1 INTRODUCTION

Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion or

chemical reaction, and then dumped into the environment even though it could still be
reused for some useful and economic purpose. The essential quality of heat is not the amount
but rather its value. The strategy of how to recover this heat depends in part on the
temperature of the waste heat gases and the economics involved.
Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated from Boilers, ilns, !vens and "urnaces.
#f some of this waste heat could be recovered, a considerable amount of primary fuel could
be saved. The energy lost in waste gases cannot be fully recovered. $owever, much of the
heat could be recovered and loss minimi%ed by adopting following measures as outlined in
this chapter
1.1 Heat Losses and Quality
&epending upon the type of process, waste heat can be re'ected at virtually any
temperature from that of chilled cooling water to high temperature waste gases from an
industrial furnace or (iln. )sually higher the temperature, higher the quality and more cost
effective is the heat recovery. #n any study of waste heat recovery, it is absolutely necessary
that there should be some use for the recovered heat. Typical e*amples of use would be
preheating of combustion air, space heating, or pre+heating boiler feed water or process water.
With high temperature heat recovery, a cascade system of waste heat recovery may be
practiced to ensure that the ma*imum amount of heat is recovered at the highest potential. ,n
e*ample of this technique of waste heat recovery would be where the high temperature stage
was used for air pre+heating and the low temperature stage used for process feed water heating
or steam raising.
1.2 Heat Losses and Quantity
#n any heat recovery situation it is essential to (now the amount of heat recoverable and
also how it can be used. ,n e*ample of the availability of waste heat is given below-
$eat recovery from heat treatment furnace
#n a heat treatment furnace, the e*haust gases are leaving the furnace at .// 01 at the rate of
23// m45hour. The total heat recoverable at 36/o1 final e*haust can be calculated as
7 8 9 : ;: 1p : T
7 is the heat content in (1al
9 is the flowrate of the substance in m45hr
; is density of the flue gas in (g5m4
1p is the specific heat of the substance in (1al5(g 01
T is the temperature difference in 01
1p <=pecific heat of flue gas> 8 /.2? (1al5(g501
$eat available <7> 8 23// : 3.3. : /.2? : <<.//+36/> 8 ?,43,62@ (1al5hr
By installing a recuperator, this heat can be recovered to pre+heat the combustion air.
The fuel savings would be 44A <B 3A fuel reduction for every 22 01 reduction in
temperature of flue gas.
1.3 Clasification and Alication
#n considering the potential for heat recovery, it is useful to note all the possibilities,
and grade the waste heat in terms of potential value as shown in the following Table 3.3-
TA!L" 1.1 #A$T" H"AT $OURC" AND QUALIT%
Table 3.3 Waste $eat =ource ,nd 7uality
1.3.1 Hi&' Te(e)atu)e Heat Reco*e)y
The following Table 3.2 gives temperatures of waste gases from industrial process equipment
in the high temperature range. ,ll of these results from direct fuel fired processes.
TA!L" 1.2 T%+CIAL #A$T" H"AT T"+RATUR" AT HI,H
T"-+RATUR" RAN," .RO- /ARIOU$ $OURC"$
Table 3.2 Waste $eat at $igh Temprature 9arious =ources
1.3.2 -ediu( Te(e)atu)e Heat Reco*e)y
The following Table 3.4 gives the temperatures of waste gases from process equipment in the
medium temperature range. Cost of the waste heat in this temperature range comes from the
e*haust of directly fired process units.
Table 3.4 Waste $eat at Cedium Temprature 9arious =ources
1.3.3 Lo0 Te(e)atu)e Heat Reco*e)y
TA!L" 1.3 T%+CIAL #A$T" H"AT T"+RATUR" AT -"DIU-
T"-+RATUR" RAN," .RO- /ARIOU$ $OURC"$
The following Table 3.? lists some heat sources in the low temperature range. #n this
range it is usually not practical to e*tract wor( from the source, though steam production may
not be completely e*cluded if there is a need for low+pressure steam. Low temperature waste
heat may be useful in a supplementary way for preheating purposes.
TA!L" 1.1 T%+CIAL #A$T" H"AT T"+RATUR" AT LO#
T"-+RATUR" RAN," .RO- /ARIOU$ $OURC"$
Table 3.? Waste $eat at Low Temprature 9arious =ources
2. -AT"RIAL AND -"THOD$
2.1 #aste Heat Reco*e)y
Cany processes, especially in industrial applications, produce large amounts of e*cess
heat D i.e., heat beyond what can be efficiently used in the process. Waste $eat Eecovery
methods attempt to e*tract some of the energy as wor( that otherwise would be wasted.
Typical methods of recovering heat in industrial applications include direct heat recovery to
the process itself, recuperators, regenerators, and waste heat boilers. #n many applications D
especially those with low+temperature waste heat streams, such as automotive applications D
the economic benefits of waste heat recovery do not 'ustify the cost of the recovery systems.
#nnovative, affordable methods that are highly efficient, applicable to low+temperature
streams, and5or suitable for use with corrosive or dirty wastes could e*pand the number of
viable applications of waste heat recovery, as well as improve the performance of e*isting
applications.
Cany industrial processes generate large amounts of waste energy that simply pass out
of plant stac(s and into the atmosphere or are otherwise lost. Cost industrial waste heat
streams are liquid, gaseous, or a combination of the two and have temperatures from slightly
above ambient to over 2/// degrees ". =tac( e*haust losses are inherent in all fuel+fired
processes and increase with the e*haust temperature and the amount of e*cess air the e*haust
contains. ,t stac( gas temperatures greater than 3/// degrees ", the heat going up the stac( is
li(ely to be the single biggest loss in the process. ,bove 36// degrees ", stac( losses will
consume at least half of the total fuel input to the process. Fet, the energy that is recovered
from waste heat streams could displace part or all of the energy input needs for a unit
operation within a plant. Therefore, waste heat recovery offers a great opportunity to
productively use this energy, reducing overall plant energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions. Waste heat recovery methods used with industrial process heating operations
intercept the waste gases before they leave the process, e*tract some of the heat they contain,
and recycle that heat bac( to the process.
1ommon methods of recovering heat include direct heat recovery to the process,
recuperators5regenerators, and waste heat boilers. )nfortunately, the economic benefits of
waste heat recovery do not 'ustify the cost of these systems in every application. "or e*ample,
heat recovery from lower temperature waste streams <e.g., hot water or low+temperature flue
gas> is thermodynamically limited. Gquipment fouling, occurring during the handling of
dirty waste streams, is another barrier to more widespread use of heat recovery systems.
#nnovative, affordable waste heat recovery methods that are ultra+efficient, are applicable to
low+temperature streams, or are suitable for use with corrosive or dirty wastes could e*pand
the number of viable applications of waste heat recovery, as well as improve the performance
of e*isting applications.

2.2 Di)ect Heat Reco*e)y to T'e +)oduct
This is the most efficient method. #t ta(es advantage of the fact that even in the highest
temperature processes, the product or charge enters the process at ambient temperature. #f
e*haust gases leaving the high temperature portion of the process can be brought into contact
with a relatively cool incoming load, energy will be transferred to the load, preheating it and
reducing the energy that finally escapes with the e*haust. Core often, heat is transferred to a
surrogate medium, li(e combustion air to the burner system. This reduces the amount of
purchased fuel required to sustain the process. "igure 3 shows how preheating combustion air
affects available heat, which is the thermal efficiency of the combustion process itself.
"igure 2.3 G*haust Has Temprature and Iercent ,vailablity graph
2.3 Reco*e)y of #aste Heat in Co&ene)ation and T)i&ene)ation +o0e) +lants
#n most cogeneration and trigeneration power and energy systems, the e*haust gas
from the electric generation equipment is ducted to a heat e*changer to recover the thermal
energy in the gas. These heat e*changers are air+to+water heat e*changers, where the e*haust
gas flows over some form of tube and fin heat e*change surface and the heat from the e*haust
gas is transferred to ma(e hot water or steam. The hot water or steam is then used to provide
hot water or steam heating and5or to operate thermally activated equipment, such as an
absorption chiller for cooling or a desiccant dehumidifer for dehumidification.
Cany of the waste heat recovery technologies used in building co5trigeneration
systems require hot water, some at moderate pressures of 3J to 3J/ psig. #n the cases where
additional steam or pressuri%ed hot water is needed, it may be necessary to provide
supplemental heat to the e*haust gas with a duct burner.
#n some applications air+to+air heat e*changers can be used. #n other instances, if the
emissions from the generation equipment are low enough, such as is with many of the
microturbine technologies, the hot e*haust gases can be mi*ed with ma(e+up air and vented
directly into the heating system for building heating.
#n the ma'ority of installations, a flapper damper or KdiverterK is employed to vary
flow across the heat transfer surfaces of the heat e*changer to maintain a specific design
temperature of the hot water or steam generation rate.
2.3.1 Tyical #aste Heat Reco*e)y Installation
"igure 2.2 Basic heat recovery system for steam power plants.
#n some co5trigeneration designs, the e*haust gases can be used to activate a thermal wheel
or a desiccant dehumidifier. Thermal wheels use the e*haust gas to heat a wheel with a
medium that absorbs the heat and then transfers the heat when the wheel is rotated into the
incoming airflow.
, professional engineer should be involved in designing and si%ing of the waste heat
recovery section. "or a proper and economical operation, the design of the heat recovery
section involves consideration of many related factors, such as the thermal capacity of the
e*haust gases, the e*haust flow rate, the si%ing and type of heat e*changer, and the desired
parameters over a various range of operating conditions of the co5trigeneration system all
of which need to be considered for proper and economical operation.
2.3.2 !enefits of #aste Heat Reco*e)y
Benefits of Lwaste heat recoveryL can be broadly classified in two categories-
Direct Benefits:
Eecovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the efficiency of the process. This is reflected by
reduction in the utility consumption M costs, and process cost.
Indirect Benefits:
a> Eeduction in pollution2 , number of to*ic combustible wastes such as carbon mono*ide
gas, sour gas, carbon blac( off gases, oil sludge, ,crylonitrile and other plastic chemicals
etc, releasing to atmosphere if5when burnt in the incinerators serves dual purpose i.e. recovers
heat and reduces the environmental pollution levels.
b> Eeduction in equipment si%es2 Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel consumption, which
leads to reduction in the flue gas produced. This results in reduction in equipment si%es of all
flue gas handling equipments such as fans, stac(s, ducts, burners, etc.
c> Eeduction in au*iliary energy consumption2 Eeduction in equipment si%es gives additional
benefits in the form of reduction in au*iliary energy consumption li(e electricity for fans,
pumps etc.
2.1 -atc'in& Load to $ou)ce
#t is necessary that the heating load which will absorb the waste heat be available at
the same time as the waste heat. !therwise, the waste heat may be useless, regardless of its
quantity and quality. =ome e*amples of synchrony and non+synchrony of waste+heat sources
and loads are illustrated in "igure 2.4 Gach of the graphs in that figure shows the si%e and
time availability of a waste heat source and a potential load.
#n "igure 2.4 a the si%e of the source, indicated by the solid line, is an e*haust stream
from an oven operating at ?2J
/
" during the second production shift only. !ne possible load is
a water heater for supplying a washing and rinsing line at 34J
o
". ,s can be seen by the
dashed line, this load is available only during the first shift. The respective quantities and
qualities seem to fit satisfactorily, but the time availability of the source could not be worse.
#f the valuable source is to be used, it will be necessary to
Eeschedule either of the operations to bring them into time correspondence,
Henerate the hat water during the second shift and store it until needed at the
beginning of the first shift the ne*t day, or
"ind another heat load which has an overall better fit than the one shown.
#n figure 2.4 b we see a waste+heat source <solid line> consisting of the condenser
1ooling water of an air+conditioning plant which is poorly matched with its load
<dashed line >+the ventilating air pre heater for the building. The discrepancy in availability is
not diurnal as before, but seasonal.
#n figure 2.4 c we see an almost perfect fit for source and load, but the total
availability over a 2? hour period is small. The good fit occurs because the source, the hot
e*haust gases from a heat+treat furnace, is used to preheat combustion air for the furnace
burner. $owever, the total time of availability over a 2?+hour period is so small as to cast
doubt on the ability to pay off the capital costs of this pro'ect.
"igure 2.4 <a> the si%e of the source
"igure 2.4 <b> waste+heat source and condenser 1ooling water
"igure 2.4 c Catching waste heat source and loads.
2.3 $to)a&e of #aste Heat
Waste heat can be utili%ed to adapt otherwise mismatched loads to waste+heat sources.
This is possible because of the inherent ability of all materials to absorb energy while
undergoing a temperature increase. The absorbed energy is termed stored heat. The quantity
that can be stored is dependent upon the temperature rise that can be achieved in the storage
material as well as the intrinsic thermal qualities of the materia3.
Thus additional desirable properties are high thermal conductivity and large surface
area per unit mass <specific area>. This latter property is inversely proportional to density but
can also be manipulated by designing the shape of the solid partic3es. !ther important
properties for storage materials are low cost, high melting temperature, and a resistance to
spelling and crea(ing under conditions of thermal eyc3ing.
To summari%e- the most desirable properties of thermal storage materials are,
$igh density,
$igh specific heat,
$igh specific area,
$igh thermal conductivity,
$igh melting temperature,
Low coefficient of thermal e*pansion,
Low cost.
Table 2.3. 1ommon refrectory metarials
2.4 Ai) +)e'eate)
,n ai) )e'eate) or ai) 'eate) is a general term to describe any device designed to
heat air before another process <for e*ample, combustion in a boiler> with the primary
ob'ective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to
replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil. #n particular, this article
describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in thermal power stations
producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomasses or waste.
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which
increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas.
,s a consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stac( <or chimney> at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stac(. #t also allows
control over the temperature of gases leaving the stac( <to meet emissions regulations, for
e*ample>.
"igure 2.4 =chematic diagram of typical coal+fired power plant steam generator
highlighting the air preheater <,I$> location. <"or simplicity, any radiant section tubing is
not shown.>
2.3.1 Recue)ato)s
#n a recuperator, heat e*change ta(es place between the flue gases and the air through metallic
or ceramic walls. &uct or tubes carry the air for combustion to be pre+heated, the other side
contains the waste heat stream. , recuperator for recovering waste heat from flue gases is
shown in "igure 2.?
"igure 2.? Waste $eat Eecovery )sing Eecuperator
The simplest configuration for a recuperator is the metallic radiation recuperator, which
consists of two concentric lengths of metal tubing as shown in "igure 6. The inner tube
carries the hot e*haust gases while the e*ternal annulus carries the combustion air from the
atmosphere to the air inlets of the furnace burners. The hot gases are cooled by the incoming
combustion air which now carries additional energy into the combustion chamber. This is
energy which does not have to be supplied by the fuelN consequently, less fuel is burned for a
given furnace loading. The saving in fuel also means a decrease in combustion air and
therefore
"igure 2.J Cetallic Eadiation Eecuperator
stac( losses are decreased not only by lowering the stac( gas temperatures but also by
discharging smaller quantities of e*haust gas. The radiation recuperator gets its name from the
fact that a substantial portion of the heat transfer from the hot gases to the surface of the inner
tube ta(es place by radiative heat transfer. The cold air in the annuals, however, is almost
transparent to infrared radiation so that only convection heat transfer ta(es place to the
incoming air. ,s shown in the diagram, the two gas flows are usually parallel, although the
configuration would be simpler and the heat transfer more efficient if the flows were opposed
in direction <or counterflow>. The reason for the use of parallel flow is that recuperators
frequently serve the additional function of cooling the duct carrying away the e*haust gases
and consequently e*tending its service life.
, second common configuration for recuperators is called the tube type or convective
recuperator. ,s seen in the figure 2.O the hot gases are carried through a number of parallel
small diameter tubes, while the incoming air to be heated enters a shell surrounding the tubes
and passes over the hot tubes one or more times in a direction normal to their a*es.

"igure 2.O Tube Type or 1onvective Eecuperator
#f the tubes are baffled to allow the gas to pass over them twice, the heat e*changer is
termed a two+pass recuperatorN if two baffles are used, a three+pass recuperator, etc. ,lthough
baffling increases both the cost of the e*changer and the pressure drop in the combustion air
path, it increases the effectiveness of heat e*change. =hell and tube type recuperators are
generally more compact and have a higher effectiveness than radiation recuperators, because
of the larger heat transfer area made possible through the use of multiple tubes and multiple
passes of the gases.
Ceramic Recuperator
The principal limitation on the heat recovery of metal recuperators is the reduced life of the
liner at inlet temperatures e*ceeding 33//01. #n order to overcome the temperature
limitations of metal recuperators, ceramic tube recuperators have been developed whose
materials allow operation on the gas side to 3JJ/01 and on the preheated air side to 63J01 on
a more or less practical basis. Garly ceramic recuperators were built of tile and 'oined with
furnace cement, and thermal cycling caused crac(ing of 'oints and rapid deterioration of the
tubes. Later developments introduced various (inds of short silicon carbide tubes which can
be 'oined by fle*ible seals located in the air headers. Garlier designs had e*perienced lea(age
rates from 6 to O/ percent. The new designs are reported to last two years with air preheat
temperatures as high as @//01, with much lower lea(age rates.
Radiation/Convective Hybrid Recuperator
"or ma*imum effectiveness of heat transfer, combinations of radiation and convective designs
are used, with the high+temperature radiation recuperator being first followed by convection
type. These are more e*pensive than simple metallic radiation recuperators, but are less bul(y.
, 1onvective5radiative $ybrid recuperator is shown in "igure 2.@
"igure 2.@ 1onvective5Eadiative $ybrid Eecuperator
2.3.2 Re&ene)ato)
The Eegeneration which is preferable for large capacities has been very widely used inglass
and steel melting furnaces. #mportant relations e*ist between the si%e of the regenerator, time
between reversals, thic(ness of bric(, conductivity of bric( and heat storage ratio of the bric(.
#n a regenerator, the time between the reversals is an important aspect.
"igure 2.6 regenerator
Long periods would mean higher thermal storage and hence higher cost. ,lso long periods of
reversal result in lower average temperature of preheat and consequently reduce fuel
economy. <Eefer "igure 2.6>. ,ccumulation of dust and slagging on the surfaces reduce
efficiency of the heat transfer as the furnace becomes old. $eat losses from the walls of the
regenerator and air in lea(s during the gas period and outlea(s during air period also reduces
the heat transfer.
Regeneratif Heat Exchangers
, heat e*changer is a device that is used for transfer of thermal energy <enthalpy>
between two or more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or between solid particulates
and a fluid, at differing temperatures and in thermal contact, usually without e*ternal heat and
wor( interactions. The fluids may be single compounds or mi*tures. Typical applications
involve heating or cooling of a fluid stream of concern, evaporation or condensation of a
single or multicomponent fluid stream, and heat recovery or heat re'ection from a system.
The regenerator represents stored and removed from a surface. This heat transfer
surface is usually referred to as the matri* of the regenerator. "or continuous operation, the
out of the fi*ed hot and cold fluid streams. #n this case, the regenerator is called a regenerator.
#f, on the other hand, the hot and cold fluid streams are switched into and out of the matri*,
the regenerator is refer regenerator suffers from lea(age and fluid entrainment problems,
which must be considered during the design process.
"igure 2.. Eegeneratif $eat G*changer
Heat Whees
Eotary regenerators are used e*tensively in electrical power generating stations for air
preheating. They are also used in vehicular gas turbine power plants, in cryogenic
refrigeration units, and in the food dehydration industry. "i*ed bed or fi*ed matri*
regenerators are used e*tensively in the metallurgical, glassma(ing, and chemical processing
industries., heat wheel is finding increasing applications in low to medium temperature waste
heat recovery systems. "igure 6.O is a s(etch illustrating the application of a heat wheel.
"igure 2.3/ =(etch #llustrating the ,pplication of , $eat Wheel
#t is a si%able porous dis(, fabricated with material having a fairly high heat capacity, which
rotates between two side+by+side ducts- one a cold gas duct, the other a hot gas duct. The a*is
of the dis( is located parallel to, and on the partition between, the two ducts. ,s the dis(
slowly rotates, sensible heat <moisture that contains latent heat> is transferred to the dis( by
the hot air and, as the dis( rotates, from the dis( to the cold air. The overall efficiency of
sensible heat transfer for this (ind of regenerator can be as high as 6J percent. $eat wheels
have been built as large as 23 metres in diameter with air capacities up to 334/ m4 5 min. ,
variation of the $eat Wheel is the rotary regenerator where the matri* is in a cylinder rotating
across the waste gas and air streams. The heat or energy recovery wheel is a rotary gas heat
regenerator, which can transfer heat from e*haust to incoming gases. #ts main area of
application is where heat e*change between large masses of air having small temperature
differences is required. $eating and ventilation systems and recovery of heat from dryer
e*haust air are typical applications.
2.3.3 +assi*e Ai) +)e'eate)
Iassiye air preheaters are used in the low+ and medium+temperature applications.
Those include drying, curing, and ba(ing ovensN air preheaters in steam boilersN air dryersN
waste heat recovery from e*haust steamN secondary recovery from refractory (ilns and
reverbatory fumacesN and waste heat recovery from conditioned air.
!ate heat exchanger
The cost of heat e*change surfaces is a ma'or cost factor when the temperature
differences are not large. !ne way of meeting this problem is the plate type heat e*changer,
which consists of a series of separate parallel plates forming thin flow pass. Gach plate is
separated from the ne*t by gas(ets and the hot stream passes in paralel through alternative
plates whilst the liquid to be heated passes in parallel between the hot plates. To improve heat
transfer the plates are corrugated. $ot liquid passing through a bottom port in the head is
permitted to pass upwards between every second plate while cold liquid at the top of the head
is permitted to pass downwards between the odd plates. When the directions of hot M cold
fluids are opposite, the arrangement is described as counter current. , plate heat e*changer is
shown in "igure 2.3/
Typical industrial applications are-
D Iasteurisation section in mil( pac(aging plant.
D Gvaporation plants in food industry.
"igure 2.33 Ilate $eat G*changer
Heat !ipe
, heat pipe can transfer up to 3// times more thermal energy than copper, the best (nown
conductor. #n other words, heat pipe is a thermal energy absorbing and transferring system
and have no moving parts and hence require minimum maintenance. The $eat Iipe comprises
of three elements + a sealed container, a capillary wic( structure and a wor(ing fluid. The
capillary wic( structure is integrally fabricated into the interior surface of the container tube
and sealed under vacuum. Thermal energy applied to the e*ternal surface of the heat pipe is in
equilibrium with its own vapour as the container tube is sealed under vacuum. Thermal
energy applied to the e*ternal surface of the heat pipe causes the wor(ing fluid near the
surface to evaporate instantaneously. 9apour thus formed absorbs the latent heat of
vapourisation and this part of the heat pipe becomes an evaporator region. The vapour
then travels to the other end the pipe where the thermal energy is removed causing the vapour
to condense into liquid again, thereby giving up the latent heat of the condensation. This part
of the heat pipe wor(s as the condenser region. The condensed liquid then flows bac( to the
evaporated region. , figure of $eat pipe is shown in "igure 2.33
!erformance and "dvantage
The heat pipe e*changer <$I$G> is a lightweight compact heat recovery system. #t virtually
does not need mechanical maintenance, as there are no moving parts to wear out. #t does not
need input power for its operation and is free from cooling water and lubrication systems. #t
also lowers the fan horsepower requirement and increases the overall thermal efficiency of the
system. The heat pipe heat recovery systems are capable of operating at 43J01. with O/A to
6/A heat recovery capability.
#ypica "ppication
The heat pipes are used in following industrial applications-
a. Irocess to =pace $eating- The heat pipe heat e*changer transfers the thermal energy from
process e*haust for building heating. The preheated air can be blended if required. The
requirement of additional heating equipment to deliver heated ma(e up air is drastically
reduced or eliminated.
b. Irocess to Irocess- The heat pipe heat e*changers recover waste thermal energy from
the process e*haust and transfer this energy to the incoming process air. The incoming
air thus become warm and can be used for the same process5other processes and reduces
process energy consumption.
c. $9,1 ,pplications-
1ooling- $eat pipe heat e*changers precools the building ma(e up air in summer and
thus reduces the total tons of refrigeration, apart from the operational saving of the cooling
system. Thermal energy is supply recovered from the cool e*haust and transferred
to the hot supply ma(e up air.
$eating- The above process is reversed during winter to preheat the ma(e up air.
The other applications in industries are-
P Ireheating of boiler combustion air
P Eecovery of Waste heat from furnaces
P Eeheating of fresh air for hot air driers
P Eecovery of waste heat from catalytic deodori%ing equipment
P Eeuse of "urnace waste heat as heat source for other oven
P 1ooling of closed rooms with outside air
P Ireheating of boiler feed water with waste heat recovery from flue gases in the heat pipe
economi%ers.
P &rying, curing and ba(ing ovens
P Waste steam reclamation
P Bric( (ilns <secondary recovery>
P Eeverberatory furnaces <secondary recovery>
P $eating, ventilating and air+conditioning systems
"igure 2.32 $eat Iipe
3. A++LICATION AR"A O. AIR +R"HAT"R$
,vailable in a broad range of si%es, arrangements, and ,ir Ireheaters are custom+
engineered to meet specific requirements and operating conditions of a variety of
applications-
Glectric power generating plants.
"luidi%ed bed and marine boilers.
Iac(age M large industrial boilers.
$ydrocarbon M chemical processes.
Waste incinerators M drying systems.
"lue gas M other reheating systems.
3.1 +)e'eatin& Co(5ustion Ai)
, recuperator is the most widely used heat recovery device. #t is a gas+to+gas heat e*changer
placed on the stac( of the furnace that preheats incoming air with e*haust gas. &esigns rely
on tubes or plates to transfer heat from the e*haust gas to the combustion air and (eep the
streams from mi*ing. ,nother way to preheat combustion air is with a regenerator, which is
an insulated container filled with metal or ceramic shapes that can absorb and store significant
thermal energy. #t acts as a rechargeable storage battery for heat. #ncoming cold combustion
air is passed through the regenerator. ,t least two regenerators and their associated burners
are required for an uninterrupted process- one provides energy to the combustion air while the
other recharges.
The increase in energy costs, concern about greenhouse gases and energy security has
increased the importance of energy efficiency in production. This is particularly important for
globally+competitive and energyintensive industries li(e aluminum, chemicals, glass, metal
casting, pulp and paper, and steel. #n the ).=. alone, the industrial sector consumes about 4J
quads of primary energy. Core than half of this energy is used as production process heat by
energy+intensive industries. $owever, over ?/ percent of this energy <Q @ quads, valued at
appro*imately R4J billion> is lost as a result of process and equipment inefficiencies. This
pro'ect develops furnace technology to significantly reduce energy consumption and
emissions while improving productivity. $ere, wasted flue gas enthalpy is captured to highly
preheat the incoming !2 or !2+enriched air and fuel. While simple in concept, this is often
not done because it increases S!* productionand contributes to heat flu* nonuniformities
within the furnace. , novel solution is proposed where e*haust gas recirculation and intense
flame radiation are employed to reduce the flame temperatures and thus.
P J/+percent reduction in energy losses
P #ncreased furnace efficiency
P Eeduced pollutant productionTone fifth less S!* and one si*th less 1!2 per unit product
"igure 4.3 Ireheated 1ombustion ,ir =ystem
The process will improve energy efficiency of furnaces used in industries with particularly
high energy e*penditures, such as aluminum, chemicals, forest products, iron and steel,
glass,and metal casting. "uel savings for different fumace e*haust gas temperature and
preheated combustion air temperatures can be found in the table below and can be used to
estimate reductions in energy costs.
Table 4.3 Iercent "uel =aving Hained and Ireheated 1ombustion ,ir
3.2. T'e Reco*e)y Of #aste Heat .o) fossil fuel6fi)ed o0e) &ene)ato)s and indust)ial
)ocesses
"or fossil fuel+fired power generators and industrial processes, the recovery of waste heat
energy has proven to be one of the most effective ways to conserve fuel and lower operating
costs.
"uel savings with air preheater are about 3 + 3U A for every ?/0" to J/0" increase in
combustion air temperature, depending on the application. ,ir Ireheaters not only provide the
highest fuel saving efficiency that is available, but their simplified design and operating
integrity assure continuous reliable service throughout the life of your plant.
"igure 4.2 !ne e*ample of waste heat recovery for fossil fuel fired power generators.
3.3.T'e)(al T)eat(ent Of #aste ,ases
Waste gas with flow+rate of and concentration of volatile organic compounds <971>
is pre+heated to a sufficient and primarily safe temperature in the heat e*changer. Then this
pre+heated waste gas enters the combustion chamber where the volatile organic compounds
are burnt so that the concentration of pollutants well below the allowable limit would be
achieved. "lue gas produced by combustion enters the heat e*changer only in such amount
that is necessary for pre+heating simu3taneously incoming waste gas. Eemaining flue gas
flows through a bypass. This bypass is controlled by a pneumatically operated valve. "lue gas
leaves the unit with temperature ranging from J// to @J/ 01 what provides a possibility for
further heat recovery. This unit meets strict emission limits given by the Guropean union
regulations.
1. AIR +R"H"AT"R D"$I,N
#n this section we consider the preliminary design of the air preheater included in the
case study cogenaretion system shown in figure J.3. one configurations are considered- a shell and
tube counter flow heat e*changer
"igure ?.3. Base case design of the cogeneration system.
The presentation is aimed at illustrating several of the heat e*changer principles introduced
thus far and highlighted some of the design issues attending the specification of a heat
e*changer for a particular duty. The present disscusion is related only to the consept
development stage of the life cycle design flow. We do not consider here, for e*ample the
special materials that might be required owing to the high preheater service temperatures.
This is an issue that would be addressed at the detailed design stage.
, shall and tube counter flow heat e*changer is show schematically in figure
the figure is labeled with data from table J.3. compressed air flows through n parallel tubes
with inner diameter &, outer diameter &
/
, and length L. The tubes are mounted in a shell of
crosss sectional <frontal> area ,
fr
, as illustrated in figure J.2b. combustion products flow
through the tube to to tube spaces, parallel to the tubes.
$tate $u5stance -ass .lo0 Rate
78&9s :
Te(e)atu)e
7; :
)essu)e
75a)s :
3 ,ir
b
33/ 2.6 3,/34
2 ,ir 33/ JJ/ .,@
4 ,ir 33/ 66/ 6,.
? 1ombustion
Iroducts
c,d
33/,6 3J2/ 6,J
J 1ombustion Iroducts 33/,6 3/J/ 3,/?
O 1ombustion Iroducts 33/,6 6// 3,/3
@ 1ombustion Iroducts 33/,6 ?2O 3,/3
6 Water 3? 2.6 2/
. Water 3? ?6J 2/
3/ Cethane
e
3,OJ3. 2.6 32
Table ?.3. mass flow rate, temperature, and pressure data for the cogeneration
a>
&ata are shown with more significant figures than 'ustifiable in practice to allow ease of
chec(ing computer+generated values.
b
Colecular weight C 8 26.O?.. Colar analysis <A>- @@.?6 S
2
, 2/.J. !
2
, /./4 1!
2
,
3../ $
2
!<g>.
c
Colecular weight M8 26.2J?. Colar analysis <A>-@J./@ S
2
, 34.@2,4.3? 1!
2
, 6./@ $
2
!<g>.
ct $eat transfer from combustion chamber is estimated as 2A of lower heating value of fuel
e
Colecular weight C 8 3O./?4.
f
Sominal value.
The present discussion is aimed at determining the number of tubes required and the
heat e*changer dimensions. in particular, five values are to be determined- n, &, &o, L and
,fr. ,3though tubes are commercially available at only certain nominal diameters and wall
thic(ness, the present considerations are simplified by ta(ing &o5& 8 i.2. This leaves four
values to be determined- n, &, L and ,fr. ,s the temperatures and pressures are specified at
the preheater inlets and e*ist, we find in the discussion to follow that the design must be
satisfy three conditions, one for heat transfer and two for fluid flow. ,ccordingly, with four
un(nowns and three equations, there is 'ust one degree of freedom.
Tgas,out86J/
/
Tgas in83///
/

Igas,out83,/2 bar Igas in83,/4 bar

Iair,in8.,4bar Tair,out 86J/
/

Tair,in8OJ/
/
Iair,out 86,@ bar
"igure ?.2 =hows the inlet outlet of air gas properties
,s elements of the model used in the present discussion, we list the following-
So significant heat transfer occurs from the outer surface of the shell.
The tubes are straight with smooth inner and outer surfaces.
The flow of air and the flow of combustion products behave as ideal gases with
constant < average> specific heats.
The pressure drops due to contraction and enlargement are negligible.
The thermal resistance of the tube wall is negligible.
"igure ?.4 =hell and tube air preheater
1.1 Heat T)ansfe) Relations
We begin with the heat transfer aspects of the heat e*changer. The average air
temperature is <OJ/ V 6J/ > 5 2 8 @J/ . the specific heat of the air at this temperature is
c
pair
8 334.,@ J/kgK the capacity rate on the high+pressure side <the tube side> of the heat
e*changer is then
C
air
=m
air*
C
p,air
8 (33/ kg/ s> W < 3,/,. kj/kg.K ) 8 33.,. kW/K (4.1)
The capacity rate on the 3ow+pressure side can be deduced from an energy balance on
the overall preheater-
1
air
( ) ( )
gas
out in gas
air
in out
T T C T T X
Where the subscript KgasK denotes combustion products. The resu3t is
1
gas
8 <33.,. (W5> Y <<6J/+OJ/>5<3///+6J/>> 8 3J.,6O <?.2>
Which means that the counter flow heat e*changer is only slightly unbalanced. #n the
discussion to follow, we ta(e
1
gas
8 1
ma*
, 1
air
8 1
min
, 1
min
51
ma*
8 /,@J <?.4>
The effectiveness is calculated
8 <<T
air, out
D T
air, in
>5< T
gas, in
D T
air, in
>> 8 /,J@ <?.?>
We calculated the required ST)-
ST) 8
ma*
min
ma*
min
3
3 ln
C
C
C
C

1
]
1

82,2? <?.J>
The overall thermal conductance is
), 8 1
min
ST) 8 2O6,? (W5 <?.O>
This value is related to thermal conductance on the two sides of the heat transfer surface by
equation
<?.@>
Where h and h
/
are the air side and gas side heat transfer coefficients we will return to
equation O.O/ after we analy%e the pressure drops Z32[.
1.2 +)essu)e D)o Relations
The pressure drop on the air side can be estimated from equation O.@ as
p
air
8 \
air
in out air
p p
G
p
G
D
L

,
_

+
3 3 2
2
2
<?.6>

"igure J.2. provides I
air
8<.,4+6,@ >bars 8 /,O bar. )sing the ideal gas equation of state, we
have
@3J . /
out in
in out
in
out
T p
T p
p
p
<?,.>
,nd

in
8
4
/
2 J
5 .6J , ?
> OJ/ >< . 5 26@ , / <
5 3/ 4 , .
Y
m kg
K m kg kj
m N
T !
"
in air
in

<?,3/>
Thus
I
out
8 /,@3J Y I
in
8 4,JO (g5m
4
<?.33>
,nd

@3J . /
out in
in out
in
out
T p
T p
p
p

air
8 Y <
in
V
out
>
air
8 ?,2@J (g5m
4
<?.32>
H 8 m
air
5 Zn Y <
?
Y
2
D
>[ 8 3?/,32@ (g5<sn&
2
> <?.34>
=ince the pipes are assumed to be smooth, \ 8 \ <Ee
&
>,
Ee
&
8 H& 5 ]
air
<?.3?>
#n this e*pression ]
air
8 ?,23J (g5s.m at average temperature @J/ substituting these
quantities in to equation ?.6 gives after reduction.
3.,62 n
2
?
3

,
_

m
D
8 \
D
L 2
V /,J.J <?.3J>
Where \ 8 \<Ee
&
>, and
Ee
&
8
nD
O
3/ Y 4?J , 4
<?.3O>
The pressure drop on the gas side can be analy%ed in the same way
p gas 8 \
/
gas
in out gas
p p
G
p
G
D
L

,
_

+
3 3 2
2
/
2
/

<?.3@>
"rom "igure J.2 ^I
gas
8 < 3,/4+3,/2 >bar 8 /,/3 bar. )sing the ideal gas equation of state.
3,3OJ <?.36>
,nd
I
out
8 I
out
5 < E
gas
T
out
> 8 /,?36 (g5m
4
<?.3.>
We obtain
I
in
8/, ?6@ (g5m
4
<?.2/>
I
gas
8 < I
in
V I
out
>
gas
8 /,?J2 <?.23>
The area available for the gas equals the frontal area less the area occupied by the n
tubes-
#
flow
8 ,
fr
D n _ &
2
/
<?.22>
We also have
H8
$%o&
gas
#
m
<?.24>

,nd
/
?
D n
#
D
$%o&

<?.2?>
,s the tubes are smooth f
o
8 f
o
<Ee
&h
>, where
gas
'
D'
GD

Ee
<?.2J>
#n this e*pression, we appro*imate the viscosity of the gas as the viscosity of air at the
average gas temperature, .2J . that is ]
gas
8 ?.66J Y 3/
J
kg5s.m. =ubstitution these quantities
into equation ?.36 gives, after reduction,
/,/.J
2
2
3

,
_

m
#
$%o&
8 \
o
+

/,2?6 <?.2O>

Where \
o
8 \
o
<Ee
&h
> and,
Ee
&h
8 <2,2O6 3/
O
m>
$%o&
'
#
D
<?.2@>
1.3 Collectin& Results
The development thus far has provided one heat+transfer+related equation- Gquation
?.6 and two fluid+flow+related equations- Gquations ?.3O and ?.2O These equations can be
reduced further to obtain a final set of three equations as follows-
The heat transfer coefficients needed in Gquation ?.6 can be estimated based on the
1olbum analogy.
,ir =ide
h 8 c
p air
H.=t
=t 8 U \
Ir
air
8 /,@3
c
p air
8 3,/. ('5(g.
Has =ide
h
o
8 c
p, air
H
o
=t
o
=t
o
8 U \
o

Ir
gas
8 /,@4
1
p gas
8 3,?J4 ('5(g
=ince ), 8 2O6,4.(W5 then equation ?.@ becomes
3 8 2,4 &5\L V 2,26 <?.26>
,nother simplification follows by nothing that Ee
&
and Ee
&h
are proportional-
8 /,@2 <?.2.>
#n the Ee
&
range 3/
?
D 3/, the friction factor varies are Ee
&
+/,2
N therefore \ and \
o
are
proportional-
<?.4/>
#n conclusion, equation ?.26, can be written as
3 8 2,4 &5\L V 2,3?
nLD$
#
$%o&

<?.43>
Turning to equation ?.2@ it can be e*pressed as
D
L
$
m
D
n #
2
3
?
2 4

,
_

/,.O. + /,2?6 ` <?.42>

Where ( is the dimension3ess cross+sectiona3 area of the gas stream
<?.44>
Gliminating the group 2$ L/D between Gquations ?.3O and ?.42 gives
<?.4?>

G*pressing equation ?.43 in terms of ` yields
<?.4J>
"inally, combining Gquations ?.3O and ?.4J,

<?.4O>
1.1 Desi&n $olution
With Gquations ?.43+ ?.4O the required numerica 3 wor( is simplified great3y. Thus,
equations ?.4? and ?.4O give
` 8 2,@ <?.4@>
n&
2
8/,6@@ m
2
<?.46>
,
flow
8 2,4@ m
2
<?.4.>
$ence from equation ?.22
,
fr
8 ,
flow
V n 8 4,/O m
2
<?.?/>
#n conclusion, the frontal area and the gas flow cross section are fi*ed- They do not vary with
the lone degree of freedom recogni%ed at the start of this solution. The remaining design
parameters (n, D, L ) can vary, but onlyone can be chosen independently. They must satisfy
Gquation ?.4J <which now reads $L/D + 4./> and Gquation ?.46. When Ee
&
falls in the range
3/?X3/O //?O !)
D
*+,,
.The following numerical results are obtained by treating D as the
independent parameter-
&<m> S L<m> Ee L5&
/,/3 6@@/ J,J/23@4.34 O4/.J,@4??J JJ/,23@4.34
/,/2 23.4 33,//?4?@64 343.J,/@.33 JJ/,23@4.34
/,/4 .@? 3O,J/OJ23@? 3JJ36,?JJ@? JJ/,23@4.34
/,/? J?6 22,//6O.JOJ 3@?33,/332@ JJ/,23@4.34
/,/J 4J3 2@,J3/6O.J@ 3./4O,J4.4. JJ/,23@4.34
/,/O 2?? 44,/34/?4?6 2/?@O,@2J33 JJ/,23@4.34
/,/@ 3@. 46,J3J23@4. 23@@.,/O?2? JJ/,23@4.34
/,/6 34@ ??,/3@4.34 22.@4,.O@3 JJ/,23@4.34
/,/. 3/6 ?.,J3.JOJ22 2?/62,2?O6J JJ/,23@4.34
/,3 66 JJ,/23@4.34 2J336,6O?42 JJ/,23@4.34
/,33 @2 O/,J24.34/? 2O/.?,.6O4J JJ/,23@4.34
/,32 O3 OO,/2O/6O.O 2@/3.,2//@@ JJ/,23@4.34
/,34 J2 @3,J262O/6@ 2@6.6,2@?4O JJ/,23@4.34
/,3? ?J @@,/4/?4?@6 26@4@,O?@JO JJ/,23@4.34
/,3J 4. 62,J42O/6@ 2.J?3,@O.4. JJ/,23@4.34
/,3O 4? 66,/4?@62O3 4/43?,44344 JJ/,23@4.34
/,3@ 4/ .4,J4O.JOJ2 43/J6,?4J/2 JJ/,23@4.34
/,36 2@ ..,/4.34/?4 43@@O,@3J24 JJ/,23@4.34
/,3. 2? 3/?,J?34/?4 42?@3,?43.3 JJ/,23@4.34
/,2 22 33/,/?4?@64 443??,J?/3@ JJ/,23@4.34
Table ?.2. &esign =olution with & indipendent parameter.
3. CONCLU$ION$
,nd finally these values shows that & or the number of tubes n and L increase almost
proportionally with the tube diameter &. The volume of heat e*changer increase too, because
the frontal area is fi*ed. The weight of the heat e*changer is controlled by the weight of the
tubes. Sote again there is one degree of freedom <e.g. &> and that a relatively small & would
be selected if small colume or small weight is desired for the e*changer. =till, final selection
in this case would be governed by cost.
"igure J.3 Tube diameter M length of the tube relations
"igure J.2 Sumber of tubes <n> M tube diameter <&> relations
"igure J.4 Sumber of tubes <n> M tube length <L> relations
EG"GEGS1G=
3. "uel Gconomy in fumaces and Waste heat recovery+I1E,
2. $eat Eecovery =ystems by &.,.Eeay, G M ".S.span, London, 3.@..
4. Eeay, &.,. and =pan, ".S. $eat Eecovery =ystems.3.@..
?. Eeay, &.,. Low Temperature Waste $eat Eecovery in the Irocess #ndustry. Hood
Iractice Huide So. 3?3. 3..O.
J. Gnergy Gfficiency Huide for #ndustry in ,sia + www.energyefficiencyasia.org
O. IHMG Gnergy Gfficiency #nformationa K#ndustrial $eat+Eecovery =trategiesK
@. &avid Hordon Wilson, Iroceedings of ,=CG Turbo G*po 2//4 Iower for Land, =ea
and ,ir bune 3O+3..2//4, ,tlanta, Heorgia, )=,
6. Iercent "uel =avings Hained from )sing Ireheated 1ombustion ,ir ,Gnergy Tips+
Irocess $eating Irocess $eating Tip =heet c3 P Sovember 2//@
.. ,E#1#.d,=uryanarayana S.9., &esign Land =imulation of Thermal systems
C1HE,W$#LL
3/. C!E,S,=$,I#E!,C)S=!S,&GW#T #ntroduction to Thermal =ystems
Gngineering
33. 1!LG H.,., Thermal Iower 1ycle
32. I#S,EB,e# ,. KThermal power Gngineering Lecture Sotes
34. BGb,S ,., T=,T=,E!S#H= H.,C!E,S C. KThermal &esign and
!ptimi%ationK ,WilleyM=ons 3..O
3?. H#!, 9 ,SS# I. #ndustrial energy management L)WGE I)BL#=GE=
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