.14. Material displacement at the welding interface during welding

Figure 3.14 shows a schematic of the material displacement at the welding interface
during the welding cycle. In all friction processes a similar pattern of behavior can be
seen. Typically, displacement can be divided into four phases. In Phase 1 the parts are
brought together and a welding force is applied. The interfacial friction begins but
initially, no material flows. In Phase II, the weld zone material starts to melt and material
displacement to the edges of the weld begins.

Phase III is a steady state phase; the material is pushed out from the weld at a constant
rate. Phase IV is the cooling phase when the interfacial friction is stopped but the force is
still applied to consolidate the weld.

It is generally accepted that Phases I, II and IV are an essential part of the process but that
there is no benefit, in terms of weld strength, in prolonging Phase III. Typically Phases I
and II would take between 0.5 and 8 seconds to complete depending on the weld surface
area being joined.

Typically cooling times in Phase IV would be between 4 and 10 seconds.

3.2.5 Welding process parameters

In friction processes, welding can be carried out either until the pre-set weld time has
elapsed or a pre-set material displacement has been achieved.

When welding by time, the weld time is the length of time the plastic parts are
rubbed together to create the heat. As discussed previously, the weld time should ideally
be terminated when the steady state phase of the weld cycle is achieved. This can be
determined by using a displacement transducer. Higher melting point materials would
typically require a longer weld time.

An alternative to welding by time is to weld by displacement. Interfacial friction is

applied to components being welded until a fixed material displacement is achieved.

39
 This would typically be 1 to 2mm, but would depend on the flatness of the
components being welded.

Undulations in the welding interface would need to be taken into consideration

when setting the weld displacement. Applying a force to the component during welding
creates a pressure at the joint interface.

For friction welding of plastics, the typical welding and cooling pressure is
between 0.5 and 2Mpa. Increasing the weld pressure beyond these values can reduce the
strength of the weld by forcing out most of the molten thermoplastic materials,
resulting in a 'cold weld' being formed.

3.2.6 Component design

Fig 3.15 U-flange joint used in vibration or other friction welding processes

Component design can be divided into the joint design and the design of the
component itself. Joint and component design are critical to the success of friction
welding processes, particularly in linear and orbital friction welding where flexing in the
walls of the components can result in a reduction of the relative interfacial motion
needed to produce friction heating.

To eliminate this problem, it is important to include features such as stiffening

ribs and U-flanges to the component wall around the weld area. The U-flange is
particularly important since it is designed to lock the component wall to the component
tooling, thus preventing wall flexing. Wall flexing is especially a problem in vibration

40
welding where the vibrations occur transverse to the wall of the component unless
suitable measures described above are implemented.

3.2.7 Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications Advantages

Friction stir welding offers a number of advantages these include:
1. As a solid state welding process, FSW is a largely defect free joining method
with no hot cracking, porosity or solidification cracks

2. Due to the lower temperatures there is a reduction in shrinkage and distortion in

the material being joined

3. No filler materials, flux or shielding gas requirement for aluminium alloys

4. FSW is environmentally friendly as it produces no fume, spatter, or UV radiation

5. Uses machine tool technology, making the process easy to automate, highly
repeatable and reducing need for skilled welders

6. Can work in any position

Disadvantages
While friction stir welding provides many advantages, there are a few limitations
associated with the process. These include:

1. Exit hole left after withdrawing tool from the materials to be joined;
however, this can usually be accounted for in the design of the part or by
using run on/off tabs

2. The need for significant down force and traversing forces means that
clamping on the parts to be joined is more substantial than for arc welds

Applications
Shipbuilding: FSW was first used to weld hollow aluminium panels for fishing boats.
Today, this welding technique is common in welding aluminium freezer panels used in
the body and hull of ships.

Since FSW creates minimal distortion, aluminium panels will hold their shape even with
lengthy welds.

Aerospace: Aluminium fuel tanks used in spacecraft to store cryogenic oxygen utilizes
FSW. The joining technique welds the domes to the cylindrical structure that makes up
these fuel tanks.

41
Boeing used FSW in Interest age Module of a Delta II rocket which had a successful lift-
off on August 1999.

FSW is also utilized to join lightweight aluminium frames seen in the aircraft fuselage.
This is because the technique offers a much lighter alternative to bolting or riveting.

Railroad: Friction stir welding finds its use on hollow profiles and T-stiffener
extrusions for manufacturing high-speed trains.

Automotive industry: The automotive industry has turned to aluminium as the optimal
material for preparing car chassis. Hence, it is one of the major adopters in FSW
technology.

Conventional welding methods cannot reproduce high tolerance parts like that of FSW.
The quick weld times of FSW also makes it more appealing than other forms of
welding for aluminium.

42
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
In order to simplify the mathematical model, the FSW process is divided into the
following three periods

1) The penetrating period: from the instant when the tool pin contacts the work piece
surface until the tool shoulder contacts the work piece surface.

2) The welding period: from the instance when the tool±shoulder contacts the work
piece until the tool stops traversing. This period is the main period of the welding.

3) The pulling-up period: from the instance when the tool starts pulling out until the
pin completely leaves the work piece.

The following assumptions are introduced to simplify the model

1) All the frictional energy is converted to heat and exerted on the work piece.

2) The material deformation at the work piece top surface during the weld is
negligible.

3) The frictional heat from the tool pin during the welding is negligible.

4) The tool pin is in the shape of a cylinder.

4.1 Control equation

The governing equation describing the heat transfer process in the work piece can be
written as

where H is enthalpy, c is the material heat capacity, » is the material heat density, k is the
material heat conductivity and S is the heat generation source term.

43
 4.2 Heat generation
4.2.1 Heat generated by the tool shoulder

According to the assumptions, the heat input from the tool shoulder can be
calculated from the frictional heat generation at the workpiece/tool shoulder interface
during the welding. The plastic deformation heat gener- ated at the tool
shoulder/workpiece interface is neglected. As shown in Fig. 2, the local friction force at
every calculated point can be calculated from

Ffi ˆ ·Fni …3†

Where Ffi is the local friction force at each grid mesh point and Fni is the normal force
applied to the work piece. Therefore the local heat generation rate can be calculated as
qi ˆ Ffi vi …4† where qi is a local heat generation rate and vi is the relative slip velocity.
Because vi ˆ Ri! and ! ˆ 2pn, therefore qi ˆ 2p·FniRiN

4.2.2 Heat generated by the tool pin

In this model, the material plastic deformation heat generated by the tool pin is assumed to
be the only heat generated by the tool pin during the welding. This heat is simpli®ed to a
uniform volumetric heat generation within a cylinder volume.

This volumetric heat generation is summarized as the source term in equation .The
diameter of the cylinder representing the plastically deformed material is larger than the
diameter of the tool pin; it depends on the rotational speed and the pin-thread pattern.
However, due to lack of accurate data, this diameter is assumed to be equal to the pin
diameter in this paper.

The heat generated by the plastic deformation consists of three parts: (a) heat generated by
shearing of the material; (b) heat generated by friction on the threaded surface of the pin;
and (c) heat generated by friction on the vertical surface of the pin. The total heat
generation from the pin can be calculated from

44
where rp is the radius of the tool pin, h is the thickness of the work piece, Y· is the
average shear stress of the material, Fp is the translation force during the welding and ¶ is
the helix angle of the thread. In this model, the last two terms in equation (6) are
neglected because the tool pin thread detail is not considered in the model.

2.3 Boundary conditions and initial led 1. Tool shoulder/work piece boundary. The
boundary condition at the tool shoulder/work piece interface is a Neumann condition and
can be calculated from the frictional heat.

The convection boundary conditions. The boundary conditions of the workpiece surfaces
exposed to the air are Neumann conditions. The boundary in contact with the back-up
plate can be simpli®ed as a Neumann condition with an eVective convection coe¤cient.
The Neumann condition in all the convection boundaries can be expressed as k @T @n
G ˆ h…T ¡ T0† …8† where n is the normal direction vector of boundary G and h is the
convection coe¤cient. 3. Initial condition. The initial condition in the calculation is T…
x, y, z, 0† ˆ

45
 CHAPTER 05

RESULT
Heat generation ratios Based on the geometry of the tool and independent of the contact
condition, the ratio of heat generation, i.e. contributions from the different surfaces
compared to the total heat generation, are as follows: fshoulder = Q1 Qtotal = (R3
shoulder − R3 probe)(1 + tan α) (R3 shoulder − R3 probe)(1 + tan α) + R3 probe + 3R2
probe probe = 0.86 fprobe side = Q2 Qtotal = 3R2 probe Hprobe (R3 shoulder − R3
probe)(1 + tan α) + R3 probe + 3R2 probeHprobe =0.11 fprobe tip = Q3 Qtotal = R3
probe (R3 shoulder − R3 probe)(1 + tan α) + R3 probe + 3R2 probe probe = 0.03 (22)
where the tool dimensions are Rshoulder = 9 mm, Rprobe = 3 mm, Hprobe = 4 mm, α=
10˚.

This indicates that, for the specific tool geometry, the shoulder contributes the major
fraction of the heat generation and the probe tip heat generation is negligible compared
to the total heat generation. This correlates with the results found in , noting that the
contribution from the probe due to the traverse motion is included in the estimate by
Colegrove and Shercliff, which is not the case in the present estimates. Sticking
condition.

If the sticking condition is assumed, the analytical estimate (equation (17)) can be used to
deduce the estimated shear stress in the shearing layer when Q is known. This gives an
average shear stress of 20.8 MPa, equivalent to a yield stress of √3 20.8 = 36.1 MPa, for
Q equal to the experimental rotational power (M × ω) of 1752 W at a data point after
15.5 s of welding. The experiment shows a top surface temperature of maximum 400˚C,
and 2024-T3 has a yield stress at 371˚C in the range from 28 to 34 MPa . A similar value
for the shear stress has been found by Khandkar et al , where an average value of τ= 14
MPa is estimated based on an experimentally measured torque. Sliding condition.

The analytical result for heat generation can be correlated with the plunge force (19), if
the sliding condition and that p = F/Ashoulder are assumed. The plunge force is taken
from experimental observations and the estimated analytical heat generation is Qsliding,
ana = 2 3 µω Fexp R2 shoulder ((R3 shoulder − R3 proble)(1 + tan α) + R3 probe + 3R2
probeHprobe) = 1752 W (23) based on the experimental plunge force F = 17.7 kN

46
observed after 15.5 s of welding. Substituting known values for the parameters, tool
dimensions of Rshoulder = 9 mm, Rprobe = 3 mm, Hprobe = 4 mm, α = 10˚ and rotation
speed of ω= 41.8 rad s−1, and solving (23) for µ, gives a value of µ = 0.3. The analytical
estimate for the heat generation equals the experimental rotational power (M × ω) of
1752 W only at one data point, i.e. after15.5 s of welding, where the plunge force is
17.7 kN and the torque is41.9 N m.

Thus, the heat generation estimated analytically in both cases of sliding and sticking can
reproduce the heat generation values obtained experimentally. Thus, there is still a further
need for a criterion for determining the contact condition. Since the sliding condition also
predicts a proportional relationship for a changing plunge force, the experimental values
for the plunge force and torque are examined further, so that the contact condition can be
estimated Estimation of contact condition.

An interesting analysis is to verify the proportional relationship between the plunge force
and the heat generation, which is predicted by when the sliding condition is assumed.

For this, the relationship between the plunge force and the torque is examined. This
analysis is also used to suggest which contact condition is most likely to be present
during the experiment. Experimental plunge force and torque. During the experiment, the
reaction forces in the three directions are monitored, and of special interest is the plunge
force.

The plunge force is often used in the estimation of the heat generation, but only a limited
number of publications with experimental results of the plunge force are available .

The experimental plunge force and torque using the right y-axes and the corresponding
analytical and experimental heat generation using the left y-axis .Plunge period. As the
tool is plunged into the weld panel, the plunge force rises steady during the first part of
the plunge action (−13.7 to −8 s) to 21 kN and the torque rises to 15 N m.

This initial smooth rise in both the torque and the plunge force are caused by the tool
probe penetrating the matrix. This is followed by a transient response in both the plunge
force and torque (rising to 60 N m), which is a result of the shoulder getting in contact
with the matrix interface. An analytical model for the heat generation 155 Figure 3.14
Heat generation (left y-axis) and plunge force and torque (right y-axis). Plunge period
−13.7 to −5 s. Dwell period −5 to 0 s. Weld period 0 to 52.5 s. Dwell period. During the

47
dwell period from −5 to 0 s the plunge force drops from 21 to 12 kN where it settles. The
torque gradually drops from 60 to 40 N m. The analytical result for sliding, i.e. δ = 0,
predicts a proportional relationship between the plunge force and torque.

The proportionality should be applicable during the dwell action where the uniform
pressure is most likely to be fulfilled, but this is not supported by the non-proportional
relationship between the plunge force and the torque, seen from −5 to 0 s in figure 3.14
Weld period

FIG 4.1 HEAT GENERATION AND PLIUNG AND TORQUE ,PLUNG

PERIOD - 13.7TO -5S TO 0S WELD PERIOD 0TO 52.5S

After the dwell/weld transition at 0 s, the plunge force rises from 13 to 17 kN at the
beginning of the weld, finishing at 18.5 kN. The torque starts at 43 N m, dropping to 41
N m at the end of the welding period. The traverse motion of the tool in the weld period
is initiated by a smooth acceleration up to the welding speed of 2 mm s−1 in order to
minimize the transient effect.

The traverse motion of the tool results in the rise in the plunge force, but a corresponding
rise in the torque is not observed. (The measured force to overcome the traverse
resistance is less than 0.5 kN,

The torque seems to stabilize after 5–10 s corresponding to a steady state, which is
supported by additional thermal measurements showing virtually identical temperature
history profiles at locations traversed at 15 and 35 s after the start of the welding (not

48
reported in this work).

The modest change in the plunge force from 10 to 52.5 s could be caused by a machine
effect. The tool displacement was set remotely to a fixed value. During welding, the
measured machine deflection increases slightly (not shown) and the measured plunge
force (shown in figure 4.1) increases slightly, also.

These effects show that, during welding, a factor acted to displace the tool upwards. This
results in an increased deflection of the machine, hence, giving a higher plunge force. A
gradual rise in the backing plate and tool temperature (yielding expansion), could be the
cause. Thus, the plunge force cannot be used to assess whether or not steady state
conditions apply during welding in this case. 156 H Schmidt et al The following
conclusions are drawn

After an initial transient period, the torque does not change during welding. This reflects
a steady state welding condition.

The change in the plunge force during steady state welding is most likely caused by the
specific machine condition present during the welding process. The modest change in the
plunge force does not affect the torque. This indicates that a sticking condition is
present. . Heat generation. shows the heat generation as function of time, using the left y-
axis.

Two power related quantities are shown; the experimental rotational power/heat
generation (M × ω) and combined analytical heat generation (using the experimental
plunge force in the analytical expression). Plunge and dwell period.

During the plunge and dwell period from −13.7 to 0 s the welding panel, backing plate
and the tool are preheated with approximately 15 kJ (integration of the rotational power).
The maximum heat generation of 2.5 kW occurs when the shoulder first touches the
weld panel at −6.1 s and drops to 1.8 kW at the end of the dwell period (0 s). Weld
period.

The welding period is initiated by a smooth acceleration of the tool to the welding speed
of 2 mm s−1, which gives a rise in plunge force, but a similar effect on the heat
generation does not take place, instead the heat generation stabilizes in the range of 1.7–
1.8 kW during the 105 mm of welding.

49
 CHAPTER 06
CONCLUSION

An analytical expression for the heat generation in the FSW process is proposed. This
includes heat generation contributions from specific tool surfaces. The present tool
configuration consists of a conical shoulder and a cylindrical probe, which necessitates a
modification of previous analytical expressions for heat generated by FSW known from
the literature.

A contact state variable has been defined to describe the condition at the contact
interface— relating the velocities of the material in contact to the velocity of the tool
surface segment in contact.

The sliding, the sticking and the partial sliding/sticking conditions are described, as well
as the respective heat generation mechanisms for each condition.

The contact state variable is introduced in the expression for the analytical heat
generation to accommodate different contact conditions and the final expression for the
heat generation demonstrates a flexibility for assuming different contact conditions.

The analytical heat generation estimate correlates with the experimental heat generation,
by assuming either a sliding or a sticking condition. For the sliding condition, a
friction coefficient that lies in the reasonable range of known metal to metal contact
values is used in order to estimate the experimental heat generation.

Assuming the sticking condition, a yield shear stress, which is descriptive for the weld
piece material at elevated temperatures, is used to correlate the values.

The lack of proportionality between the experimental plunge force and heat generation
suggests that the sticking condition or close .

50
 CHAPTER 07
THE FUTURE SCOPE OF HEAT GENERATION IN
FRICTION STIR WELDING
Continuous research is being carried out globally in the field of friction stir welding.
Considerable amount of work had already been done in FSW of similar materials, which
mainly includes characterization of the weld zone both at microscopic and macroscopic
levels, effect of variation of different FS welding parameters on the mechanical and
metallurgical properties of the welds, effects of post welding treatments such as shot
peening and laser peening on the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the welds
and studies on corrosion susceptibility of the different zones in the weld region.

These investigations particularly focus the precipitation hardened aluminum alloys,

having potential applications in the aerospace and naval sector .Efficient welding of
dissimilar materials is challenging research field and welding of dissimilar materials has
always been a matter of concern for the engineers and scientists worldwide

The need of the machines having culmination of different properties such as light
weight, high strength , high corrosion resistance etc, is rapidly increasing. The need of
such properties in a single component has resulted in these of different materials in a
single structure. Furthermore, the steel materials welded to aluminum alloys that join
technical parts are in great demand.

For example, a vehicle’s main structure, such as the steel-made chassis module, can be
joined with secondary structural elements of aluminum alloy materials. Aquatic
transportation vehicles prefer hulls made of steel and aluminum alloys; the under-water
surface is made of steel, whereas, above the water surface, it is possible to use
aluminum.

51
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