Anti-lock braking system

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) (translated from German, Anti-Blockier System)

is a safety system on motor vehicles which prevents the wheels from locking while
braking.

A rotating road wheel allows the driver to maintain steering control under heavy
braking, by preventing a locked wheel or skid, and allowing the wheel to continue to
forward roll and create lateral control, as directed by driver steering inputs.
Disadvantages of the system include increased braking distances under some limited
circumstances (ice, snow, gravel, "soft" surfaces), and the creation of a "false sense
of security" among drivers who do not understand the operation, and limitations of
ABS.

Since it came into widespread use in production cars (with "version 2" in 1978),
ABS has made considerable progress. Recent versions not only handle the ABS
function itself (i.e. preventing wheel locking under braking), but also electronic
control of the front-to-rear bias known as electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD),
traction control system (TCS or ASR), an "emergency" brake assist (BA, EBA or
HBA), and electronic stability control (ESP, ESC or DSC), amongst others.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Operation
o 2.1 Additional developments
 2.1.1 Traction control
• 3 Effectiveness
• 4 Risk compensation
• 5 Design and selection of components
• 6 References
• 7 See also

• 8 External links

[edit] History
Anti-lock braking systems were first developed for aircraft in 1929, by the French
automobile and aircraft pioneer, Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking an airplane is
nearly impossible. An early system was Dunlop's Maxaret system, introduced in the
1950s and still in use on some aircraft models.
A fully mechanical system saw limited automobile use in the 1960s in the Ferguson
P99 racing car, the Jensen FF and the experimental all wheel drive Ford Zodiac, but
saw no further use; the system proved expensive and, in automobile use, somewhat
unreliable. However, a limited form of anti-lock braking, utilizing a valve which
could adjust front to rear brake force distribution when a wheel locked, was fitted to
the 1964 Austin 1800.

ABS brakes on a BMW motorcycle

Chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a crude, limited

production ABS system on the 1971 Imperial. Called "Sure Brake", it was available
for several years, and had a satisfactory performance and reliability record. Ford
also introduced anti lock brakes on the Lincoln Continental Mark III and the Ford
LTD station wagon, called "Sure Trak". The German firms Bosch and Mercedes-
Benz had been co-developing anti-lock braking technology since the 1930s, and
introduced the first completely electronic 4-wheel multi-channel ABS system in
trucks and the Mercedes-Benz S-Class in 1978. ABS Systems based on this more
modern Mercedes design were later introduced on other cars and motorcycles.
General Motors introduced the "Trackmaster" ABS on their Cadillac models in
1971 as an option that was operational on the rear wheels for RWD models.[1][2]

In 1988 BMW became the world's first motorcycle manufacturer to introduce an

electronic/hydraulic ABS system, this on their BMW K100. In 1992 Honda launched
its first ABS system, this on the ST1100 Pan European. In 1997 Suzuki launched its
GSF1200SA (Bandit) with ABS.

[edit] Operation
The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock
Brake).

A typical ABS is composed of a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel
speed sensors (one for each wheel), and two or more hydraulic valves within the
vehicle brake circuit. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each
wheel. When it senses that any number of wheels are rotating considerably slower
than the others (a condition that is likely to bring it to lock - see note below), it
actuates the valves to decrease the pressure on the specific braking circuit for the
individual wheel, effectively reducing the braking force on that wheel. The wheel(s)
then turn faster; when they turn too fast, the force is reapplied. This process is
repeated continuously, and this causes the characteristic pulsing feel through the
brake pedal. A typical anti-lock system can apply and release braking pressure up to
20 times a second.

Note: The ECU needs to determine when some of the wheels turn
considerably slower than any of the others because when the car is turning
the two wheels towards the center of the curve inherently move slightly
slower than the other two – which is the reason why a differential is used in
virtually all commercial cars.

The sensors can become contaminated with metallic dust, or other contaminants,
and fail to correctly detect wheel slip; this is not always picked up by the internal
ABS controller diagnostic.[citation needed] In this occurrence, the ABS warning light will
usually be illuminated on the instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until
the fault is rectified.

[edit] Additional developments

Modern Electronic Stability Control (ESC or ESP) systems are an evolution of the
ABS concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the
system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The
theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction
taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the
ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most
sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The
steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC),
since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more
than wheels on the outside, and by how much.

[edit] Traction control

Main article: Traction control system

The ABS equipment may also be used to implement traction control system (TCS,
ASR) on acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the
ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that traction is
regained. Manufacturers often offer this as a separately priced option even though
the infrastructure is largely shared with ABS.[citation needed] More sophisticated versions
of this can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.

Mercedes-Benz was the first to offer this electronic traction control system in 1985.

[edit] Effectiveness
A 2003 Australian study[3] by Monash University Accident Research Centre found
that ABS:
 • Reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent,
• Reduced the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent.

On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all) ABS-
equipped cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those
that would be easily possible without the benefit of ABS. In real world conditions
even an alert, skilled driver without ABS would find it difficult, even through the
use of techniques like threshold braking, to match or improve on the performance of
a typical driver with a modern ABS-equipped vehicle. ABS reduces chances of
crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The recommended technique for non-expert
drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking emergency, is to press the
brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around
obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid
and subsequent loss of control.

In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these
surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this
from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the cycling
time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. The primary benefit
of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to maintain control of
the car rather than go into a skid — though loss of control remains more likely on
soft surfaces like gravel or slippery surfaces like snow or ice. On a very slippery
surface such as sheet ice or gravel, it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once, and
this can defeat ABS (which relies on comparing all four wheels, and detecting
individual wheels skidding). Availability of ABS relieves most drivers from learning
threshold braking.

A June 1999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study found
that ABS increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 22 percent.[4]

According to the NHTSA,

"ABS works with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In vehicles
not equipped with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to prevent wheel
lockup. In vehicles equipped with ABS, your foot should remain firmly planted on the brake
pedal, while ABS pumps the brakes for you so you can concentrate on steering to safety."

When activated, some earlier ABS systems caused the brake pedal to pulse
noticeably. As most drivers rarely or never brake hard enough to cause brake lock-
up, and a significant number rarely bother to read the car's manual, [citation needed] this
may not be discovered until an emergency. When drivers do encounter an
emergency that causes them to brake hard, and thus encounter this pulsing for the
first time, many are believed to reduce pedal pressure, and thus lengthen braking
distances, contributing to a higher level of accidents than the superior emergency
stopping capabilities of ABS would otherwise promise. Some manufacturers have
therefore implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is
attempting a "panic stop" and the system automatically increases braking force
where not enough pressure is applied. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves
safety and control for drivers in most on-road situations.

[edit] Risk compensation

ABS brakes are the subject of some widely cited experiments [citation needed] in support of
risk compensation theory, which support the view that drivers adapt to the safety
benefit of ABS by driving more aggressively.

The two major examples are from Munich and Oslo.[citation needed] In both cases taxi
drivers in mixed fleets were found to exhibit greater risk-taking behaviour when
driving cars equipped with ABS, with the result that collision rates between ABS
and non ABS cars were not significantly different.

[edit] Design and selection of components

Given the required reliability, it is illustrative to see the choices made in the design
of the ABS system. Proper functioning of the ABS system is considered of the utmost
importance, for safeguarding both the passengers within, and people outside of the
car. The system is therefore built with some redundancy, and is designed to monitor
its own working and report failures. The entire ABS system is considered to be a
hard real-time system, while the sub-system that controls the self diagnosis is
considered soft real-time. As stated above, the general working of the ABS system
consists of an electronic unit, also known as ECU (electronic control unit), which
collects data from the sensors and drives the hydraulic control unit (HCU), mainly
consisting of the valves that regulate the braking pressure for the wheels.

The communication between the ECU and the sensors must happen quickly and at
real time. A possible solution is the use of the CAN bus system, which has been, and
is still in use in many ABS systems today (in fact, this CAN standard was developed
by Robert Bosch GmbH, for connecting electronic control units). This allows for an
easy combination of multiple signals into one signal, which can be sent to the ECU.
The communication with the valves of the HCU is usually not done this way. The
ECU and the HCU are generally very close together. The valves, usually solenoid
valves, are controlled directly by the ECU. To drive the valves based on signals from
the ECU, some circuitry and amplifiers are needed (which would also have been the
case if the CAN-bus was used).

The sensors measure the position of the tyres, and are generally placed on the wheel-
axis. The sensor should be robust and maintenance free, not to endanger its proper
working, for example an inductive sensor. These position measurements are then
processed by the ECU to calculate the differential wheel rotation.

The hydraulic control unit is generally integrated with the ECU (or the other way
around), and consists of a number of valves that control the pressure in the braking
circuits. All these valves are placed closely together, and packed in a solid
aluminium alloy block. This makes for a very simple layout, and is thus very robust.

The central control unit generally consists of two microcontrollers, both active
simultaneously, to add some redundancy to the system. These two microcontrollers
interact, and check each other's proper working. These microcontrollers are also
chosen to be power-efficient, to avoid heating of the controller which would reduce
durability.

The software which runs in the ECU has a number of functions. Most notably, the
algorithms that drive the HCU as a function of the inputs, or control the brakes
depending on the recorded wheel spin. This is the obvious main task of the entire
ABS-system. Apart from this, the software also needs to process the incoming
information, e.g. the signals from the sensors. There is also some software that
constantly tests each component of the ABS system for its proper working. Some
software for interfacing with an external source to run a complete diagnosis is also
added.

As mentioned before the ABS system is considered hard real-time. The control
algorithms, and the signal processing software, certainly fall in this category, and get
a higher priority than the diagnosis and the testing software. The requirement for
the system to be hard real-time can therefore be reduced to stating that the software
should be hard real-time. The required calculations to drive the HCU have to be
done in time. Choosing a microcontroller that can operate fast enough is therefore
the key, preferably with a large margin. The system is then limited by the dynamic
ability of the valves and the communication, the latter being noticeably faster. The
control system is thus comfortably fast enough, and is limited by the valves.

Electronic brakeforce distribution

Electronic brakeforce distribution or EBD is an automobile brake technology that
automatically varies the amount of force applied to each of a vehicle's brakes, based
on road conditions, speed, loading, etc. Always coupled with anti-lock braking
systems, EBD can apply more or less braking pressure to each wheel in order to
maximize stopping power whilst maintaining vehicular control.

[edit] How ABS works

When a rotating wheel is subjected to excessive heavy braking, it is prone to lock-
up. In motor vehicles, the anti-lock braking system (ABS) works to prevent this by
monitoring wheel speeds and taking action in the form of releasing pressure on the
braking circuit, when a rapid deceleration occurs in any of the wheels to ensure
steering and vehicular control is maintained during heavy or emergency braking.
Modern ABS has four separate channels - one for each tire - as different amounts of
braking pressure are required to lock a rotating wheel on different surfaces. For
example, less braking pressure would be needed to lock a wheel which was in
contact with ice than a wheel which was in contact with an asphalt road.

In a situation where the wheels of a vehicle are on different surfaces (for example
the two left wheels are on a concrete road and the two right wheels were on snow),
during an emergency stop ABS would detect the two right wheels about to lock and
would activate. Less braking force is sent to the right wheels, which would otherwise
lock and not slow the car down.

[edit] How EBFD works

As per SAE technical paper #920646 - Buschmann et al. "The job of the EBD as a
subsystem of the ABS system is to control the effective adhesion utilization by the
rear wheels. The pressure of the rear wheels is approximated to the ideal brake force
distribution in a partial braking operation. To do so, the conventional brake design
is modified in the direction of rear axle overbraking, and the components of the ABS
are used. EBD reduces the strain on the hydraulic brake force proportioning valve
in the vehicle. EBD optimizes the brake design with regard to: adhesion utilization;
driving stability; wear; temperature stress; and pedal force."

EBFD works in conjunction with ABS to minimize yaw accelerations during turns.
It compares steering wheel angle to a yaw sensor. "Yaw" is the vehicle's rotation
about its center of gravity (imagine a car spinning out of control). If the yaw sensor
detects more/less yaw than the steering wheel angle should create - the car is
understeering or oversteering - EBFD activates one of the rear brakes to rotate the
car back into its intended course. The sensors are so sensitive, and the actuation is so
quick that the driver doesn't notice it working - or how close he/she was to spinning
out and hitting something!

For example, if a car is making a left turn, and begins to understeer (the car veers to
the outside of the turn) EBFD activates the left rear brake, which will turn the car
and make the car point left.

Any time you limit power or use brakes to maintain control, you scrub off speed. It
is better to have an honestly good handling vehicle than to try to compensate for ill
handling properties with electronic devices. A good driver won't invoke this feature
in most situations on a race track (although it is useful in those situations), and a
street vehicle has no business invoking it on public roads.

Cornering Brake Control

Cornering Brake Control or CBC is an automotive safety system developed by
BMW.[citation needed] It is a further development and expansion of the anti-lock braking
system, designed to distribute braking force during braking whilst cornering. CBC
interacts with ABS to counteract oversteer, and generates optimum distribution of
braking effort in corners, keeping the vehicle heading in the intended direction, even
if the brakes are applied suddenly.

[edit] Principle of operation

Using the revolutions of the wheel, CBC regulates the pressure in the different wheel
brake cylinders so that wheels operate separately and brake optimally. In this way
the system intervenes early and the driver is unaware of it.

In addition, the physically-dependent over-steering while braking on curves is

compensated. CBC counteracts these tendencies by modulating brake action at
individual wheels in a precise way; for instance, it can cause brake pressure at the
outside front wheel to build up more rapidly than at the other wheels.

The result is significantly safer and gentler braking. The vehicle remains safe on
track at all times. Even during abrupt braking maneuvers, the vehicle remains
stable.

Electronic stability control

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Electronic stability control (ESC) is a computerized technology that improves the

safety of a vehicle's handling by detecting and preventing skids. When ESC detects
loss of steering control, ESC automatically applies individual brakes to help "steer"
the vehicle where the driver wants to go. Braking is automatically applied to
individual wheels, such as the outer front wheel to counter oversteer, or the inner
rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce engine power until
control is regained.[1]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Operation
• 2 Components and Design
• 3 Effectiveness
• 4 Cost
• 5 Availability
• 6 Laws
• 7 History
• 8 Future
 • 9 Product names
• 10 System Manufacturers
• 11 See also
• 12 References

• 13 External links

[edit] Operation
ESC compares the driver's intended direction, by measuring steering angle, to the
vehicle's actual direction, by measuring lateral acceleration, vehicle rotation (yaw)
and individual road wheel speeds. If the vehicle is not going where the driver is
steering, ESC then brakes individual front or rear wheels and/or reduces engine
power as needed to help correct understeer and oversteer.

ESC incorporates yaw rate control into the anti-lock braking system (ABS). Yaw is
rotation around the vertical axis; i.e. spinning left or right. Anti-lock brakes enable
ESC to brake individual wheels. ESC usually also incorporates a traction control
system (TCS or ASR), which senses drive-wheel slip under acceleration and
individually brakes the slipping wheel or wheels and/or reduces excess engine power
until control is regained.

ESC cannot override a car's physical limits or increase traction. If a driver pushes
the vehicle's traction beyond its limits, ESC cannot prevent a crash. It is a tool to
help the driver maintain control using available traction and grip.

[edit] Components and Design

The ESC-system uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants (input).
Other sensors indicate the actual state of the vehicle (response). The control-
algorithm compares driver input to vehicle response (25 times per second) and
decides, when necessary, to apply brakes and/or reduce throttle.

The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possible
defects as soon as possible. They have to be resistant to possible forms of
interference (rain, holes in the road, etc.). The most important sensors are:

• Steering wheel angle sensor : determines the driver's intended rotation; i.e.
where the driver wants to steer. This kind of sensor is often based on AMR-
elements.
• Yaw rate sensor : measures the rotation rate of the car; i.e how much the car
is actually turning. The data from the yaw sensor is compared with the data
from the steering wheel angle sensor to determine regulating action.
• Lateral acceleration sensor : often based on the Hall effect. Measures the
lateral acceleration of the vehicle.
 • Wheel speed sensor : measures the wheel speed.

ESC uses a hydraulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct brake
force. A similar modulator is used in ABS. ABS needs to reduce pressure during
braking, only. ESC additionally needs to increase pressure in certain situations.

The heart of the ESC-system is the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). The various
control techniques are embedded in it. Often, the same ECU is used for diverse
systems at the same time (ABS, Traction control, climate control, etc.). The input
signals are sent through the input-circuit to the digital controller. The desired
vehicle state is determined based upon the steering wheel angle, its gradient and the
wheel speed. Simultaneously, the yaw sensor measures the actual state. The
controller computes the needed brake or acceleration force for each wheel and
directs via the driver circuits the valves of the hydraulic modulator. Via a CAN-
interface the ECU is connected with other systems (ABS, etc.) in order to avoid
giving contradictory commands.

Most ESC systems use an indicator light on the dash to tell the driver when the
system is active (i.e. has detected and corrected skidding).

Many ESC systems have an "off" switch so the driver can disable ESC, which may
be desirable when badly stuck in mud or snow, or driving on a beach. However, ESC
defaults to "On" when the ignition is re-started. Some ESC systems that lack an
"off switch", such as on many recent Toyota and Lexus vehicles, can be temporarily
disabled through an undocumented series of brake pedal and handbrake
operations.[2]

[edit] Effectiveness
Numerous studies around the world confirm that ESC is highly effective in helping
the driver maintain control of the car and saving lives and reducing the severity of
crashes.[3] In the fall of 2004 in the U.S., the National Highway and Traffic Safety
Administration confirmed the international studies, releasing results of a field study
in the U.S. of ESC effectiveness. NHTSA concluded that ESC reduces crashes by
35%. Additionally, Sport utility vehicles (SUV's) with stability control are involved
in 67% fewer accidents than SUVs without the system. The Insurance Institute for
Highway Safety (IIHS) issued its own study results in 2004 concluding that universal
use of ESC could save 7,000 lives a year in the United States. In June 2006, the IIHS
released a second study showing that up to 10,000 fatal US crashes could be avoided
annually if all vehicles were equipped with ESC[4] The 2006 study concluded that
ESC reduces the likelihood of all fatal crashes by 43%, fatal single-vehicle crashes
by 56%, and fatal single-vehicle rollovers by 77-80%.

ESC is described as the most important advance in auto safety since the seat belt by
many experts[5] including Nicole Nason,[6] Administrator of the NHTSA,[7] Jim Guest
and David Champion[8] of Consumers Union[9] Max Mosley of the Fédération
Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), E-Safety Aware[10], Csaba Csere, editor of Car
and Driver[11], and Bill Kozyra, CEO of Continental Automotive Systems[7].The
European New Car Assessment Program (EuroNCAP) "strongly recommends" that
people buy cars fitted with stability control.[12]

On November 21, 2006 the IIHS announced that 13 of the 2007 vehicles had earned
its TOP SAFETY PICK rating which is based primarily on crashworthiness;
however, a major new requirement for this top rating is that the vehicle must be
equipped with ESC (which helps avoid crashes)[13]. The NHTSA issued a final
research report in July 2007, stating, "ESC reduced all fatal crashes by 14% for
passenger cars and 28% for LTVs (Light Trucks and Vans). Only the reduction in
LTVs is statistically significant." Although that data was not statistically significant
for passenger cars generally, it was found to be statistically significant that "police-
reported crash involvements decreased by 8% in passenger cars and 10% in LTVs."
[14]
.

[edit] Cost
ESC is built on top of an anti-lock brake (ABS) system. The ESC components
include a Yaw rate sensor, a Lateral Acceleration Sensor, a Steering Wheel Sensor,
and an upgraded Integrated Control Unit. According to National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration research, ABS costs an estimated US$368 (in 2005) and ESC
costs an additional US$111. The retail price of ESC varies; as a stand-alone option,
it retails for as little as $450. Unfortunately, many auto makers bundle ESC with
other features so the cost of a package that includes ESC could be several thousands
of dollars.

ESC is highly cost-effective[15] and it might pay for itself in reduced insurance
premiums.[16]

[edit] Availability
ESC is not generally available for after-market installation. The only way
consumers can get ESC is to buy a vehicle equipped by the manufacturer with
standard or optional ESC.

Availability of ESC in passenger vehicles varies between manufacturers and

countries. In 2007, ESC was available in roughly 50% of new North American
models, whereas that figure is about 75% in Sweden. However, consumer awareness
affects buying patterns so that roughly 45% of vehicles sold in North America and
the UK are purchased with ESC[17], contrasting with 78-93% in other European
countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. While few vehicles had ESC
prior to 2004, increased awareness will increase the number of vehicles with ESC on
the used car market.
ESC is available on cars, SUV's, and pickup trucks from all major auto makers.
ESC is also available on some motor homes. Elaborate ESC and ESP systems
(including Roll Stability Control (RSC)[18]) are available for many commercial
vehicles[19], including transport trucks, trailers, and buses from manufacturers such
as Bendix Corporation[20], WABCO [21], Daimler,[22], Scania AB[23], and Prevost[24]

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) website[25] shows availability of
ESC in individual US models and the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA website[26] lists US models with ESC. The National Roads
and Motorists' Association NRMA shows availability of ESC in Australian
models.[27] CHOOSE ESC! shows availability of ESC in European countries[28]

[edit] Laws
While Sweden used public awareness campaigns to promote ESC use, [29] others
implemented or proposed legislation. Quebec was the first jurisidiction to
implement an ESC law, making it mandatory for carriers of dangerous goods
(without data recorders) in 2005.[30] The United States was next, mandating ESC for
all passenger vehicles under 10,000 pounds (4536 kg), phasing in the regulation
starting with 55% of 2009 models, 75% of 2010 models, 95% of 2011 models, and
100% of 2012 models.[31] Australia [32] and Canada[33][34] will likely be next, requiring
100% of passenger vehicles to have ESC on September 1, 2011, matching the U.S.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe is working on a Global
Technical Regulation to harmonize standards for ESC.[35]

Automobile safety
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Passive safety" redirects here. For nuclear safety, see Passive nuclear safety.

Automobile safety is the avoidance of automobile accidents or the minimization of

harmful effects of accidents, in particular as pertaining to human life and health.
Numerous safety features have been built into cars for years, some for the safety of
car's occupants only, some for the safety of others.
Distance covered by vehicles in one second.

As a result of improvements in highway and automobile design, the incidence of

injuries and fatalities per mile driven has decreased significantly, but road traffic
injuries still represent about 25% of worldwide injury-related deaths (the leading
cause) with an estimated 1.2 million deaths (2004) each year - World Health
Organization [1]).

Major factors in accidents include driving under the influence of alcohol or other
drugs; inattentive driving; crash compatibility between vehicles; driving while
fatigued or unconscious; encounters with road hazards such as snow, potholes, and
crossing animals; or reckless driving.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Passenger safety
o 2.1 Pregnant women
o 2.2 Children
 2.2.1 Infants
 2.2.1.1 Infants left in cars
 2.2.2 Toddlers
 2.2.3 Young children
 2.2.4 Older children
 2.2.5 Teenage drivers
• 3 Safety features
o 3.1 Active safety
o 3.2 Passive safety
o 3.3 Pedestrian safety
o 3.4 Color
• 4 See also
 • 5 References

• 6 External links

[edit] History
Car safety may have become an issue almost from the beginning of mechanised road
vehicle development. The second steam-powered "Fardier" (artillery tractor),
created by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1771, is reported by some to have crashed into
a wall during its demonstration run. However according to Georges Ageon [2], the
earliest mention of this occurrence dates from 1801 and it does not feature in
contemporary accounts.

One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31,
1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland.

In the 1930s, plastic surgeon Claire L. Straith and physician C. J. Strickland

advocated the use of seat belts and padded dashboards. Strickland founded the
Automobile Safety League of America [3][4].

In 1934 GM performed the first barrier crash test.[5] 1944 Volvo introduced the first
safety cage to modern cars but it was patented by Mercedes Benz before Volvo.

In 1949 SAAB incorporated aircraft safety thinking into automobiles making the
Saab 92 the first production SAAB car with a safety cage[6].

In 1942 Hugh De Haven published the classic Mechanical analysis of survival in falls
from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet. [7]

In the 1950s, Mercedes-Benz extensively crash tested prototypes.[8].

Volvo was the first company to produce cars with padded dashboards starting in
late 1956 with their Amazon model.

In 1958, the United Nations established the World Forum for Harmonization of
Vehicle Regulations, an international standards body advancing auto safety. Many
of the most life saving safety innovations, like seat belts and roll cage construction
were brought to market under its auspices.

In 1958, Volvo engineer Nils Bohlin invented and patented the modern 3-Point
Safety Belt, which became standard on all Volvo cars in 1959. The three point safety
belt was made standard on all cars.

In 1966, the U.S. established the United States Department of Transportation (DOT)
with automobile safety one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was
reliant on the DOT for administration and funding. However, in 1975 the
organization was made completely independent by the Independent Safety Board
Act (in P.L. 93-633; 49 U.S.C. 1901).

Volvo developed the first rear-facing child seat in 1964[14] and introduced its own
booster seat in 1978.

The NTSB and its European equivalent, EuroNCAP have each issued independent
safety tests for all new automobiles, without reciprocity.

In 1984, New York State passed the first law requiring seat belt use in passenger
cars. Seat belt laws have subsequently been adopted by all 50 states[9], and NHTSA
estimates that seat belt laws save 10,000 per year in the USA[10].

In 1986, Volvo introduced the first central high-mounted stoplight[16] (a brake light
not shared with the rear tail lights), which became federally mandated in the United
States in the 1986 model year.

In 1998 Volvo also developed and was the first to install a head protecting airbag,
which was made standard in all new models as well as some existing models.

In June, 2004 the NTSB released new tests designed to test the rollover risk of new
cars and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX-8 got a 5-star rating. However, the correlation
between official crash test results and road deaths in vehicles is not exact. An
alternative method of assessing vehicle safety is to study the road accident statistics
on a model-by-model basis.

Despite technological advances, the death toll of car accidents remains high: about
40,000 people die every year in the U.S. While this number increases annually in line
with rising population and increased travel, the rate per capita and per vehicle miles
travelled decreases. In 1996 the U.S. had about 2 deaths per 10,000 motor vehicles,
comparable to 1.9 in Germany, 2.6 in France, and 1.5 in the UK [11]. In 1998 there
were 3,421 fatal accidents in the UK, the fewest since 1926.[12]

A much higher number of accidents result in permanent disability.

[edit] Passenger safety

[edit] Pregnant women

When pregnant, women should continue to use seatbelts and airbags properly. A
University of Michigan study found that "unrestrained or improperly restrained
pregnant women are 5.7 times more likely to have an adverse fetal outcome than
properly restrained pregnant women". [13] If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions
are available from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier.
[edit] Children

Car safety is especially critical for young children, as car safety is generally designed
for normal sized adults. Safety features that could save an adult can actually cause
more damage to a child than if the feature was not there. It is important to review
with others, who may be supervising the child, the rules for car safety. All children
age 12 and under should ride in the back seat. Also children weighing less than 85 lb
(40 kg) should be in the back seat. This is especially the case if there are airbags in
the front seat, as airbags are only designed to protect adults and may injure
children; since airbags inflate at high speeds, a child who is improperly seated may
be hit by an inflating airbag. That is not just an opinion but is also law in many of
the U.S. states and other countries. The Center for Injury Research and Prevention
at The Children's Hospital Of Philadelphia has developed a website for parents and
caregivers with extensive information about transporting children safely in
automobiles.

Child safety locks prevent children from accidentally opening doors from inside the
vehicle, even if the door is unlocked. The door, once unlocked, can then be opened
only from the outside. To find out more about laws relating to children car safety
contact your local department of transportation authority.

[edit] Infants

Newborn babies should be put in a car seat until they weigh at least 20 or 22 pounds
(10 or 11 kg). These carriers are designed to be placed in the rear seat and face
towards the rear with the baby looking towards the back window. Some of these
carriers are "Convertibles" which can also be used forward facing for older
children. With infants, these should only be used facing the rear. Harness straps
should be at or below shoulder level.

A rear-facing infant restraint must never be put in the front seat of a vehicle with a
front passenger air bag. A rear-facing infant restraint places an infant's head close
to the air bag module, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the air bag
deploys. Modern cars include a switch to turn off the airbag system of the passenger
seat, in which case a child-supporting seat must be installed.

[edit] Infants left in cars

Less has been written about the safety hazard of leaving a child in a parked car, but
already two advocacy groups have emerged focusing on separate aspects of the
problem: Harrison's Hope[14] reminds parents never to leave a child in a car to run
an errand, while KidsandCars.org[15] has pointed out the problem of absent-minded
parents.[16] An informal parenting poll[17] shows that the majority of parents have left
their kids unattended in a car.

[edit] Toddlers
Toddlers over 1 year old and between 10 and 20 kg (20 and 40 pounds) should
remain in a rear-facing child restraint until they have reached either the maximum
allowable weight for the seat, or the tops of the toddler's head is less than 1" away
from the top of the hard shell of the seat. Once that has been reached, then the
toddler can be placed in an appropriate forward-facing child restraint.

[edit] Young children

Children who weigh from 40 to 80 pounds (35 kg), are younger than 8, or are
shorter than 4 ft 9 in (1.4 m) are advised to use booster seats, which raise them to a
level that allows the seat belts to work effectively. These seats are forward facing
and must be used with both lap and shoulder belts. Make sure the lap belt fits low
and tight across the lap/upper thigh area and the shoulder belt fits snug crossing the
chest and shoulder to avoid abdominal injuries.

There are two main types of booster seats. If the car's back seat is lower than the
child's ears, a high back booster seat should be used to help protect the child's head
and neck. If the car's seat back is higher than the child's ears, a backless booster
seat can be used.

[edit] Older children

Children who can sit erect with their back flat against the back of a vehicle's rear
seat, and whose legs bend comfortably at the knee at the edge of the seat can wear
ordinary seatbelts. Be sure the shoulder strap fits snugly across the chest and that
the lap belt is placed below the abdomen across the pelvis at the top of the thighs.
Children 13 and over can ride up front with little danger from an airbag.

[edit] Teenage drivers

In the UK you can get a full driving license aged 17 whereas most areas in the
United States will issue a full driver's license at the age of 16, and all within a range
between 14 and 18. [18] In addition to being relatively inexperienced, teen drivers are
also cognitively immature, compared to other drivers.[19] This combination leads to
an increased risk of accidents among this demographic.[20]

It is also recommended, and required in some areas, that new drivers stick a printed
sign with the words "Novice Driver" in the lower driver's side corner of the rear
window. This is to alert other drivers that the vehicle is being driven by an
inexperienced and learning driver, giving them opportunity to be more cautious and
to encourage other drivers to give novices more leeway.[21]

Some countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and New Zealand,
have graduated levels of driver's licence, with special rules[22].

[edit] Safety features

Active safety refers to vehicle systems that use information about a vehicle's
external environment to change the response of the vehicle and improve the safety of
the vehicle in the pre-crash time period or during the crash event, with the ultimate
goal of avoiding a crash altogether. Active safety includes both autonomous systems,
such as RADAR-based crash avoidance systems, and cooperative systems that rely
on vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure (and vice versa) communication.
Cooperative systems have been the focus of the national Vehicle Infrastructure
Integration (VII) program.

Passive safety refers to built-in features of a vehicle, such as crumple zones,

seatbelts, and airbags, that work passively to prevent injury and do not change the
vehicle's action in response to crash scenario or severity.

[edit] Active safety

Active safety features make driving safer and prevent crashes from occurring.
Active safety features include:

• Intelligent speed adaptation which physically prevents vehicles from being

able to exceed the speed limit through electronic throttle control governed by
a GPS matched database of speed limits.
• Turn signals and brake lights, including Center High Mounted Stop Lamps
(CHMSL)
• Rear end Collision Warning Lamps senses deceleration of lead vehicle and
flashes amber warning strobe rearward to warn following vehicles of a
pending braking or stopping event
• Variable assist power steering allows assistance to the motorist while
parking, but reduces steering effort assistance at motorway speeds
• Headlight wipers/washers
• Mercedes-style ribbed tail lights to prevent snow and grime build-up
• Dynamic steering response (DSR) corrects the rate of power steering system
to adapt it to vehicle's speed and road conditions.
• Traction control (TCS) actuates brakes or reduces throttle to restore traction
if driven wheels begin to spin.
• Hill holder.
• Four wheel drive (AWD). Distributing power to all four wheels lessens the
chances of wheel spin. It also suffers less from oversteer and understeer than
front wheel drive, but more understeer than rear wheel drive. However, some
four wheel drive vehicles (particularly SUVs have a higher center of gravity
and are more prone to roll-over and cause injury or death to passengers.
• Reverse backup sensors, which alert drivers to nearby objects in their path,
are installed in some high-end vehicles, but may also be purchased
separately.
• Electronic Stability Control (ESC, also known by ESP and other numerous
manufacturer-specific names). Uses various sensors to intervene when the car
senses a possible loss of control. The car's control unit can reduce power from
 the engine and even apply the brakes to prevent the car from understeering
or oversteering. See car stability
• Lateral Support : Lane Departure Warning System (LDWS).
• Directional headlights, which allow the driver to see obstacles ahead in the
roadway while cornering.
• Low center of gravity and other conventional features promoting good car
handling and braking, and helping to avoid rollover.
• Comfortable suspension and seating to avoid accidents from driver fatigue.
• Large (relative to weight) high performance tires, suited to the weather and
road conditions, contribute to braking and handling. Soft high histeresis
rubber, tread and cord design are important. See Run flat tire.
• Visibility for the driver, mirrors, elimination of blind spots and possibly other
awareness aids such as radar, wireless vehicle safety communications and
night vision.
• Death Brake; there is a move to introduce deadman's braking into
automotive application, primarily heavy vehicles, there may also be a need to
add penalty switches to cruise controls.
• Four wheel steering gives, at the cost of mechanical complexity, quicker,
more accurate maneuvers at high speed and/or decreased turning circle at
low speed. It may also help stability.
• Adaptive cruise control (ACC).
• AWAKE and intelligent car features.
• Precrash system
• Seatbelts might also play a minor role in active safety by keeping (via locking
of the inertial reel) the driver firm on his/her seat in a high-g turn or
deceleration. This has been further developed and patented by Mercedes-
Benz in the PreSafe technology which provides a synergy between active and
passive systems, helping the driver avoid a danger and preparing him/her for
an imminent crash.