2012 Poultry Science association, Inc.

Interactive effects of feed form and dietary lysine on growth responses of commercial broiler chicks
A. Corzo,*1,2,3 L. Mejia,* C. D. McDaniel,* and J. S. Moritz *Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762; and Department of Animal and Nutritional Science, West Virginia University, Morgantown 26506-6108 Primary Audience: Nutritionists, Feed Mill Managers, live Production Personnel SUMMARY
It has been shown in previous studies that older broilers can be affected by feed form, particularly as it relates to the pellet quality not allowing these birds to express their full growth potential. In this study, the interactive effects of dietary lys concentration and feed form were evaluated in broiler chicks. Broilers were given 1 of 3 possible feed forms [mash (Ma), mash exposed to conditioner steam (CM), and pellets in the form of crumbles (PC)] and 1 of 5 possible graded levels of true digestible lys (0.85, 0.95, 1.05, 1.15, and 1.25%) from hatch until 18 d of age. the study comprised a 3 5 factorial arrangement of treatments in which feed form and dietary lys were the factors evaluated, with 15 treatment combinations being represented by 8 replicate floor pens, for a total of 120 floor pens. lysine and feed form interacted for effects on BW gain and feed conversion, resulting in birds fed Ma attaining BW gain and feed conversion values similar to those in chicks fed CM and PC, but only when lys was fed at the highest level. Based on regression analysis, BW gain and feed consumption of chicks fed the PC diets responded much quicker to increasing dietary lys levels than did BW gain and feed consumption of chicks fed the Ma and CM diets, and chicks achieved greater BW gain and feed consumption at similar lys concentrations. Furthermore, chicks fed the PC diets achieved their optimal response with less dietary lys. In addition, chicks fed the PC diets quickly reached a maximum response for BW and feed consumption, and they obtained a greater accretion of projected BW gain and feed consumption. Blood plasma analysis of total protein and albumin further corroborated the response observed in chicks fed the Ma diets. overall, there is a need to achieve optimal pellet quality as a way to avoid excessive dietary lys concentration, in turn allowing broiler chicks to express their full growth potential. Key words: conditioner, crumbles, lysine, pellets 2012 J. appl. Poult. res. 21:7078 http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2011-00353

approved for publication as Journal article No. J11968 of the Mississippi agricultural and Forestry experiment Station (Mississippi State University). 2 Corresponding author: corzo_alejandro@elanco.com 3 Present address: elanco animal Health, 2500 Innovation Way, Po Box 708, Greenfield, IN 46140.

Corzo et al.: FEED PROCESSING EFFECTS ON DIETARY LYSINE DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM

Advantages of pelleting have been documented in broiler feed [14]. However, the benefits of pelleting cannot always be capitalized because most commercial feed mills in the United States experience constant pressure to manufacture feed within a narrow window of time. Consequently, feed mills have compensated by increasing throughput, which may not necessarily translate into an integral and strong pellet. The incorporation of pellet binders and the use of postpellet liquid application systems have been strategies used to assist in manufacturing pellet feed under modern commercial conditions [1]. Factors such as grain particle size, conditioning practices, moisture addition, and grain type, among others, are known to influence the integrity and durability of pellets [58]. However, economic or logistical reasons sometimes do not allow the aforementioned practices to be applied. Furthermore, the impact of feed processing and feed form on specific nutrient intake to enable optimal growth of commercial highyielding strains has received little attention. It has long been known that Lys is the second limiting amino acid in commercial broiler diets, and it usually represents the basis on which all other amino acids are related when formulating feed using the ideal protein concept [9, 10]. The needs for this nutrient in sustaining optimal growth and production of broilers are also well documented and far exceed the importance of its use as the reference point for ratio formulation [1113]. Therefore, it is extremely important to further recognize the need of birds for this nutrient across different environmental factors, including those associated with feed manufacturing. For that purpose, a study was designed to evaluate the Lys needs of broiler chicks fed various types of processed feed.

71

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental Treatments A study was conducted to evaluate the interactive effects that feed form [mash (MA), mash exposed to steam conditioning (CM), and pelleted feed in the form of crumbles (PC)] and dietary Lys concentration (0.85, 0.95, 1.05, 1.15, and 1.25% true digestible Lys) might have on

the growth of commercial broiler chicks from 0 to 18 d posthatch. A diet based primarily on corn, soybean meal, and an animal by-product blend [14] was formulated to contain a calculated true digestible Lys content of 0.85% [15]. Supplemental Lys was added to the test diet in the form of l-Lys-HCl at the expense of an inert filler (sand). To ensure accurate formulation of the test diet, samples of corn, soybean meal, and the animal by-product blend used in the experiment were collected and analyzed for total amino acids and CP composition [16]. The analyzed values of feed ingredients were then used to update the nutrient matrix, and calculated true digestible concentrations of the feed ingredients were then estimated using published true digestibility coefficients [15]. The test diet was then formulated using linear programming. The manufactured test diets were then analyzed for total Lys content [16]. All nutrients with the exception of Lys were formulated to meet or exceed NRC recommendations [17]. To ensure mixing accuracy of all experimental diets, 1 major batch of feed was mixed with all ingredients in the test diet except for the filler and the l-Lys-HCl (Table 1) by using a 4,000-lb vertical mixer [18]. One-half of that batch of feed was remixed adding the inert filler, whereas the other half was mixed with the supplemental Lys. These low- and high-Lys blends were further subdivided into 3 equal aliquots and processed as follows: 1) mash feed that received no further processing (MA); 2) mash that was conditioned to a steady-state temperature of 82C (180F), immediately collected after being conditioned, and allowed to cool under ambient conditions prior to feeding (CM); and 3) feed that was conditioned, pelleted, and crumbled (PC). The resultant mixes (high- and low-Lys MA; highand low-Lys CM; high- and low-Lys PC) were proportionally blended by feed processing type, generating 5 incremental digestible Lys levels (0.85, 0.95, 1.05, 1.15, and 1.25%). Diets were conditioned and pelleted in a 40-horsepower pellet mill and subsequently crumbled [19]. Bird Husbandry A total of 1,800 Ross Ross 708 male broiler chicks were obtained from an Aviagen hatchery [20] and distributed equally among 120 floor pens. Chicks were vaccinated at the hatchery for

72
Table 1. Experimental diet composition (%, as-is basis) Item Ingredient Corn Soybean meal (48% CP) Animal by-product blend1 Limestone Poultry fat Dicalcium phosphate Filler2 dl-Met Salt (NaCl) Vitamin-mineral premix3 l-Val l-Thr l-Arg l-Ile l-Lys-HCl Choline HCl (60%) Sodium bicarbonate Coccidiostat4 l-Trp Phytase5 Calculated composition CP, % AME, kcal/kg Calcium, % Available phosphorus, % Sodium, % Total Lys, % Digestible Lys, % Digestible TSAA, % Digestible Thr, %
1

JAPR: Research Report

basis. Ambient temperature set points and the lighting program used in this study have been described previously [22]. Light intensity settings were verified [23] at the bird level (30 cm). Birds and feed were weighed at placement on d 0 and at the end of the experimental phase (18 d) for the determination of BW gain, feed consumption, Lys consumption, Lys consumption per unit of BW gain, and feed conversion. Birds that died were weighed and recorded daily. All bird procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Mississippi State University. Blood Chemistry Two birds from each pen being fed the 1.15% digestible Lys test diets were randomly selected on d 18, and blood was collected via brachial vein puncture. Blood samples were collected into 3-mL heparinized tubes [24] and centrifuged at 4,000 g for 10 min. Plasma was used for determination of glucose, uric acid, total protein, and albumin concentrations [25] according to procedures described by Elliot [26] and Tietz [27]. Each test was performed by dispensing 10 L of plasma onto a new Kodak Ektachem slide [25]. These photometric tests measure the change in absorbance, which is proportional to the concentration. To ensure precision, the optics were tested and calibrated against known standards before and after each assay. Observed values in this study were in agreement with previously reported values for blood plasma [28]. Statistical Analysis The study followed a randomized complete block design in which blocks were assigned to different locations of the broiler house. This 3 5 factorial arrangement of treatments was replicated 8 times (blocks) for each of the 15 treatments. The floor pen served as the experimental unit for analysis. Percentage data for mortality were transformed to arcsine square-root percentages for analysis. All data were analyzed by the GLM procedure of SAS [29] and tested for 2-way interactions, and in their absence, main effects were analyzed and separated using the LSD option of SAS [29] with an of 0.05. For each feed form, stepwise regression analysis was performed across Lys levels us-

Test diet 69.804 21.897 3.0 0.999 0.750 0.728 0.635 0.391 0.391 0.250 0.238 0.227 0.211 0.196 0.066 0.060 0.050 0.050 0.040 0.018 18.26 3,075 0.88 0.44 0.22 0.96 0.85 0.90 0.81

ProPlus is an animal by-product blend with a CP content of 57% (H. J. Baker & Bro. Inc., Little Rock, AR). 2 Inert filler in the form of play sand was used. 3 Vitamin and mineral premix included the following per kilogram of diet: vitamin A (vitamin A acetate) 4,960 IU; cholecalciferol 1,653 IU; vitamin E (source unspecified) 27 IU; menadione, 0.99 mg; vitamin B12, 0.015 mg; folic acid, 0.8 mg; d-pantothenic acid, 15 mg; riboflavin, 5.4 mg; niacin, 45 mg; thiamine, 2.7 mg; d-biotin, 0.07 mg; pyridoxine, 5.3 mg, manganese, 90 mg; zinc, 83 mg; iron, 121 mg; copper, 12 mg; iodine, 0.5 mg; selenium, 0.3 mg. 4 Dietary inclusion of 60 g of salinomycin sodium per 907.2 kg of feed. 5 Phytase (DSM Nutritional Products Inc., Parsippany, NJ) was assigned 500% calcium and available phosphorus matrix values.

Mareks disease, Newcastle disease, and infectious bronchitis. Chicks were reared in a solidwalled facility in 0.9 1.2 m2 floor pens (0.072 m2/bird; 15 chicks/pen) equipped with a hanging commercial feeder [21], a nipple drinker line (3 nipple drinkers/pen), and built-up litter. Birds were provided feed and water on an ad libitum

Corzo et al.: FEED PROCESSING EFFECTS ON DIETARY LYSINE

ing the REG procedure of SAS [29]. Linear and quadratic slopes, intercepts, and maximum responses derived from equations were partitioned using Fishers protected LSD, with the 8 blocks serving as replicate units because for every feed form type, each block yielded a single regression line across Lys levels [30].

73

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The fact that all experimental diets came from 1 master batch might explain the close proximity between calculated and analyzed dietary Lys concentrations. From least-cost formulation, the calculated total dietary Lys concentrations of the low- and high-Lys diets were estimated to be 0.96 and 1.36%, respectively. Samples taken from the low-Lys diets corresponding to the PC, CM, and MA diets had analyzed total Lys concentrations of 0.96, 0.94, and 0.93%, respectively, whereas their high-Lys counterparts had reported total Lys values of 1.38, 1.36, and 1.45%, respectively. Overall, mortality was relatively low throughout the study and was unaffected by the different experimental factors imposed (Table 2). Dietary Lys and feed form interacted for effects on BW gain and feed conversion of chicks. Chicks fed the PC diets achieved a superior BW at a Lys level of 1.05% digestible Lys, based on the responses plotted for BW gain, whereas chicks fed the CM and MA diets did not (Figure 1). Regression analysis of BW gain, feed consumption, and feed conversion data yielded quadratic responses across Lys levels. The linear slopes for BW gain and feed consumption for birds fed the PC diets were higher than the BW gain and feed consumption for those fed the CM and MA diets (Table 3). Therefore, birds fed the PC diets were able to overcome the nutritional deficiency of Lys more quickly than those fed the MA and CM diets. The quadratic slopes for BW gain and feed consumption were also lower for birds fed the PC diet than for those fed the CM and MA diets. We observed, based on these lower quadratic slopes, that birds fed the PC diet reached the inflexion point in the curve sooner, at a lower Lys concentration. Birds may be able to achieve their maximum potential for BW gain and feed consumption with less dietary Lys when they are fed PC diets as compared

with CM or MA diets. Similar responses were reported in older broilers; Greenwood et al. [31] and Lemme et al. [32] observed that BW gain was significantly affected by Lys level and feed form. Greenwood et al. [31] further stated that broilers provided pelleted feed from 14 to 30 d of age required a lower digestible Lys intake to achieve a BW gain similar to that of broilers fed a mash diet. These same investigators later reported that increasing amounts of feed fines had negative consequences on the growth of broilers fed suboptimal Lys levels in the diet [33]. However, Jensen et al. [34] reported that in turkeys, pelleted diets did not improve BW gain when compared with mash-type diets but FE was improved, although only when feeding adequate protein levels. Similarly, Bayley et al. [35] reported inconsistent effects on BW gain, feed consumption, and feed conversion when mash feed was given to broiler chicks, compared with those parameters when chicks were fed a wheat- and soybean meal-based crumbled diet using different crumbling methods. In the present study, we suggest, based on the data for BW gain and feed consumption, that conditioning the MA feed without pelleting would offer little or no benefit when compared with an unconditioned MA feed. Broiler chicks fed MA diets, and particularly those fed CM diets, were susceptible to poor feed conversion with the lowest Lys level fed compared with those fed PC diets (2). As a result of the poor feed conversion of chicks fed 0.85% Lys with the CM diet according to regression analysis, the CM diets had a significantly higher intercept. Consequently, linear and quadratic slopes were also significantly different from those of chicks fed the MA and PC diets, likely because of the wider gap in feed conversion that the birds fed CM had to make up when given diets with more than 0.95% digestible Lys (Table 3). The significantly steeper linear slope observed in birds fed the CM diets would suggest that chicks fed the CM diets would be more efficient in utilizing feed than those fed the PC diets. However, caution must be used because this steeper linear slope may be the result of these chicks having to make up ground lost when fed diets with the lowest Lys level. Furthermore, Figure 2 shows that the interactive effects of feed form and dietary Lys are limited

74

JAPR: Research Report

Table 2. Live performance of broiler chicks fed diets varying in feed processing and standardized digestible Lys concentration Item Feed form Mash Conditioned mash Pelleted SEM 0.85 0.95 1.05 1.15 1.25 Lys, % digestible Feed intake, g/bird 546 545 548 4.9 475d 543c 580a 576ab 560bc 6.3 0.95 <0.0001 0.07 Lys intake, g/bird 5.76 5.77 5.81 0.052 4.04e 5.16d 6.09c 6.62b 7.00a 0.068 0.81 <0.0001 0.15 Lys intake, g/kg of BW gain 14.0 14.0 13.7 0.139 12.2d 12.6d 13.4c 14.9b 16.4a 0.18 0.47 <0.0001 0.09 Mortality, % 1.4 1.4 2.1 0.49 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.9 2.8 0.64 0.55 0.26 0.32

Lys SEM P-value Feed form Lys Feed form Lys

ae

Values within a column not sharing a common superscript differ (P < 0.05).

Figure 1. Interactive effects of feed form and dietary digestible Lys concentration on BW gain of chicks from 0 to 18 d posthatch. Values not sharing a common superscript (ai) differ significantly (P < 0.05). Probability values obtained in the 2-way ANOVA were as follows: feed form Lys = 0.038; feed form = 0.006; Lys <0.0001. Color version available in the online PDF.

Table 3. Regression analysis of the interactive effects of feed form and dietary digestible Lys in chicks fed from 0 to 18 d posthatch Quadratic regression Equation R2 Intercept1 Linear slope1 Quadratic slope1 Optimal response2 Optimal true digestible Lys3

Parameter

Treatment

BW gain

Feed conversion

Feed consumption

Lys consumption

Mash Conditioned mash Pellets Mash Conditioned mash Pellets Mash Conditioned mash Pellets Mash Conditioned mash Pellets Y = 15.06 13.46x + 11.60x2 Y = 29.71 39.75x + 23.11x2 Y = 23.70 30.44x + 19.46x2 0.98 0.99 0.99 15.0c 29.7a 23.7b 13.4a 39.7c 30.4b 11.6c 23.11a 19.4b

Y = 1,152.4 + 2805.0x 1,239.1x2 Y = 1,436.1 + 3,292.5x 1,433.2x2 Y = 2,477.3 + 5,319.2x 2,399.9x2 Y = 4.062 5.155x + 2.410x2 Y = 4.934 6.487x + 2.865x2 Y = 3.798 4.615x + 2.116x2 Y = 1,164.4 + 3,172.2x 1,443.3x2 Y = 1,073.6 + 2,914.2x 1,287.6x2 Y = 2,036.0 + 4,713.9x 2,112.2x2 Y = 15.34 + 33.98x 13.03x2 Y = 14.44 + 31.27x 11.29x2 Y = 23.70 + 48.79x 19.40x2 0.93 0.99 0.94 0.96 0.99 0.62 0.95 0.98 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.99

1,152a 1,436a 2,477b 4.06b 4.93a 3.79b 1,164a 1,073a 2,036b 15.3a 14.4a 23.7b

2,805b 3,292b 5,319a 5.15a 6.48b 4.61a 3,172b 2,914b 4,713a 33.9b 31.2b 48.7a

1,239a 1,433a 2,399b 2.41b 2.86a 2.11b 1,443a 1,287a 2,112b 13.0a 11.2a 19.4b

435b 455ab 470a 1.30 1.26 1.28 578b 575b 594a

1.13 1.15 1.11 1.07 1.13 1.09 1.10 1.13 1.11 1.30 1.38 1.26 0.58 0.86 0.78

Lys consumption/unit of BW gain

Mash Conditioned mash Pellets

ac

Corzo et al.: FEED PROCESSING EFFECTS ON DIETARY LYSINE

Values within a comparison not sharing a common superscript differ (P < 0.05). The intercept, linear slope, quadratic slope, and maximum response from the quadratic regression equation corresponding to each block were used to test the effect of feed form as influenced by dietary Lys using 1-way ANOVA. 2 The optimal response corresponds to the highest or lowest forecasted value for each corresponding quadratic equation. 3 The optimal true digestible Lys value corresponds to the concentration of dietary Lys that achieved the maximum response for the corresponding dependent variable.

75

76

JAPR: Research Report

Figure 2. Interactive effects of feed form and dietary digestible Lys concentration on feed conversion of chicks from 0 to 18 d posthatch. Values not sharing a common superscript (af) differ significantly (P < 0.05). Probability values obtained in the 2-way ANOVA were as follows: feed form Lys <0.0001; feed form <0.0001; Lys <0.0001. Color version available in the online PDF.

to the poorer feed conversion observed in the chicks fed CM diets with 0.85% digestible Lys, as also characterized by the inability of chicks fed the MA diets to equal the performance of those fed the PC diets unless Lys was fed at the highest possible level. Overall, results from feed conversion are again similar to those reported by Greenwood et al. [31, 33] and Lemme et al. [32], who observed poorer FE when older broilers were fed mash diets or poor-quality pellets. Feed consumption was affected by Lys; consequently, Lys intake was also affected by dietary Lys (Table 2). Lysine intake was observed to increase as dietary Lys increased, even when standardized to a common unit of BW gain. Based on regression analysis, total Lys intake was higher in the PC diets, likely as a consequence of the increased feed consumption. However, in parallel with the effects observed for feed conversion, results of the regression analysis showed that the Lys intake of chicks fed the CM diet was initially poorer than the Lys intake of chicks fed other feed forms but that the

chicks acquired BW more efficiently per unit of Lys consumed than did those fed other feed forms. They also reached their optimal level sooner (Table 3). As stated previously, this effect could be attributed to the poor intercept, thus the poor digestible Lys intake per unit of BW gain, of the chicks fed CM diets with 0.85% digestible Lys. On the other hand, the poor response observed in chicks fed the lowest Lys level when given the CM-type feed may have occurred as a combination of the decline in feed intake exacerbated by nutrient dilution. Because these diets were manufactured using a conditioning temperature of approximately 180F under an ambient temperature of approximately 89F, it can be estimated that the steam conditioning of the CM feed, as well as that of the PC feed, may have led to an increase of approximately 3% in moisture content. This increase in moisture would have resulted in a dilution of the nutrients, and the lack of integrity of the CM feed could have resulted in the inability of these birds to obtain some of the benefits of pelleting, such as particle

Corzo et al.: FEED PROCESSING EFFECTS ON DIETARY LYSINE

77

Table 4. Blood plasma glucose, uric acid, total protein, and albumin of broiler chicks fed diets varying in feed processing characteristics and with similar true digestible Lys concentration (1.15%)1 Item Feed type Mash Conditioned mash Pelleted SEM P-value
a,b

Total protein, g/dL 2.46b 2.60ab 2.75a 0.068 0.024

Albumin, g/dL 0.93b 1.03a 1.10a 0.031 0.006

Uric acid, mg/dL 5.58 6.25 6.00 0.376 0.49

Glucose, mg/dL 252 239 238 6.7 0.29

Means not sharing a common superscript within a column differ significantly (P < 0.05). 1 Observed means for these plasma variables are based on a subsample of 2 chicks for 8 replicate pens per treatment. All plasma values were analyzed in duplicate.

agglomeration, which leads to reduced selective feeding and increased feed consumption. As a means to measure the impact that a theoretically sufficient level of Lys (1.15% digestible Lys) fed in various feed forms would have on the protein status of the bird, blood samples were analyzed for certain components (Table 4). Uric acid and blood glucose were unaffected by feed form, but total protein was higher in chicks fed PC compared with those fed MA, whereas those fed the CM diets had an intermediate value. Similarly, albumin, a reservoir of blood protein, was found to be poorer in chicks fed MA when compared with those fed CM and PC. It is interesting that the CM diets at 1.15% Lys had values similar to those of the PC diets, thus suggesting some potential benefits of conditioning the MA feed for young chicks. It is unclear why the CM diets could lead to chicks having poorer feed conversion and Lys conversion than those fed the MA diets when Lys was fed at 0.85%, but future research should attempt to clarify this effect, as well as any potential sanitary or nutritional benefits that adding steam to the mash feed may have to offer in young chicks or older broilers. In summary, the effects of feed form were elucidated in broiler chicks, and it was demonstrated that PC diets could offer a milder Lys deficiency response as well as a faster recovery from it, and that chicks could achieve maximum growth and feed consumption potential with less digestible Lys in the diet. The sole addition of steam via the conditioner may offer some benefits, although it may not be economically or logistically justified.

CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS

1. We suggest, based on regression analysis, that BW gain, feed consumption, and feed conversion were further hindered in chicks fed the MA diets. The sole exposure of MA to the conditioner displayed some advantages to chicks in feed conversion when compared with the feed conversion of chicks fed regular MA. 2. Birds fed pelleted feed in the form of crumbles exhibited a much faster recovery rate for BW gain and feed consumption as dietary Lys progressed from deficient to adequate levels, and they were able to achieve their optimal performance, requiring less Lys. Furthermore, we conclude, based on regression analysis, that chicks fed pelleted feed will achieve a greater BW gain and feed consumption.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. Acar, N., E. T. Moran Jr., W. H. Revington, and S. F. Bilgili. 1991. Effect of improved pellet quality from using a calcium lignosulfonate binder on performance and carcass yield of broilers reared under different marketing schemes. Poult. Sci. 70:13391344. 2. Moritz, J. S., R. S. Beyer, K. J. Wilson, K. R. Cramer, L. J. McKinney, and F. J. Fairchild. 2001. Effect of moisture addition at the mixer to a corn-soybean-based diet on broiler performance. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 10:347353. 3. Quentin, M., I. Bouvarel, and M. Picard. 2004. Shortand long-term effects of feed form on fast- and slow-growing broilers. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 13:540548. 4. Dozier, W. A., III, K. C. Behnke, C. K. Gehring, and S. L. Branton. 2010. Effects of feed form on growth per-

78
formance and processing yields of broiler chickens during a 42-day production period. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 19:219226. 5. Gehring, C. K., J. Jaczynski, and J. S. Moritz. 2009. Improvement of pellet quality with proteins recovered from whole fish using isoelectric solubilization-precipitation. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 18:418431. 6. Cutlip, S. E., J. M. Hott, N. P. Buchanan, A. L. Rack, J. D. Latshaw, and J. S. Moritz. 2008. The effect of steamconditioning practices on pellet quality and growing broiler nutritional value. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 17:249261. 7. Moritz, J. S., K. J. Wilson, K. R. Cramer, R. S. Beyer, L. J. McKinney, W. B. Cavalcanti, and X. Mo. 2002. Effect of formulation density, moisture, and surfactant on feed manufacturing, pellet quality, and broiler performance. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:155163. 8. Dozier, W. A., III, W. Hanna, and K. Behnke. 2005. Grinding and pelleting responses of pearl millet-based diets. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 14:269274. 9. Baker, D. H., A. B. Batal, T. M. Parr, N. R. Auspurger, and C. M. Parsons. 2002. Ideal ratio (relative to lysine) of tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine, and valine for chicks during the second and third weeks posthatch. Poult. Sci. 81:485494. 10. Mack, S., D. Bercovici, G. De Groote, B. Leclercq, M. Lippens, M. Pack, J. B. Schutte, and S. Van Cauwenberghe. 1999. Ideal amino acid profile and dietary lysine specification for broiler chickens of 20 to 40 days of age. Br. Poult. Sci. 40:257265. 11. Kidd, M. T., and B. I. Fancher. 2001. Lysine needs of starting chicks and subsequent effects during the growing period. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 10:385393. 12. Moran, E. T., Jr., and S. F. Bilgili. 1990. Processing losses, carcass quality, and meat yields of broiler chickens receiving diets marginally deficient to adequate in lysine prior to marketing. Poult. Sci. 69:702709. 13. Tesseraud, S., R. Peresson, J. Lopes, and A. M. Chagneau. 1996. Dietary lysine deficiency greatly affects muscle and liver protein turnover in growing chickens. Br. J. Nutr. 75:853865. 14. H. J. Bakers ProPlus, H. J. Baker & Bro. Inc., Little Rock, AR. 15. Ajinomoto Heartland LLC. 2004. True Digestibility of Essential Amino Acids for Poultry. Rev. 7. Ajinomoto Heartland LLC, Chicago, IL. 16. AOAC International. 2006. Official Methods of Analysis. 18th ed. Methods 985.28, 968.06, and 994.12. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., Arlington, VA. 17. NRC. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 9th rev. ed. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington DC. 18. Jacobson Machine Works Inc., Minneapolis, MN. 19. California Pellet Mill (CPM), Crawfordsville, IN. Pellet mill dimensions: 4.25-ft length, 1.02-ft diameter short-term CPM conditioner with 3 steam inlet ports and a 429-rpm shaft speed. The conditioner had a 10-s feed retention time with a conditioning temperature of 180F (82.2oC) and an ambient temperature of 89F. The pellet mill die had dimensions of 3/16 1.5 in.. After sifting, feed samples were passed through a 2-mm screen. Feed fines for the MA,

JAPR: Research Report

CM, and PC were observed to be 97.5, 97.1, and 22.3%, respectively. 20. Aviagen, Albertville, AL. 21. Chore-Time feeder, Chore-Time, Milford, IN. 22. The temperature program consisted of 33C at placement until 4 d of age, 32C from 5 to 9 d of age, 29C from 10 to 14 d of age, and 27C from 15 to 18 d of age. The photoperiod followed a 23L:1D schedule, with lighting intensities of 30 lx from 0 to 7 d of age, 10 lx from 7 to 12 d of age, and 5 lx from 12 to 18 d. 23. Photometric sensor with National Institute of Standards and Technology-traceable calibration, model 403125, Extech Instruments, Waltham, MA. 24. Fisher HealthCare, Houston, TX. 25. Ektachem Model DT 60 autoanalyzer, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, NY. 26. Elliot, R. J. 1984. Ektachem DT-60 analyzer. Physicians Leading Comput. J. 2:6. 27. Tietz, N. W. 1986. Fundamentals of clinical chemistry. Page 1186 in Clinical Chemistry. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA. 28. Hrubec, T. C., J. M. Whichard, C. T. Larsen, and F. W. Pierson. 2002. Plasma versus serum: Specific differences in biochemical analyte values. J. Avian Med. Surg. 16:101 105. 29. SAS Institute. 2004. SAS Users Guide. Version 9.1 ed. SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC. 30. Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and Procedures of Statistics: A Biometrical Approach. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, NY. 31. Greenwod, M. W., K. R. Cramer, P. M. Clark, K. C. Behnke, and R. S. Beyer. 2004. Influence of feed form on dietary lysine and energy intake and utilization of broilers from 14 to 30 days of age. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 3:189194. 32. Lemme, A., P. J. A. Wijtten, J. van Wichen, A. Petri, and D. J. Langhout. 2006. Responses of male growing broilers to increasing levels of balanced protein offered as coarse mash or pellets of varying quality. Poult. Sci. 85:721730. 33. Greenwood, M. W., P. M. Clark, and R. S. Beyer. 2004. Effect of feed fines level on broilers fed two concentrations of dietary lysine from 14 to 30 days of age. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 3:446449. 34. Jensen, L. S., G. O. Ranit, R. K. Wagstaff, and J. McGinnis. 1965. Protein and lysine requirements of developing turkeys as influenced by pelleting. Poult. Sci. 44:1435 1441. 35. Bayley, H. S., S. J. Slinger, J. R. Aitken, J. Biely, D. R. Clandinin, J. B. ONeal, A. R. Robblee, and J. L. Sell. 1968. The influence of method of crumbling diets containing different levels of protein and lysine on chick performance. Poult. Sci. 47:677685.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their thanks to Ajinomoto Heartland LLC (Chicago, IL) for analyses of the feed ingredients and experimental diets.