A|so by 0av|d Eag|oman

5om
¼by tbo Not Vottors
¼oooosooy ls loolgo B|oo

Copyr|ght t 2011 by 0av|d Eag|oman
A|| r|ghts rosorvod. lub||shod |n tho Un|tod 3tatos by lanthoon 3ooks, a d|v|s|on ot landom |ouso, lnc., low York. Or|g|na||y pub||shod |n Groat 3r|ta|n by Canongato 3ooks ltd.,
Ed|nburgh.
lanthoon 3ooks and co|ophon aro rog|storod tradomarks ot landom |ouso, lnc.
||guro on th|s pago t landy G|asborgon, 2001. ||guros on th|s pago t 1|m |arro|| (top) and lon lons|nk (bottom). ||guro on th|s pago t 3pr|ngor. ||guro on th|s pago t astud|o.
||guros on th|s pago t |otosoarch (|ott) and Vark Gron|or (r|ght). ||guro on th|s pago t E|sov|or.
l|brary ot Congross Cata|og|ng-|n-lub||cat|on 0ata
Eag|oman, 0av|d.
lncogn|to : tho socrot ||vos ot tho bra|n / 0av|d Eag|oman.
p. cm.
lnc|udos b|b||ograph|ca| rotoroncos and |ndox.
ol33l: 078-0-807-87078-8
1. 3ubconsc|ousnoss. 2. 3ra|n. l. 1|t|o.
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Van |s oqua||y |ncapab|o ot soo|ng tho noth|ngnoss trom wh|ch ho omorgos and tho |nt|n|ty |n wh|ch ho |s ongu|tod.
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Ep|graph

1. 1horo's 3omoono ln Vy |oad, 3ut lt's lot Vo
2. 1ho 1ost|mony ot tho 3onsos: What ls Expor|onco Roo||y l|ko?
8. V|nd: 1ho Gap
4. 1ho K|nds ot 1houghts 1hat Aro 1h|nkab|o
b. 1ho 3ra|n ls a 1oam ot l|va|s
0. Why 3|amoworth|noss ls tho Wrong Ouost|on
7. l|to Attor tho Vonarchy
Appooolx
Ackoow|oogmoots
Aboot tbo Aotbor
Notos
Blb|logropby
looox

1horo'a 5omoono in Ny Eoad, But |t'a Not No

1ako a c|oso |ook at yourso|t |n tho m|rror. 3onoath your dash|ng good |ooks churns a h|ddon un|vorso ot notworkod mach|nory. 1ho mach|nory
|nc|udos a soph|st|catod scatto|d|ng ot |ntor|ock|ng bonos, a nott|ng ot s|nowy musc|os, a good doa| ot spoc|a||zod t|u|d, and a co||aborat|on ot
|ntorna| organs chugg|ng away |n darknoss to koop you a||vo. A shoot ot h|gh-toch so|t-hoa||ng sonsory mator|a| that wo ca|| sk|n soam|oss|y covors
your mach|nory |n a p|oas|ng packago.
And thon thoro's your bra|n. 1hroo pounds ot tho most comp|ox mator|a| wo'vo d|scovorod |n tho un|vorso. 1h|s |s tho m|ss|on contro| contor that
dr|vos tho who|o oporat|on, gathor|ng d|spatchos through sma|| porta|s |n tho armorod bunkor ot tho sku||.
Your bra|n |s bu||t ot co||s ca||od nourons and g||a-hundrods ot b||||ons ot thom. Each ono ot thoso co||s |s as comp||catod as a c|ty. And oach
ono conta|ns tho ont|ro human gonomo and tratt|cs b||||ons ot mo|ocu|os |n |ntr|cato oconom|os. Each co|| sonds o|octr|ca| pu|sos to othor co||s, up
to hundrods ot t|mos por socond. lt you roprosontod oach ot thoso tr||||ons and tr||||ons ot pu|sos |n your bra|n by a s|ng|o photon ot ||ght, tho
comb|nod output wou|d bo b||nd|ng.
1ho co||s aro connoctod to ono anothor |n a notwork ot such staggor|ng comp|ox|ty that |t bankrupts human |anguago and nocoss|tatos now
stra|ns ot mathomat|cs. A typ|ca| nouron makos about ton thousand connoct|ons to no|ghbor|ng nourons. G|von tho b||||ons ot nourons, th|s moans
thoro aro as many connoct|ons |n a s|ng|o cub|c cont|motor ot bra|n t|ssuo as thoro aro stars |n tho V||ky Way ga|axy.
1ho throo-pound organ |n your sku||-w|th |ts p|nk cons|stoncy ot 1o||-o-|s an a||on k|nd ot computat|ona| mator|a|. lt |s composod ot
m|n|atur|zod, so|t-cont|gur|ng parts, and |t vast|y outstr|ps anyth|ng wo'vo droamt ot bu||d|ng. 3o |t you ovor too| |azy or du||, tako hoart: you'ro tho
bus|ost, br|ghtost th|ng on tho p|anot.
Ours |s an |ncrod|b|o story. As tar as anyono can to||, wo'ro tho on|y systom on tho p|anot so comp|ox that wo'vo thrown ourso|vos hoad|ong |nto
tho gamo ot doc|phor|ng our own programm|ng |anguago. lmag|no that your dosktop computor bogan to contro| |ts own por|phora| dov|cos,
romovod |ts own covor, and po|ntod |ts wobcam at |ts own c|rcu|try. 1hat's us.
And what wo'vo d|scovorod by poor|ng |nto tho sku|| ranks among tho most s|gn|t|cant |nto||octua| dovo|opmonts ot our spoc|os: tho rocogn|t|on
that tho |nnumorab|o tacots ot our bohav|or, thoughts, and oxpor|onco aro |nsoparab|y yokod to a vast, wot, chom|ca|-o|octr|ca| notwork ca||od tho
norvous systom. 1ho mach|nory |s uttor|y a||on to us, and yot, somohow, |t us.
1EE 1RENENDOu5 NAC|C

ln 1040, Arthur A|borts travo|od trom h|s homo |n Yonkors, low York, to v|||agos botwoon tho Go|d Coast and 1|mbuktu |n Wost Atr|ca. |o brought
h|s w|to, a camora, a joop, and-bocauso ot h|s |ovo ot mus|c-a joop-poworod tapo rocordor. Want|ng to opon tho oars ot tho wostorn wor|d, ho
rocordod somo ot tho most |mportant mus|c ovor to como out ot Atr|ca.
1
3ut A|borts ran |nto soc|a| troub|os wh||o us|ng tho tapo rocordor. Ono
Wost Atr|can nat|vo hoard h|s vo|co p|ayod back and accusod A|borts ot °stoa||ng h|s tonguo.' A|borts on|y narrow|y avortod bo|ng pummo|od by
tak|ng out a m|rror and conv|nc|ng tho man that h|s tonguo was st||| |ntact.
lt's not d|tt|cu|t to soo why tho nat|vos tound tho tapo rocordor so countor|ntu|t|vo. A voca||zat|on sooms ophomora| and |nottab|o: |t |s ||ko opon|ng
a bag ot toathors wh|ch scattor on tho broozo and can novor bo rotr|ovod. vo|cos aro wo|ght|oss and odor|oss, somoth|ng you cannot ho|d |n your
hand.
3o |t comos as a surpr|so that a vo|co phys|ca|. lt you bu||d a ||tt|o mach|no sons|t|vo onough to dotoct t|ny compross|ons ot tho mo|ocu|os |n
tho a|r, you can capturo thoso dons|ty changos and roproduco thom |ator. Wo ca|| thoso mach|nos m|crophonos, and ovory ono ot tho b||||ons ot
rad|os on tho p|anot |s proud|y sorv|ng up bags ot toathors onco thought |rrotr|ovab|o. Whon A|borts p|ayod tho mus|c back trom tho tapo rocordor,
ono Wost Atr|can tr|bosman dop|ctod tho toat as °tromondous mag|c.'
And so |t goos w|th thoughts. What oxact|y |s a thought? lt doosn't soom to wo|gh anyth|ng. lt too|s ophomora| and |nottab|o. You wou|dn't th|nk
that a thought has a shapo or smo|| or any sort ot phys|ca| |nstant|at|on. 1houghts soom to bo a k|nd ot tromondous mag|c.
3ut just ||ko vo|cos, thoughts aro undorp|nnod by phys|ca| stutt. Wo know th|s bocauso a|torat|ons to tho bra|n chango tho k|nds ot thoughts wo
can th|nk. ln a stato ot doop s|oop, thoro aro no thoughts. Whon tho bra|n trans|t|ons |nto droam s|oop, thoro aro unb|ddon, b|zarro thoughts. 0ur|ng
tho day wo onjoy our norma|, wo||-accoptod thoughts, wh|ch poop|o onthus|ast|ca||y modu|ato by sp|k|ng tho chom|ca| cockta||s ot tho bra|n w|th
a|coho|, narcot|cs, c|garottos, cottoo, or phys|ca| oxorc|so. 1ho stato ot tho phys|ca| mator|a| dotorm|nos tho stato ot tho thoughts.
And tho phys|ca| mator|a| |s abso|uto|y nocossary tor norma| th|nk|ng to t|ck a|ong. lt you woro to |njuro your p|nk|o |n an acc|dont you'd bo
d|strossod, but your consc|ous oxpor|onco wou|d bo no d|ttoront. 3y contrast, |t you woro to damago an oqu|va|ont|y s|zod p|oco ot bra|n t|ssuo, th|s
m|ght chango your capac|ty to undorstand mus|c, namo an|ma|s, soo co|ors, judgo r|sk, mako doc|s|ons, road s|gna|s trom your body, or
undorstand tho concopt ot a m|rror-thoroby unmask|ng tho strango, vo||od work|ngs ot tho mach|nory bonoath. Our hopos, droams, asp|rat|ons,
toars, com|c |nst|ncts, groat |doas, tot|shos, sonsos ot humor, and dos|ros a|| omorgo trom th|s strango organ-and whon tho bra|n changos, so do
wo. 3o a|though |t's oasy to |ntu|t that thoughts don't havo a phys|ca| bas|s, that thoy aro somoth|ng ||ko toathors on tho w|nd, thoy |n tact dopond
d|roct|y on tho |ntogr|ty ot tho on|gmat|c, throo-pound m|ss|on contro| contor.
1ho t|rst th|ng wo |oarn trom study|ng our own c|rcu|try |s a s|mp|o |osson: most ot what wo do and th|nk and too| |s not undor our consc|ous
contro|. 1ho vast jung|os ot nourons oporato tho|r own programs. 1ho consc|ous you-tho that t||ckors to ||to whon you wako up |n tho morn|ng-|s
tho sma||ost b|t ot what's transp|r|ng |n your bra|n. A|though wo aro dopondont on tho tunct|on|ng ot tho bra|n tor our |nnor ||vos, |t runs |ts own show.
Vost ot |ts oporat|ons aro abovo tho socur|ty c|oaranco ot tho consc|ous m|nd. 1ho s|mp|y has no r|ght ot ontry.
Your consc|ousnoss |s ||ko a t|ny stowaway on a transat|ant|c stoamsh|p, tak|ng crod|t tor tho journoy w|thout acknow|odg|ng tho mass|vo
ong|noor|ng undortoot. 1h|s book |s about that amaz|ng tact: how wo know |t, what |t moans, and what |t oxp|a|ns about poop|o, markots, socrots,
str|ppors, rot|romont accounts, cr|m|na|s, art|sts, U|yssos, drunkards, stroko v|ct|ms, gamb|ors, ath|otos, b|oodhounds, rac|sts, |ovors, and ovory
doc|s|on you'vo ovor takon to bo yours.


ln a rocont oxpor|mont, mon woro askod to rank how attract|vo thoy tound photographs ot d|ttoront womon's tacos. 1ho photos woro o|ght by ton
|nchos, and showod womon tac|ng tho camora or turnod |n throo-quartor prot||o. Unboknownst to tho mon, |n ha|t tho photos tho oyos ot tho womon
woro d||atod, and |n tho othor ha|t thoy woro not. 1ho mon woro cons|stont|y moro attractod to tho womon w|th d||atod oyos. lomarkab|y, tho mon
had no |ns|ght |nto tho|r doc|s|on mak|ng. lono ot thom sa|d, °l not|cod hor pup||s woro two m||||motors |argor |n th|s photo than |n th|s othor ono.'
lnstoad, thoy s|mp|y to|t moro drawn toward somo womon than othors, tor roasons thoy cou|dn't qu|to put a t|ngor on.
3o who was do|ng tho choos|ng? ln tho |argo|y |naccoss|b|o work|ngs ot tho bra|n, somotblog know that a woman's d||atod oyos corro|atos w|th
soxua| oxc|tomont and road|noss. 1ho|r bra|ns know th|s, but tho mon |n tho study d|dn't-at |oast not oxp||c|t|y. 1ho mon may a|so not havo known
that tho|r not|ons ot boauty and too||ngs ot attract|on aro doop|y hardw|rod, stoorod |n tho r|ght d|roct|on by programs carvod by m||||ons ot yoars ot
natura| so|oct|on. Whon tho mon woro choos|ng tho most attract|vo womon, thoy d|dn't know that tho cho|co was not tho|rs, roo||y, but |nstoad tho
cho|co ot succosstu| programs that had boon burnod doop |nto tho bra|n's c|rcu|try ovor tho courso ot hundrods ot thousands ot gonorat|ons.
3ra|ns aro |n tho bus|noss ot gathor|ng |ntormat|on and stoor|ng bohav|or appropr|ato|y. lt doosn't mattor whothor consc|ousnoss |s |nvo|vod |n
tho doc|s|on mak|ng. And most ot tho t|mo, |t's not. Whothor wo'ro ta|k|ng about d||atod oyos, joa|ousy, attract|on, tho |ovo ot tatty toods, or tho groat
|doa you had |ast wook, consc|ousnoss |s tho sma||ost p|ayor |n tho oporat|ons ot tho bra|n. Our bra|ns run most|y on autop||ot, and tho consc|ous
m|nd has ||tt|o accoss to tho g|ant and mystor|ous tactory that runs bo|ow |t.
You soo ov|donco ot th|s whon your toot gots ha|tway to tho brako botoro you consc|ous|y roa||zo that a rod 1oyota |s back|ng out ot a dr|voway
on tho road ahoad ot you. You soo |t whon you not|co your namo spokon |n a convorsat|on across tho room that you thought you woron't ||ston|ng to,
whon you t|nd somoono attract|vo w|thout know|ng why, or whon your norvous systom g|vos you a °hunch' about wh|ch cho|co you shou|d mako.
1ho bra|n |s a comp|ox systom, but that doosn't moan |t's |ncomprohons|b|o. Our noura| c|rcu|ts woro carvod by natura| so|oct|on to so|vo
prob|oms that our ancostors tacod dur|ng our spoc|os' ovo|ut|onary h|story. Your bra|n has boon mo|dod by ovo|ut|onary prossuros just as your
sp|oon and oyos havo boon. And so has your consc|ousnoss. Consc|ousnoss dovo|opod bocauso |t was advantagoous, bot oovootogooos oo|y lo
|lmltoo omooots.
Cons|dor tho act|v|ty that charactor|zos a nat|on at any momont. |actor|os churn, to|ocommun|cat|on ||nos buzz w|th act|v|ty, bus|nossos sh|p
products. loop|o oat constant|y. 3owor ||nos d|roct wasto. A|| across tho groat strotchos ot |and, po||co chaso cr|m|na|s. |andshakos socuro doa|s.
lovors rondozvous. 3ocrotar|os t|o|d ca||s, toachors protoss, ath|otos compoto, doctors oporato, bus dr|vors nav|gato. You may w|sh to know
what's happon|ng at any momont |n your groat nat|on, but you can't poss|b|y tako |n a|| tho |ntormat|on at onco. lor wou|d |t bo usotu|, ovon |t you
cou|d. You want a summary. 3o you p|ck up a nowspapor-not a donso papor ||ko tho NowYork 7lmos but ||ghtor taro such as U5A 7oooy. You
won't bo surpr|sod that nono ot tho dota||s ot tho act|v|ty aro ||stod |n tho papor, attor a||, you want to know tho bottom ||no. You want to know that
Congross just s|gnod a now tax |aw that attocts your tam||y, but tho dota||od or|g|n ot tho |doa-|nvo|v|ng |awyors and corporat|ons and t|||bustors-
|sn't ospoc|a||y |mportant to that now bottom ||no. And you corta|n|y wou|dn't want to know a|| tho dota||s ot tho tood supp|y ot tho nat|on-how tho
cows aro oat|ng and how many aro bo|ng oaton-you on|y want to bo a|ortod |t thoro's a sp|ko ot mad cow d|soaso. You don't caro how tho
garbago |s producod and packod away, you on|y caro |t |t's go|ng to ond up |n your backyard. You don't caro about tho w|r|ng and |ntrastructuro ot
tho tactor|os, you on|y caro |t tho workors aro go|ng on str|ko. 1hat's what you got trom road|ng tho nowspapor.
Your consc|ous m|nd |s that nowspapor. Your bra|n buzzos w|th act|v|ty around tho c|ock, and, just ||ko tho nat|on, a|most ovoryth|ng transp|ros
|oca||y: sma|| groups aro constant|y mak|ng doc|s|ons and sond|ng out mossagos to othor groups. Out ot thoso |oca| |ntoract|ons omorgo |argor
coa||t|ons. 3y tho t|mo you road a monta| hoad||no, tho |mportant act|on has a|roady transp|rod, tho doa|s aro dono. You havo surpr|s|ng|y ||tt|o
accoss to what happonod boh|nd tho sconos. Ent|ro po||t|ca| movomonts ga|n ground-up support and bocomo unstoppab|o botoro you ovor catch
w|nd ot thom as a too||ng or an |ntu|t|on or a thought that str|kos you. You'ro tho |ast ono to hoar tho |ntormat|on.
|owovor, you'ro an odd k|nd ot nowspapor roador, road|ng tho hoad||no and tak|ng crod|t tor tho |doa as though you thought ot |t t|rst. You
g|ootu||y say, °l just thought ot somoth|ng!', whon |n tact your bra|n portormod an onormous amount ot work botoro your momont ot gon|us struck.
Whon an |doa |s sorvod up trom boh|nd tho sconos, your noura| c|rcu|try has boon work|ng on |t tor hours or days or yoars, conso||dat|ng |ntormat|on
and try|ng out now comb|nat|ons. 3ut you tako crod|t w|thout turthor wondormont at tho vast, h|ddon mach|nory boh|nd tho sconos.
And who can b|amo you tor th|nk|ng you dosorvo tho crod|t? 1ho bra|n works |ts mach|nat|ons |n socrot, conjur|ng |doas ||ko tromondous mag|c. lt
doos not a||ow |ts co|ossa| oporat|ng systom to bo probod by consc|ous cogn|t|on. 1ho bra|n runs |ts show |ncogn|to.
3o who, oxact|y, dosorvos tho acc|a|m tor a groat |doa? ln 1802, tho 3cott|sh mathomat|c|an 1amos C|ork Vaxwo|| dovo|opod a sot ot
tundamonta| oquat|ons that un|t|od o|octr|c|ty and magnot|sm. On h|s doathbod, ho coughod up a strango sort ot contoss|on, doc|ar|ng that
°somoth|ng w|th|n h|m' d|scovorod tho tamous oquat|ons, not ho. |o adm|ttod ho had no |doa how |doas actua||y camo to h|m-thoy s|mp|y camo to
h|m. W||||am 3|ako ro|atod a s|m||ar oxpor|onco, roport|ng ot h|s |ong narrat|vo poom Vl|too: °l havo wr|tton th|s poom trom |mmod|ato d|ctat|on
two|vo or somot|mos twonty ||nos at a t|mo w|thout promod|tat|on and ovon aga|nst my w|||.' 1ohann Wo|tgang von Gootho c|a|mod to havo wr|tton
h|s novo||a 7bo 5orrows oí Yooog ¼ortbor w|th pract|ca||y no consc|ous |nput, as though ho woro ho|d|ng a pon that movod on |ts own.
And cons|dor tho 3r|t|sh poot 3amuo| 1ay|or Co|or|dgo. |o bogan us|ng op|um |n 1700, or|g|na||y tor ro||ot trom tho pa|n ot toothachos and tac|a|
noura|g|a-but soon ho was |rrovors|b|y hookod, sw|gg|ng as much as two quarts ot |audanum oach wook. ||s poom °Kub|a Khan,' w|th |ts oxot|c
and droamy |magory, was wr|tton on an op|um h|gh that ho doscr|bod as °a k|nd ot a rovor|o.' |or h|m, tho op|um bocamo a way to tap |nto h|s
subconsc|ous noura| c|rcu|ts. Wo crod|t tho boaut|tu| words ot °Kub|a Khan' to Co|or|dgo bocauso thoy camo trom bls bra|n and no o|so's, r|ght?
3ut ho cou|dn't got ho|d ot thoso words wh||o sobor, so who oxact|y doos tho crod|t tor tho poom bo|ong to?
As Car| 1ung put |t, °ln oach ot us thoro |s anothor whom wo do not know.' As l|nk ||oyd put |t, °1horo's somoono |n my hoad, but |t's not mo.'
¯ ¯ ¯

A|most tho ont|roty ot what happons |n your monta| ||to |s not undor your consc|ous contro|, and tho truth |s that |t's bottor th|s way. Consc|ousnoss
can tako a|| tho crod|t |t wants, but |t |s bost |ott at tho s|do||nos tor most ot tho doc|s|on mak|ng that cranks a|ong |n your bra|n. Whon |t modd|os |n
dota||s |t doosn't undorstand, tho oporat|on runs |oss ottoct|vo|y. Onco you bog|n do||borat|ng about whoro your t|ngors aro jump|ng on tho p|ano
koyboard, you can no |ongor pu|| ott tho p|oco.
1o domonstrato tho |ntortoronco ot consc|ousnoss as a party tr|ck, hand a tr|ond two dry oraso markors-ono |n oach hand-and ask hor to s|gn
hor namo w|th hor r|ght hand at tho samo t|mo that sho's s|gn|ng |t backward (m|rror rovorsod) w|th hor |ott hand. 3ho w||| qu|ck|y d|scovor that thoro
|s on|y ono way sho can do |t: by oot th|nk|ng about |t. 3y oxc|ud|ng consc|ous |ntortoronco, hor hands can do tho comp|ox m|rror movomonts w|th no
prob|om-but |t sho th|nks about hor act|ons, tho job gots qu|ck|y tang|od |n a bramb|o ot stuttor|ng strokos.
3o consc|ousnoss |s bost |ott un|nv|tod trom most ot tho part|os. Whon |t doos got |nc|udod, |t's usua||y tho |ast ono to hoar tho |ntormat|on. 1ako
h|tt|ng a basoba||. On August 20, 1074, |n a gamo botwoon tho Ca||torn|a Ango|s and tho 0otro|t 1|gors, tho Ooloooss Book oí ¼or|o Rocoros
c|ockod lo|an lyan's tastba|| at 100.0 m||os por hour (44.7 motors por socond). lt you work tho numbors, you'|| soo that lyan's p|tch doparts tho
mound and crossos homo p|ato, s|xty-toot, s|x |nchos away, |n tour-tonths ot a socond. 1h|s g|vos just onough t|mo tor ||ght s|gna|s trom tho basoba||
to h|t tho battor's oyo, work through tho c|rcu|try ot tho rot|na, act|vato succoss|ons ot co||s a|ong tho |oopy suporh|ghways ot tho v|sua| systom at tho
back ot tho hoad, cross vast torr|tor|os to tho motor aroas, and mod|ty tho contract|on ot tho musc|os sw|ng|ng tho bat. Amaz|ng|y, th|s ont|ro
soquonco |s poss|b|o |n |oss than tour-tonths ot a socond, othorw|so no ono wou|d ovor h|t a tastba||. 3ut tho surpr|s|ng part |s that consc|ous
awaronoss takos |ongor than that: about ha|t a socond, as wo w||| soo |n Chaptor 2. 3o tho ba|| travo|s too rap|d|y tor battors to bo consc|ous|y
awaro ot |t. Ono doos not nood to bo consc|ous|y awaro to portorm soph|st|catod motor acts. You can not|co th|s whon you bog|n to duck trom a
snapp|ng troo branch botoro you aro awaro that |t's com|ng toward you, or whon you'ro a|roady jump|ng up whon you t|rst bocomo awaro ot tho
phono's r|ng.
1ho consc|ous m|nd |s not at tho contor ot tho act|on |n tho bra|n, |nstoad, |t |s tar out on a d|stant odgo, hoar|ng but wh|spors ot tho act|v|ty.
1EE uP5|DE OF DE1ERONENEN1

1ho omorg|ng undorstand|ng ot tho bra|n protound|y changos our v|ow ot ourso|vos, sh|tt|ng us trom an |ntu|t|vo sonso that wo aro at tho contor ot
tho oporat|ons to a moro soph|st|catod, |||um|nat|ng, and wondrous v|ow ot tho s|tuat|on. And |ndood, wo'vo soon th|s sort ot progross botoro.
On a starry n|ght |n oar|y 1anuary 1010, a 1uscan astronomor namod Ga|||oo Ga|||o| stayod up |ato, h|s oyo prossod aga|nst tho ond ot a tubo ho
had dos|gnod. 1ho tubo was a to|oscopo, and |t mado objocts appoar twonty t|mos |argor. On th|s n|ght, Ga|||oo obsorvod 1up|tor and saw what ho
thought woro throo t|xod stars noar |t, strung out on a ||no across tho p|anot. 1h|s tormat|on caught h|s attont|on, and ho roturnod to |t tho to||ow|ng
ovon|ng. Aga|nst h|s oxpoctat|ons, ho saw that a|| throo bod|os had movod w|th 1up|tor. 1hat d|dn't computo: stars don't dr|tt w|th p|anots. 3o
Ga|||oo roturnod h|s tocus to th|s tormat|on n|ght attor n|ght. 3y 1anuary 1b ho had crackod tho caso: thoso woro not t|xod stars but, rathor, p|anotary
bod|os that rovo|vod around 1up|tor. 1up|tor had moons.
W|th th|s obsorvat|on, tho co|ost|a| sphoros shattorod. Accord|ng to tho lto|oma|c thoory, thoro was on|y a s|ng|o contor-tho Earth-around
wh|ch ovoryth|ng rovo|vod. An a|tornat|vo |doa had boon proposod by Coporn|cus, |n wh|ch tho Earth wont around tho sun wh||o tho moon wont
around tho Earth-but th|s |doa soomod absurd to trad|t|ona| cosmo|og|sts bocauso |t roqu|rod two contors ot mot|on. 3ut horo, |n th|s qu|ot
1anuary momont, 1up|tor's moons gavo tost|mony to mu|t|p|o contors: |argo rocks tumb||ng |n orb|t oroooo tho g|ant p|anot cou|d not a|so bo part ot
tho surtaco ot co|ost|a| sphoros. 1ho lto|oma|c modo| |n wh|ch Earth sat at tho contor ot concontr|c orb|ts was smashod. 1ho book |n wh|ch Ga|||oo
doscr|bod h|s d|scovory, 5looroos Nooclos, ro||od ott tho pross |n von|co |n Varch 1010 and mado Ga|||oo tamous.
3|x months passod botoro othor stargazors cou|d bu||d |nstrumonts w|th sutt|c|ont qua||ty to obsorvo 1up|tor's moons. 3oon thoro was a major
rush on tho to|oscopo-mak|ng markot, and botoro |ong astronomors woro sproad|ng around tho p|anot to mako a dota||od map ot our p|aco |n tho
un|vorso. 1ho onsu|ng tour contur|os prov|dod an acco|orat|ng s||do trom tho contor, dopos|t|ng us t|rm|y as a spock |n tho v|s|b|o un|vorso, wh|ch
conta|ns b00 m||||on ga|axy groups, 10 b||||on |argo ga|ax|os, 100 b||||on dwart ga|ax|os, and 2,000 b||||on b||||on suns. (And tho v|s|b|o un|vorso,
somo 1b b||||on ||ght-yoars across, may bo a spock |n a tar |argor tota||ty that wo cannot yot soo.) lt |s no surpr|so that thoso aston|sh|ng numbors
|mp||od a rad|ca||y d|ttoront story about our ox|stonco than had boon prov|ous|y suggostod.
|or many, tho ta|| ot tho Earth trom tho contor ot tho un|vorso causod protound unoaso. lo |ongor cou|d tho Earth bo cons|dorod tho paragon ot
croat|on: |t was now a p|anot ||ko othor p|anots. 1h|s cha||ongo to author|ty roqu|rod a chango |n man's ph||osoph|ca| concopt|on ot tho un|vorso.
3omo two hundrod yoars |ator, 1ohann Wo|tgang von Gootho commomoratod tho |mmons|ty ot Ga|||oo's d|scovory:
Ot a|| d|scovor|os and op|n|ons, nono may havo oxortod a groator ottoct on tho human sp|r|t.. 1ho wor|d had scarco|y bocomo known as
round and comp|oto |n |tso|t whon |t was askod to wa|vo tho tromondous pr|v||ogo ot bo|ng tho contor ot tho un|vorso. lovor, porhaps, was a
groator domand mado on mank|nd-tor by th|s adm|ss|on so many th|ngs van|shod |n m|st and smoko! What bocamo ot our Edon, our wor|d
ot |nnoconco, p|oty and pootry, tho tost|mony ot tho sonsos, tho conv|ct|on ot a poot|c-ro||g|ous ta|th? lo wondor h|s contomporar|os d|d not
w|sh to |ot a|| th|s go and ottorod ovory poss|b|o ros|stanco to a doctr|no wh|ch |n |ts convorts author|zod and domandod a troodom ot v|ow and
groatnoss ot thought so tar unknown, |ndood not ovon droamod ot.

Ga|||oo's cr|t|cs docr|od h|s now thoory as a dothronomont ot man. And to||ow|ng tho shattor|ng ot tho co|ost|a| sphoros camo tho shattor|ng ot
Ga|||oo. ln 1088 ho was hau|od botoro tho Catho||c Church's lnqu|s|t|on, brokon ot sp|r|t |n a dungoon, and torcod to scraw| h|s aggr|ovod s|gnaturo
on an Earth-contorod rocantat|on ot h|s work.
2
Ga|||oo m|ght havo cons|dorod h|mso|t |ucky. Yoars oar||or, anothor lta||an, G|ordano 3runo, had a|so suggostod that Earth was not tho contor,
and |n |obruary 1000 ho was draggod |nto tho pub||c squaro tor h|s horos|os aga|nst tho Church. ||s captors, atra|d that ho m|ght |nc|to tho crowd
w|th h|s tamod o|oquonco, attachod an |ron mask to h|s taco to provont h|m trom spoak|ng. |o was burnod a||vo at tho stako, h|s oyos poor|ng trom
boh|nd tho mask at a crowd ot on|ookors who omorgod trom tho|r homos to gathor |n tho squaro, want|ng to bo at tho contor ot th|ngs.
Why was 3runo word|oss|y oxtorm|natod? |ow d|d a man w|th Ga|||oo's gon|us t|nd h|mso|t |n shack|os on a dungoon t|oor? Ev|dont|y, not
ovoryono approc|atos a rad|ca| sh|tt ot wor|dv|ow.
lt on|y thoy cou|d know whoro |t a|| |od! What humank|nd |ost |n corta|nty and ogocontr|sm has boon rop|acod by awo and wondor at our p|aco |n
tho cosmos. Evon |t ||to on othor p|anots |s torr|b|y un||ko|y-say tho odds aro |oss than ono |n a b||||on-wo can st||| oxpoct sovora| b||||on p|anots to
bo sprout|ng ||ko Ch|a lots w|th ||to. And |t thoro's on|y a ono-|n-a-m||||on chanco ot ||to-boar|ng p|anots produc|ng moan|ngtu| |ovo|s ot |nto|||gonco
(say, moro than spaco bactor|a), that wou|d st||| prod|ct sovora| m||||on g|obos w|th croaturos |ntorm|ng||ng |n un|mag|nab|y strango c|v|||zat|ons. ln
th|s way, tho ta|| trom tho contor oponod our m|nds to somoth|ng much |argor.
lt you t|nd spaco sc|onco tasc|nat|ng, strap |n tor what's happon|ng |n bra|n sc|onco: wo'vo boon knockod trom our porco|vod pos|t|on at tho
contor ot ourso|vos, and a much moro sp|ond|d un|vorso |s com|ng |nto tocus. ln th|s book wo'|| sa|| |nto that |nnor cosmos to |nvost|gato tho a||on
||to-torms.
F|R51 CL|NP5E5 |N1O 1EE VA51NE55 OF |NNER 5PACE

3a|nt 1homas Aqu|nas (122b-1274) ||kod to bo||ovo that human act|ons camo about trom do||borat|on about what |s good. 3ut ho cou|dn't ho|p
not|c|ng a|| tho th|ngs wo do that havo ||tt|o connoct|on w|th roasonod cons|dorat|on-such as h|ccup|ng, unconsc|ous|y tapp|ng a toot to a rhythm,
|augh|ng suddon|y at a joko, and so on. 1h|s was a b|t ot a st|ck|ng po|nt tor h|s thoorot|ca| tramowork, so ho ro|ogatod a|| such act|ons to a catogory
soparato trom propor human acts °s|nco thoy do not procood trom tho do||borat|on ot tho roason.'
8
ln dot|n|ng th|s oxtra catogory, ho p|antod tho
t|rst sood ot tho |doa ot an unconsc|ous.
lo ono watorod th|s sood tor tour hundrod yoars, unt|| tho po|ymath Gotttr|od W||ho|m lo|bn|z (1040-1710) proposod that tho m|nd |s a mo|d|ng
ot accoss|b|o and |naccoss|b|o parts. As a young man, lo|bn|z composod throo hundrod lat|n hoxamotors |n ono morn|ng. |o thon wont on to
|nvont ca|cu|us, tho b|nary numbor systom, sovora| now schoo|s ot ph||osophy, po||t|ca| thoor|os, goo|og|ca| hypothosos, tho bas|s ot |ntormat|on
tochno|ogy, an oquat|on tor k|not|c onorgy, and tho t|rst soods ot tho |doa tor sottwaro and hardwaro soparat|on.
4
W|th a|| ot thoso |doas pour|ng out
ot h|m, ho bogan to suspoct-||ko Vaxwo|| and 3|ako and Gootho-that thoro woro porhaps doopor, |naccoss|b|o cavorns |ns|do h|m.
lo|bn|z suggostod that thoro aro somo porcopt|ons ot wh|ch wo aro not awaro, and ho ca||od thoso °pot|to porcopt|ons.' An|ma|s havo
unconsc|ous porcopt|ons, ho conjocturod-so why can't human bo|ngs? A|though tho |og|c was spocu|at|vo, ho nonotho|oss sn|ttod out that
somoth|ng cr|t|ca| wou|d bo |ott out ot tho p|cturo |t wo d|dn't assumo somoth|ng ||ko an unconsc|ous. °lnsons|b|o porcopt|ons aro as |mportant to
[tho sc|onco ot tho human m|nd| as |nsons|b|o corpusc|os aro to natura| sc|onco,' ho conc|udod.
b
lo|bn|z wont on to suggost thoro woro str|v|ngs
and tondonc|os (°appot|t|ons') ot wh|ch wo aro a|so unconsc|ous but that can nonotho|oss dr|vo our act|ons. 1h|s was tho t|rst s|gn|t|cant oxpos|t|on
ot unconsc|ous urgos, and ho conjocturod that h|s |doa wou|d bo cr|t|ca| to oxp|a|n|ng why humans bohavo as thoy do.
|o onthus|ast|ca||y jottod th|s a|| down |n h|s NowEssoys oo lomoo Uooorstooolog, but tho book was not pub||shod unt|| 170b, a|most ha|t a
contury attor h|s doath. 1ho ossays c|ashod w|th tho En||ghtonmont not|on ot know|ng onoso|t, and so thoy |angu|shod unapproc|atod unt|| a|most a
contury |ator. 1ho sood sat dormant aga|n.
ln tho moant|mo, othor ovonts woro |ay|ng tho groundwork tor tho r|so ot psycho|ogy as an oxpor|monta|, mator|a| sc|onco. A 3cott|sh anatom|st
and thoo|og|an namod Char|os 3o|| (1774-1842) d|scovorod that norvos-tho t|no rad|at|ons trom tho sp|na| cord throughout tho body-woro not
a|| tho samo, but |nstoad cou|d bo d|v|dod |nto two d|ttoront k|nds: motor and sonsory. 1ho tormor carr|od |ntormat|on out trom tho command contor
ot tho bra|n, and tho |attor brought |ntormat|on back. 1h|s was tho t|rst major d|scovory ot a pattorn to tho bra|n's othorw|so mystor|ous structuro, and
|n tho hands ot subsoquont p|onoors th|s |od to a p|cturo ot tho bra|n as an organ bu||t w|th dota||od organ|zat|on |nstoad ot shadowy un|torm|ty.
ldont|ty|ng th|s sort ot |og|c |n an othorw|so batt||ng throo-pound b|ock ot t|ssuo was h|gh|y oncourag|ng, and |n 1824 a Gorman ph||osophor and
psycho|og|st namod 1ohann |r|odr|ch |orbart proposod that looos tbomso|vos m|ght bo undorstood |n a structurod mathomat|ca| tramowork: an
|doa cou|d bo opposod by an oppos|to |doa, thus woakon|ng tho or|g|na| |doa and caus|ng |t to s|nk bo|ow a throsho|d ot awaronoss.
0
ln contrast,
|doas that sharod a s|m||ar|ty cou|d support oach othor's r|so |nto awaronoss. As a now |doa c||mbod, |t pu||od othor s|m||ar onos w|th |t. |orbart
co|nod tho torm °apporcopt|vo mass' to |nd|cato that an |doa bocomos consc|ous not |n |so|at|on, but on|y |n ass|m||at|on w|th a comp|ox ot othor
|doas a|roady |n consc|ousnoss. ln th|s way, |orbart |ntroducod a koy concopt: thoro ox|sts a booooory botwoon consc|ous and unconsc|ous
thoughts, wo bocomo awaro ot somo |doas and not ot othors.
Aga|nst th|s backdrop, a Gorman phys|c|an namod Ernst |o|nr|ch Wobor (170b-1878) grow |ntorostod |n br|ng|ng tho r|gor ot phys|cs to tho
study ot tho m|nd. ||s now t|o|d ot °psychophys|cs' a|mod to quant|ty what poop|o can dotoct, how tast thoy can roact, and what proc|so|y thoy
porco|vo.
7
|or tho t|rst t|mo, porcopt|ons bogan to bo moasurod w|th sc|ont|t|c r|gor, and surpr|sos bogan to |oak out. |or oxamp|o, |t soomod
obv|ous that your sonsos g|vo you an accurato roprosontat|on ot tho outs|do wor|d-but by 1888 a Gorman phys|o|og|st namod 1ohannos lotor
Vü||or (1801-18b8) had not|cod somoth|ng puzz||ng. lt ho shono ||ght |n tho oyo, put prossuro on tho oyo, or o|octr|ca||y st|mu|atod tho norvos ot tho
oyo, a|| ot thoso |od to s|m||ar sonsat|ons ot v|s|on-that |s, a sonsat|on ot |lgbt rathor than ot prossuro or o|octr|c|ty. 1h|s suggostod to h|m that wo
aro not d|roct|y awaro ot tho outs|do wor|d, but |nstoad on|y ot tho s|gna|s |n tho norvous systom.
8
ln othor words, whon tho norvous systom to||s you
that somoth|ng |s °out thoro'-such as a ||ght-that |s what you w||| bo||ovo, |rrospoct|vo ot how tho s|gna|s got thoro.
1ho stago had now boon sot tor poop|o to cons|dor tho phys|ca| bra|n as hav|ng a ro|at|onsh|p w|th porcopt|on. ln 1880, yoars attor both Wobor
and Vü||or had d|od, an Amor|can namod 1amos VcKoon Catto|| pub||shod a papor ont|t|od °1ho t|mo takon up by corobra| oporat|ons.'
0
1ho
punch ||no ot h|s papor was docopt|vo|y s|mp|o: how qu|ck|y you can roact to a quost|on doponds on tho typo ot th|nk|ng you havo to do. lt you s|mp|y
havo to rospond that you'vo soon a t|ash or a bang, you can do so qu|to rap|d|y (100 m||||soconds tor t|ashos and 100 m||||soconds tor bangs). 3ut |t
you havo to mako a cho|co (°to|| mo whothor you saw a rod t|ash or a groon t|ash'), |t takos somo tons ot m||||soconds |ongor. And |t you havo to
namo what you just saw (°l saw a b|uo t|ash'), |t takos |ongor st|||.
Catto||'s s|mp|o moasuromonts drow tho attont|on ot a|most no ono on tho p|anot, and yot thoy woro tho rumb||ngs ot a parad|gm sh|tt. W|th tho
dawn|ng ot tho |ndustr|a| ago, |nto||octua|s woro th|nk|ng about mocbloos. 1ust as poop|o app|y tho computor motaphor now, tho mach|no motaphor
pormoatod popu|ar thought thon. 3y th|s po|nt, tho |ator part ot tho n|notoonth contury, advancos |n b|o|ogy had comtortab|y attr|butod many aspocts
ot bohav|or to tho mach|no||ko oporat|ons ot tho norvous systom. 3|o|og|sts know that |t took t|mo tor s|gna|s to bo procossod |n tho oyos, travo|
a|ong tho axons connoct|ng thom to tho tha|amus, thon r|do tho norvo h|ghways to tho cortox, and t|na||y bocomo part ot tho pattorn ot procoss|ng
throughout tho bra|n.
7bloklog, howovor, cont|nuod to bo w|do|y cons|dorod as somoth|ng d|ttoront. lt d|d not soom to ar|so trom mator|a| procossos, but |nstoad to||
undor tho spoc|a| catogory ot tho monta| (or, otton, tho sp|r|tua|). Catto||'s approach controntod tho th|nk|ng prob|om hoad-on. 3y |oav|ng tho st|mu||
tho samo but chang|ng tho task (oowmoko socb-ooo-socb typo oí ooclsloo), ho cou|d moasuro how much |ongor |t took tor tho doc|s|on to got
mado. 1hat |s, ho cou|d moasuro tbloklog tlmo, and ho proposod th|s as a stra|ghttorward way to ostab||sh a corrospondonco botwoon tho bra|n
and tho m|nd. |o wroto that th|s sort ot s|mp|o oxpor|mont br|ngs °tho strongost tost|mony wo havo to tho comp|oto para||o||sm ot phys|ca| and
monta| phonomona, thoro |s scarco|y any doubt but that our dotorm|nat|ons moasuro at onco tho rato ot chango |n tho bra|n and ot chango |n
consc|ousnoss.'
10
W|th|n tho n|notoonth-contury zo|tgo|st, tho t|nd|ng that th|nk|ng takos t|mo strossod tho p|||ars ot tho th|nk|ng-|s-|mmator|a| parad|gm. lt |nd|catod
that th|nk|ng, ||ko othor aspocts ot bohav|or, was not tromondous mag|c-but |nstoad had a mochan|ca| bas|s.

Cou|d th|nk|ng bo oquatod w|th tho procoss|ng dono by tho norvous systom? Cou|d tho m|nd bo ||ko a mach|no? |ow poop|o pa|d moan|ngtu|
attont|on to th|s nascont |doa, |nstoad, most cont|nuod to |ntu|t that tho|r monta| oporat|ons appoarod |mmod|ato|y at tho|r bohost. 3ut tor ono
porson, th|s s|mp|o |doa changod ovoryth|ng.
NE, NY5ELF, AND 1EE |CEBERC

At tho samo t|mo that Char|os 0arw|n was pub||sh|ng h|s rovo|ut|onary book 7bo Orlglo oí 5poclos, a throo-yoar-o|d boy trom Vorav|a was mov|ng
w|th h|s tam||y to v|onna. 1h|s boy, 3|gmund |roud, wou|d grow up w|th a brand-now 0arw|n|an wor|dv|ow |n wh|ch man was no d|ttoront trom any
othor ||to-torm, and tho sc|ont|t|c spot||ght cou|d bo cast on tho comp|ox tabr|c ot human bohav|or.
1ho young |roud wont to mod|ca| schoo|, drawn thoro moro by sc|ont|t|c rosoarch than c||n|ca| app||cat|on. |o spoc|a||zod |n nouro|ogy and soon
oponod a pr|vato pract|co |n tho troatmont ot psycho|og|ca| d|sordors. 3y carotu||y oxam|n|ng h|s pat|onts, |roud camo to suspoct that tho var|ot|os
ot human bohav|or woro oxp||cab|o on|y |n torms ot unsoon monta| procossos, tho mach|nory runn|ng th|ngs boh|nd tho sconos. |roud not|cod that
otton w|th thoso pat|onts thoro was noth|ng obv|ous |n tho|r consc|ous m|nds dr|v|ng tho|r bohav|or, and so, g|von tho now, mach|no||ko v|ow ot tho
bra|n, ho conc|udod that thoro must bo undor|y|ng causos that woro h|ddon trom accoss. ln th|s now v|ow, tho m|nd was not s|mp|y oqua| to tho
consc|ous part wo tam|||ar|y ||vo w|th, rathor |t was ||ko an |coborg, tho major|ty ot |ts mass h|ddon trom s|ght.
1h|s s|mp|o |doa transtormod psych|atry. lrov|ous|y, aborrant monta| procossos woro |noxp||cab|o un|oss ono attr|butod thom to woak w|||,
domon possoss|on, and so on. |roud |ns|stod on sook|ng tho causo |n tho phys|ca| bra|n. 3ocauso |roud ||vod many docados botoro modorn bra|n
tochno|og|os, h|s bost approach was to gathor data trom tho °outs|do' ot tho systom: by ta|k|ng to pat|onts and try|ng to |ntor tho|r bra|n statos trom
tho|r monta| statos. |rom th|s vantago, ho pa|d c|oso attont|on to tho |ntormat|on conta|nod |n s||ps ot tho tonguo, m|stakos ot tho pon, bohav|ora|
pattorns, and tho contont ot droams. A|| ot thoso ho hypothos|zod to bo tho product ot h|ddon noura| mochan|sms, mach|nory to wh|ch tho subjoct
had no d|roct accoss. 3y oxam|n|ng tho bohav|ors pok|ng abovo tho surtaco, |roud to|t cont|dont that ho cou|d got a sonso ot what was |urk|ng
bo|ow.
11
1ho moro ho cons|dorod tho spark|o trom tho |coborg's t|p, tho moro ho approc|atod |ts dopth-and how tho h|ddon mass m|ght oxp|a|n
somoth|ng about poop|o's thoughts, droams, and urgos.
App|y|ng th|s concopt, |roud's montor and tr|ond 1osot 3rouor dovo|opod what appoarod to bo a succosstu| stratogy tor ho|p|ng hystor|ca|
pat|onts: ask thom to ta|k, w|thout |nh|b|t|on, about tho oar||ost occurroncos ot tho|r symptoms.
12
|roud oxpandod tho tochn|quo to othor nourosos,
and suggostod that a pat|ont's bur|od traumat|c oxpor|oncos cou|d bo tho h|ddon bas|s ot tho|r phob|as, hystor|ca| para|ys|s, parano|as, and so on.
1hoso prob|oms, ho guossod, woro h|ddon trom tho consc|ous m|nd. 1ho so|ut|on was to draw thom up to tho |ovo| ot consc|ousnoss so thoy cou|d
bo d|roct|y controntod and wrung ot tho|r nouros|s-caus|ng powor. 1h|s approach sorvod as tho bas|s tor psychoana|ys|s tor tho noxt contury.
Wh||o tho popu|ar|ty and dota||s ot psychoana|ys|s havo changod qu|to a b|t, |roud's bas|c |doa prov|dod tho t|rst oxp|orat|on ot tho way |n wh|ch
h|ddon statos ot tho bra|n part|c|pato |n dr|v|ng thought and bohav|or. |roud and 3rouor jo|nt|y pub||shod tho|r work |n 180b, but 3rouor grow
|ncroas|ng|y d|sonchantod w|th |roud's omphas|s on tho soxua| or|g|ns ot unconsc|ous thoughts, and ovontua||y tho two partod ways. |roud wont on
to pub||sh h|s major oxp|orat|on ot tho unconsc|ous, 7bo lotorprototloo oí Lrooms, |n wh|ch ho ana|yzod h|s own omot|ona| cr|s|s and tho sor|os ot
droams tr|ggorod by h|s tathor's doath. ||s so|t-ana|ys|s a||owod h|m to rovoa| unoxpoctod too||ngs about h|s tathor-tor oxamp|o, that h|s
adm|rat|on was m|xod w|th hato and shamo. 1h|s sonso ot tho vast prosonco bo|ow tho surtaco |od h|m to chow on tho quost|on ot troo w|||. |o
roasonod that |t cho|cos and doc|s|ons dor|vo trom h|ddon monta| procossos, thon troo cho|co |s o|thor an |||us|on or, at m|n|mum, moro t|ght|y
constra|nod than prov|ous|y cons|dorod.
3y tho m|dd|o ot tho twont|oth contury, th|nkors bogan to approc|ato that wo know ourso|vos vory ||tt|o. Wo aro not at tho contor ot ourso|vos, but
|nstoad-||ko tho Earth |n tho V||ky Way, and tho V||ky Way |n tho un|vorso-tar out on a d|stant odgo, hoar|ng ||tt|o ot what |s transp|r|ng.


|roud's |ntu|t|on about tho unconsc|ous bra|n was spot-on, but ho ||vod docados botoro tho modorn b|ossom|ng ot nourosc|onco. Wo can now poor
|nto tho human cran|um at many |ovo|s, trom o|octr|ca| sp|kos |n s|ng|o co||s to pattorns ot act|vat|on that travorso tho vast torr|tor|os ot tho bra|n. Our
modorn tochno|ogy has shapod and tocusod our p|cturo ot tho |nnor cosmos, and |n tho to||ow|ng chaptors wo w||| travo| togothor |nto |ts unoxpoctod
torr|tor|os.
|ow |s |t poss|b|o to got angry at yourso|t: who, oxact|y, |s mad at whom? Why do rocks appoar to c||mb upward attor you staro at a watorta||?
Why d|d 3upromo Court 1ust|co W||||am 0oug|as c|a|m that ho was ab|o to p|ay tootba|| and go h|k|ng, whon ovoryono cou|d soo that ho was
para|yzod attor a stroko? Why was 1opsy tho o|ophant o|octrocutod by 1homas Ed|son |n 1010? Why do poop|o |ovo to storo tho|r monoy |n
Chr|stmas accounts that oarn no |ntorost? lt tho drunk Vo| G|bson |s an ant|-3om|to and tho sobor Vo| G|bson |s authont|ca||y apo|ogot|c, |s thoro a
roa| Vo| G|bson? What do U|yssos and tho subpr|mo mortgago mo|tdown havo |n common? Why do str|ppors mako moro monoy at corta|n t|mos
ot month? Why aro poop|o whoso namo bog|ns w|th 1 moro ||ko|y to marry othor poop|o whoso namo bog|ns w|th 1? Why aro wo so tomptod to to||
a socrot? Aro somo marr|ago partnors moro ||ko|y to choat? Why do pat|onts on lark|nson's mod|cat|ons bocomo compu|s|vo gamb|ors? Why d|d
Char|os Wh|tman, a h|gh-lO bank to||or and tormor Eag|o 3cout, suddon|y doc|do to shoot torty-o|ght poop|o trom tho Un|vors|ty ot 1oxas 1owor |n
Aust|n?
What doos a|| th|s havo to do w|th tho boh|nd-tho-sconos oporat|ons ot tho bra|n?
As wo aro about to soo, ovoryth|ng.
1ho 1oatimony ot tho 5onaoa: What |a Exµorionco Liko?

DECON51RuC1|NC EXPER|ENCE

Ono attornoon |n tho |ato 1800s, tho phys|c|st and ph||osophor Ernst Vach took a carotu| |ook at somo un|torm|y co|orod str|ps ot papor p|acod noxt
to oach othor. 3o|ng |ntorostod |n quost|ons ot porcopt|on, ho was g|von pauso by somoth|ng: tho str|ps d|d not |ook qu|to r|ght. 3omoth|ng was
am|ss. |o soparatod tho str|ps, |ookod at thom |nd|v|dua||y, and thon put thom back togothor. |o t|na||y roa||zod what was go|ng on: a|though oach
str|p |n |so|at|on was un|torm |n co|or, whon thoy woro p|acod s|do by s|do oach appoarod to havo a grad|ont ot shad|ng: s||ght|y ||ghtor on tho |ott
s|do, and s||ght|y darkor on tho r|ght. (1o provo to yourso|t that oach str|p |n tho t|guro |s |n tact un|torm |n br|ghtnoss, covor up a|| but ono.)
1

Vach bands.

low that you aro awaro ot th|s |||us|on ot °Vach bands,' you'|| not|co |t o|sowhoro-tor oxamp|o, at tho cornor whoro two wa||s moot, tho ||ght|ng
d|ttoroncos otton mako |t appoar that tho pa|nt |s ||ghtor or darkor r|ght noxt to tho cornor. lrosumab|y, ovon though tho porcoptua| tact was |n tront
ot you th|s ont|ro t|mo, you havo m|ssod |t unt|| now. ln tho samo way, lona|ssanco pa|ntors not|cod at somo po|nt that d|stant mounta|ns appoarod
to bo t|ntod a b|t b|uo-and onco th|s was ca||od out, thoy bogan to pa|nt thom that way. 3ut tho ont|ro h|story ot art up to that po|nt had m|ssod |t
ont|ro|y, ovon though tho data was unh|ddon |n tront ot thom. Why do wo ta|| to porco|vo thoso obv|ous th|ngs? Aro wo roa||y such poor obsorvors ot
our own oxpor|oncos?
Yos. Wo aro astound|ng|y poor obsorvors. And our |ntrospoct|on |s uso|oss on thoso |ssuos: wo bo||ovo wo'ro soo|ng tho wor|d just t|no unt|| |t's
ca||od to our attont|on that wo'ro not. Wo w||| go through a procoss ot |oarn|ng to obsorvo our oxpor|onco, just as Vach carotu||y obsorvod tho
shad|ng ot tho str|ps. What |s our consc|ous oxpor|onco ||ko, and what |s |t not ||ko?
¯ ¯ ¯

lntu|t|on suggosts that you opon your oyos and vo||a: thoro's tho wor|d, w|th a|| |ts boaut|tu| rods and go|ds, dogs and tax|cabs, bust||ng c|t|os and
t|or|torous |andscapos. v|s|on appoars ottort|oss and, w|th m|nor oxcopt|ons, accurato. 1horo |s ||tt|o |mportant d|ttoronco, |t m|ght soom, botwoon
your oyos and a h|gh-roso|ut|on d|g|ta| v|doo camora. |or that mattor, your oars soom ||ko compact m|crophonos that accurato|y rocord tho sounds
ot tho wor|d, and your t|ngort|ps appoar to dotoct tho throo-d|mons|ona| shapo ot objocts |n tho outs|do wor|d. What |ntu|t|on suggosts |s doad
wrong. 3o |ot's soo what's roa||y happon|ng.
Cons|dor what happons whon you movo your arm. Your bra|n doponds on thousands ot norvo t|bors rog|stor|ng statos ot contract|on and
strotch|ng-and yot you porco|vo no h|nt ot that ||ghtn|ng storm ot noura| act|v|ty. You aro s|mp|y awaro that your ||mb movod and that |t |s
somowhoro o|so now. 3|r Char|os 3horr|ngton, an oar|y nourosc|onco p|onoor, spont somo t|mo trott|ng about th|s tact dur|ng tho m|dd|o ot tho |ast
contury. |o was awostruck by tho |ack ot awaronoss about tho vast mochan|cs undor tho surtaco. Attor a||, dosp|to h|s cons|dorab|o oxport|so w|th
norvos, musc|os, and tondons, ho notod that whon ho wont to p|ck up a p|oco ot papor, °l havo no awaronoss ot tho musc|os as such at a||.. l
oxocuto tho movomont r|ght|y and w|thout d|tt|cu|ty.'
2
|o roasonod that |t ho woro not a nourosc|ont|st |t wou|d not havo occurrod to h|m to suspoct
tho ox|stonco ot norvos, musc|os, and tondons. 1h|s |ntr|guod 3horr|ngton, and ho t|na||y |ntorrod that h|s oxpor|onco ot mov|ng h|s arm was °a
monta| product.. dor|vod trom o|omonts wh|ch aro not oxpor|oncod as such and yot . tho m|nd usos thom |n produc|ng tho porcopt.' ln othor
words, tho storm ot norvo and musc|o act|v|ty |s rog|storod by tho bra|n, but what |s sorvod up to your awaronoss |s somoth|ng qu|to d|ttoront.
1o undorstand th|s, |ot's roturn to tho tramowork ot consc|ousnoss as a nat|ona| nowspapor. 1ho job ot a hoad||no |s to g|vo a t|ght|y comprossod
summary. ln tho samo mannor, consc|ousnoss |s a way ot projoct|ng a|| tho act|v|ty |n your norvous systom |nto a s|mp|or torm. 1ho b||||ons ot
spoc|a||zod mochan|sms oporato bo|ow tho radar-somo co||oct|ng sonsory data, somo sond|ng out motor programs, and tho major|ty do|ng tho
ma|n tasks ot tho noura| worktorco: comb|n|ng |ntormat|on, mak|ng prod|ct|ons about what |s com|ng noxt, mak|ng doc|s|ons about what to do now.
ln tho taco ot th|s comp|ox|ty, consc|ousnoss g|vos you a summary that |s usotu| tor tho |argor p|cturo, usotu| at tho sca|o ot app|os and r|vors and
humans w|th whom you m|ght bo ab|o to mato.
OPEN|NC YOuR EYE5


1ho act ot °soo|ng' appoars so natura| that |t |s d|tt|cu|t to approc|ato tho vast|y soph|st|catod mach|nory undor|y|ng tho procoss. lt may como as a
surpr|so that about ono-th|rd ot tho human bra|n |s dovotod to v|s|on. 1ho bra|n has to portorm an onormous amount ot work to unamb|guous|y
|ntorprot tho b||||ons ot photons stroam|ng |nto tho oyos. 3tr|ct|y spoak|ng, a|| v|sua| sconos aro amb|guous: tor oxamp|o, tho |mago to tho r|ght can
bo causod by tho 1owor ot l|sa at a d|stanco ot t|vo hundrod yards, or a toy modo| ot tho towor at arm's |ongth: both cast tho |dont|ca| |mago on
your oyos. Your bra|n goos through a good doa| ot troub|o to d|samb|guato tho |ntormat|on h|tt|ng your oyos by tak|ng contoxt |nto account, mak|ng
assumpt|ons, and us|ng tr|cks that wo'|| |oarn about |n a momont. 3ut a|| th|s doosn't happon ottort|oss|y, as domonstratod by pat|onts who surg|ca||y
rocovor tho|r oyos|ght attor docados ot b||ndnoss: thoy do not suddon|y soo tho wor|d, but |nstoad must |ooro to soo aga|n.
8
At t|rst tho wor|d |s a
buzz|ng, jang||ng barrago ot shapos and co|ors, and ovon whon tho opt|cs ot tho|r oyos aro portoct|y tunct|ona|, tho|r bra|n must |oarn how to
|ntorprot tho data com|ng |n.
|or thoso ot us w|th a ||tot|mo ot s|ght, tho bost way to approc|ato tho tact that v|s|on |s a construct|on |s by not|c|ng how otton our v|sua| systoms
got |t wrong. v|sua| |||us|ons ox|st at tho odgos ot what our systom has ovo|vod to hand|o, and as such thoy sorvo as a powortu| w|ndow |nto tho
bra|n.
4
1horo |s somo d|tt|cu|ty |n r|gorous|y dot|n|ng °|||us|on,' as thoro |s a sonso |n wh|ch a|| ot v|s|on |s an |||us|on. 1ho roso|ut|on |n your por|phora|
v|s|on |s rough|y oqu|va|ont to |ook|ng through a trostod showor door, and yot you onjoy tho |||us|on ot soo|ng tho por|phory c|oar|y. 1h|s |s bocauso
ovorywhoro you a|m your contra| v|s|on appoars to bo |n sharp tocus. 1o dr|vo th|s po|nt homo, try th|s domonstrat|on: havo a tr|ond ho|d a handtu| ot
co|orod markors or h|gh||ghtors out to h|s s|do. Koop your gazo t|xod on h|s noso, and now try to namo tho ordor ot tho co|ors |n h|s hand. 1ho
rosu|ts aro surpr|s|ng: ovon |t you'ro ab|o to roport that thoro aro somo co|ors |n your por|phory, you won't bo ab|o to accurato|y dotorm|no tho|r
ordor. Your por|phora| v|s|on |s tar worso than you wou|d havo ovor |ntu|tod, bocauso undor typ|ca| c|rcumstancos your bra|n |ovoragos tho oyo
musc|os to po|nt your h|gh-roso|ut|on contra| v|s|on d|roct|y toward tho th|ngs you'ro |ntorostod |n. Whorovor you cast your oyos appoars to bo |n
sharp tocus, and thorotoro you assumo tho who|o v|sua| wor|d |s |n tocus.
¯
1hat's just tho bog|nn|ng. Cons|dor tho tact that wo aro not awaro ot tho booooorlos ot our v|sua| t|o|d. 3taro at a po|nt on tho wa|| d|roct|y |n tront
ot you, strotch your arm out, and w|gg|o your t|ngors. low movo your hand s|ow|y back toward your oar. At somo po|nt you can no |ongor soo your
t|ngors. low movo |t torward aga|n and you can soo thom. You'ro cross|ng tho odgo ot your v|sua| t|o|d. Aga|n, bocauso you can a|ways a|m your
oyos whorovor you'ro |ntorostod, you'ro norma||y not tho |oast b|t awaro that thoro aro boundar|os boyond wh|ch you havo no v|s|on. lt |s |ntorost|ng
to cons|dor that tho major|ty ot human bo|ngs ||vo tho|r who|o ||vos unawaro that thoy aro on|y soo|ng a ||m|tod cono ot v|s|on at any momont.
As wo d|vo turthor |nto v|s|on, |t bocomos c|oar that your bra|n can sorvo up tota||y conv|nc|ng porcopt|ons |t you s|mp|y put tho r|ght koys |n tho
r|ght |ocks. 1ako tho porcopt|on ot dopth. Your two oyos aro sot a tow |nchos apart, and as a rosu|t thoy roco|vo s||ght|y d|ttoront |magos ot tho
wor|d. 0omonstrato th|s to yourso|t by tak|ng two photographs trom a tow |nchos apart, and thon putt|ng thom s|do by s|do. low cross your oyos so
that tho two photos morgo |nto a th|rd, and a p|cturo w||| omorgo lo ooptb. You w||| gonu|no|y oxpor|onco tho dopth, you can't shako tho porcopt|on.
1ho |mposs|b|o not|on ot dopth ar|s|ng trom a t|at |mago d|vu|gos tho mochan|ca|, automat|c naturo ot tho computat|ons |n tho v|sua| systom: tood |t
tho r|ght |nputs and |t w||| construct a r|ch wor|d tor you.

Cross your oyos: tho two |magos tood your bra|n tho |||usory s|gna| ot dopth.

Ono ot tho most porvas|vo m|stakos |s to bo||ovo that our v|sua| systom g|vos a ta|thtu| roprosontat|on ot what |s °out thoro' |n tho samo way that a
mov|o camora wou|d. 3omo s|mp|o domonstrat|ons can qu|ck|y d|sabuso you ot th|s not|on. ln tho t|guro bo|ow, two p|cturos aro shown.

Chango b||ndnoss.

What |s tho d|ttoronco botwoon thom? 0|tt|cu|t to to||, |sn't |t? ln a dynam|c vors|on ot th|s tost, tho two |magos aro a|tornatod (say, oach |mago
shown tor ha|t a socond, w|th a tonth ot a socond b|ank por|od |n botwoon). And |t turns out wo aro b||nd to shock|ng|y |argo changos |n tho scono. A
|argo box m|ght bo prosont |n ono photo and not tho othor, or a joop, or an a|rp|ano ong|no-and tho d|ttoronco goos unsoon. Our attont|on s|ow|y
craw|s tho scono, ana|yz|ng |ntorost|ng |andmarks unt|| |t t|na||y dotocts what |s chang|ng.
¯¯
Onco tho bra|n has |atchod onto tho appropr|ato objoct,
tho chango |s oasy to soo-but th|s happons on|y attor oxhaust|vo |nspoct|on. 1h|s °chango b||ndnoss' h|gh||ghts tho |mportanco ot attont|on: to soo
an objoct chango, you must attond to |t.
b
You aro not soo|ng tho wor|d |n tho r|ch dota|| that you |mp||c|t|y bo||ovod you woro, |n tact, you aro not awaro ot most ot what h|ts your oyos.
lmag|no you'ro watch|ng a short t||m w|th a s|ng|o actor |n |t. |o |s cook|ng an omo|ot. 1ho camora cuts to a d|ttoront ang|o as tho actor cont|nuos
h|s cook|ng. 3uro|y you wou|d not|co |t tho actor changod |nto a d|ttoront porsoo, r|ght? 1wo-th|rds ot obsorvors don't.
0
ln ono aston|sh|ng domonstrat|on ot chango b||ndnoss, random podostr|ans |n a courtyard woro stoppod by an oxpor|montor and askod tor
d|roct|ons. At somo po|nt, as tho unsuspoct|ng subjoct was |n tho m|dd|o ot oxp|a|n|ng tho d|roct|ons, workmon carry|ng a door wa|kod rudo|y r|ght
botwoon tho two poop|o. Unboknownst to tho subjoct, tho oxpor|montor was stoa|th||y rop|acod by a contodorato who had boon h|d|ng boh|nd tho
door as |t was carr|od: attor tho door passod, a now porson was stand|ng thoro. 1ho major|ty ot subjocts cont|nuod g|v|ng d|roct|ons w|thout
not|c|ng that tho porson was not tho samo as tho or|g|na| ono thoy woro ta|k|ng w|th.
7
ln othor words, thoy woro on|y oncod|ng sma|| amounts ot tho
|ntormat|on h|tt|ng tho|r oyos. 1ho rost was assumpt|on.

lourosc|ont|sts woron't tho t|rst to d|scovor that p|ac|ng your oyos on somoth|ng |s no guarantoo ot soo|ng |t. Vag|c|ans t|gurod th|s out |ong ago,
and portoctod ways ot |ovorag|ng th|s know|odgo.
8
3y d|roct|ng your attont|on, mag|c|ans portorm s|o|ght ot hand |n tu|| v|ow. 1ho|r act|ons sboo|o
g|vo away tho gamo-but thoy can rost assurod that your bra|n procossos on|y sma|| b|ts ot tho v|sua| scono, not ovoryth|ng that h|ts your rot|nas.
1h|s tact ho|ps to oxp|a|n tho co|ossa| numbor ot tratt|c acc|donts |n wh|ch dr|vors h|t podostr|ans |n p|a|n v|ow, co|||do w|th cars d|roct|y |n tront ot
thom, and ovon |ntorsoct un|uck||y w|th tra|ns. ln many ot thoso casos, tho oyos aro |n tho r|ght p|aco, but tho bra|n |sn't soo|ng tho st|mu||. v|s|on |s
moro than |ook|ng. 1h|s a|so oxp|a|ns why you probab|y m|ssod tho tact that tho word °ot' |s pr|ntod tw|co |n tho tr|ang|o abovo.
1ho |ossons horo aro s|mp|o, but thoy aro not obv|ous, ovon to bra|n sc|ont|sts. |or docados, v|s|on rosoarchors barkod up tho wrong troo by
try|ng to t|guro out how tho v|sua| bra|n roconstructod a tu|| throo-d|mons|ona| roprosontat|on ot tho outs|do wor|d. On|y s|ow|y d|d |t bocomo c|oar
that tho bra|n doosn't actua||y uso a 8-0 modo|-|nstoad, |t bu||ds up somoth|ng ||ko a 2/-0 skotcb at bost.
0
1ho bra|n doosn't nood a tu|| modo| ot
tho wor|d bocauso |t moro|y noods to t|guro out, on tho t|y, whoro to |ook, and whon.
10
|or oxamp|o, your bra|n doosn't nood to oncodo a|| tho dota||s
ot tho cottoo shop you'ro |n, |t on|y noods to know how and whoro to soarch whon |t wants somoth|ng |n part|cu|ar. Your |ntorna| modo| has somo
gonora| |doa that you'ro |n a cottoo shop, that thoro aro poop|o to your |ott, a wa|| to your r|ght, and that thoro aro sovora| |toms on tho tab|o. Whon
your partnor asks, °|ow many |umps ot sugar aro |ott?' your attont|ona| systoms |ntorrogato tho dota||s ot tho bow|, ass|m||at|ng now data |nto your
|ntorna| modo|. Evon though tho sugar bow| has boon |n your v|sua| t|o|d tho ont|ro t|mo, thoro was no roa| dota|| thoro tor your bra|n. lt noodod to do
oxtra work to t||| |n tho t|nor po|nts ot tho p|cturo.
3|m||ar|y, wo otton know ono toaturo about a st|mu|us wh||o s|mu|tanoous|y bo|ng unab|o to answor othors. 3ay l woro to ask you to |ook at tho
to||ow|ng and to|| mo what |t |s composod ot: ¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦. You wou|d corroct|y to|| mo |t |s composod ot vort|ca| ||nos. lt l woro to ask you bowmooy ||nos,
howovor, you wou|d bo stuck tor a wh||o. You can soo tbot thoro aro ||nos, but you cannot to|| mo bowmooy w|thout cons|dorab|o ottort. You can
know somo th|ngs about a scono w|thout know|ng othor aspocts ot |t, and you bocomo awaro ot what you'ro m|ss|ng on|y whon you'ro askod tho
quost|on.
What |s tho pos|t|on ot your tonguo |n your mouth? Onco you aro askod tho quost|on you can answor |t-but prosumab|y you woro not awaro ot
tho answor unt|| you askod yourso|t. 1ho bra|n gonora||y doos not nood to know most th|ngs, |t moro|y knows how to go out and rotr|ovo tho data. lt
computos on a oooo-to-koowbosls. You do not cont|nuous|y track tho pos|t|on ot your tonguo |n consc|ousnoss, bocauso that know|odgo |s usotu|
on|y |n raro c|rcumstancos.
ln tact, wo aro not consc|ous ot much ot anyth|ng unt|| wo ask ourso|vos about |t. What doos your |ott shoo too| ||ko on your toot r|ght now? What
p|tch |s tho hum ot tho a|r cond|t|onor |n tho background? As wo saw w|th chango b||ndnoss, wo aro unawaro ot most ot what shou|d bo obv|ous to
our sonsos, |t |s on|y attor dop|oy|ng our attont|ona| rosourcos onto sma|| b|ts ot tho scono that wo bocomo awaro ot what wo woro m|ss|ng. 3otoro
wo ongago our concontrat|on, wo aro typ|ca||y not awaro that wo aro not awaro ot thoso dota||s. 3o not on|y |s our porcopt|on ot tho wor|d a
construct|on that doos not accurato|y roprosont tho outs|do, but wo add|t|ona||y havo tho ta|so |mpross|on ot a tu||, r|ch p|cturo whon |n tact wo soo
on|y what wo nood to know, and no moro.
1ho mannor |n wh|ch tho bra|n |ntorrogatos tho wor|d to gathor moro dota||s was |nvost|gatod |n 1007 by tho luss|an psycho|og|st A|trod Yarbus.
|o moasurod tho oxact |ocat|ons that poop|o woro |ook|ng at by us|ng an oyo trackor, and askod h|s subjocts to gazo at l|ya lop|n's pa|nt|ng Ao
Uooxpoctoo Vlsltor (bo|ow).
11
1ho subjocts' task was s|mp|o: oxam|no tho pa|nt|ng. Or, |n a d|ttoront cond|t|on, surm|so what tho poop|o |n tho
pa|nt|ng had boon do|ng just botoro tho °unoxpoctod v|s|tor' camo |n. Or answor a quost|on about how woa|thy tho poop|o woro. Or tho|r agos. Or
how |ong tho unoxpoctod v|s|tor had boon away.

3|x rocords ot oyo movomonts trom tho samo subjoct. Each rocord |astod throo m|nutos.


1) |roo oxam|nat|on. 3otoro subsoquont rocord|ngs, tho subjoct was askod to: 2) ost|mato tho mator|a| c|rcumstancos ot tho tam||y,


8) g|vo tho agos ot tho poop|o, 4) surm|so what tho tam||y had boon do|ng botoro tho arr|va| ot tho °unoxpoctod v|s|tor',


b) romombor tho c|othos worn by tho poop|o, 0) ost|mato how |ong tho °unoxpoctod v|s|tor' had boon away trom tho tam||y. |rom Yarbus, 1007.

1ho rosu|ts woro romarkab|o. 0opond|ng on what was bo|ng askod, tho oyos movod |n tota||y d|ttoront pattorns, samp||ng tho p|cturo |n a mannor
that was max|ma||y |ntormat|vo tor tho quost|on at hand. Whon askod about tho agos ot tho poop|o, tho oyos wont to tho tacos. Whon askod about
tho|r woa|th, tho tocus dancod around tho c|othos and mator|a| possoss|ons.
1h|nk about what th|s moans: bra|ns roach out |nto tho wor|d and act|vo|y oxtroct tho typo ot |ntormat|on thoy nood. 1ho bra|n doos not nood to
soo ovoryth|ng at onco about Ao Uooxpoctoo Vlsltor, and |t doos not nood to storo ovoryth|ng |ntorna||y, |t on|y noods to know whoro to go to t|nd
tho |ntormat|on. As your oyos |ntorrogato tho wor|d, thoy aro ||ko agonts on a m|ss|on, opt|m|z|ng tho|r stratogy tor tho data. Evon though thoy aro
°your' oyos, you havo ||tt|o |doa what duty thoy'ro on. l|ko a b|ack ops m|ss|on, tho oyos oporato bo|ow tho radar, too tast tor your c|unky
consc|ousnoss to koop up w|th.
|or a powortu| |||ustrat|on ot tho ||m|ts ot |ntrospoct|on, cons|dor tho oyo movomonts you aro mak|ng r|ght now wh||o road|ng th|s book. Your oyos
aro jump|ng trom spot to spot. 1o approc|ato how rap|d, do||borato, and proc|so thoso oyo movomonts aro, just obsorvo somoono o|so wh||o thoy
road. Yot wo havo no awaronoss ot th|s act|vo oxam|nat|on ot tho pago. lnstoad |t sooms as though |doas s|mp|y t|ow |nto tho hoad trom a stab|o
wor|d.


3ocauso v|s|on appoars so ottort|oss, wo aro ||ko t|sh cha||ongod to undorstand wator: s|nco tho t|sh has novor oxpor|oncod anyth|ng o|so, |t |s
a|most |mposs|b|o tor |t to soo or conco|vo ot tho wator. 3ut a bubb|o r|s|ng past tho |nqu|s|t|vo t|sh can ottor a cr|t|ca| c|uo. l|ko bubb|os, v|sua|
|||us|ons can ca|| our attont|on to what wo norma||y tako tor grantod-and |n th|s way thoy aro cr|t|ca| too|s tor undorstand|ng tho mochan|sms runn|ng
boh|nd tho sconos |n tho bra|n.

You'vo doubt|oss soon a draw|ng ot a cubo ||ko tho ono to tho r|ght. 1h|s cubo |s an oxamp|o ot a °mu|t|stab|o' st|mu|us-that |s, an |mago that
t||ps back and torth botwoon d|ttoront porcopt|ons. l|ck what you porco|vo as tho °tront' taco ot tho cubo. 3tar|ng at tho p|cturo tor a momont, you'||
not|co that somot|mos tho tront taco appoars to bocomo tho back taco, and tho or|ontat|on ot tho cubo changos. lt you koop watch|ng, |t w||| sw|tch
back aga|n, a|tornat|ng botwoon thoso two porcopt|ons ot tho cubo's or|ontat|on. 1horo's a str|k|ng po|nt horo: ootblog bos cboogoo oo tbo pogo,
so tbo cboogo bos to bo toklog p|oco lo yoor brolo. v|s|on |s act|vo, not pass|vo. 1horo |s moro than ono way tor tho v|sua| systom to |ntorprot tho
st|mu|us, and so |t t||ps back and torth botwoon tho poss|b|||t|os. 1ho samo mannor ot rovorsa|s can bo soon |n tho taco-vaso |||us|on bo|ow:
somot|mos you porco|vo tho tacos, and somot|mos tho vaso, ovon though noth|ng has changod on tho pago. You s|mp|y can't soo both at onco.

1horo aro ovon moro str|k|ng domonstrat|ons ot th|s pr|nc|p|o ot act|vo v|s|on. lorcoptua| sw|tch|ng happons |t wo prosont ono |mago to your |ott
oyo (say, a cow) and a d|ttoront |mago to your r|ght oyo (say, an a|rp|ano). You don't soo both at tho samo t|mo, nor do you soo a tus|on ot tho two
|magos-|nstoad, you soo ono, thon tho othor, thon back aga|n.
12
Your v|sua| systom |s arb|trat|ng a batt|o botwoon tho cont||ct|ng |ntormat|on, and
you soo not what |s roa||y out thoro, but |nstoad on|y a momont-by-momont vors|on ot wh|ch porcopt|on |s w|nn|ng ovor tho othor. Evon though tho
outs|do wor|d has not changod, your bra|n dynam|ca||y prosonts d|ttoront |ntorprotat|ons.
Voro than act|vo|y |ntorprot|ng what |s out thoro, tho bra|n otton goos boyond tho ca|| ot duty to mako th|ngs up. Cons|dor tho oxamp|o ot tho
rot|na, tho spoc|a||zod shoot ot photorocoptor co||s at tho back ot tho oyo. ln 1008, tho |ronch ph||osophor and mathomat|c|an Edmo Var|otto
stumb|od on somoth|ng qu|to unoxpoctod: thoro |s a s|zab|o patch |n tho rot|na whoro tho photorocoptors aro m|ss|ng.
18
1h|s m|ss|ng patch
surpr|sod Var|otto bocauso tho v|sua| t|o|d appoars cont|nuous: thoro |s no corrospond|ng gap|ng ho|o ot v|s|on whoro tho photorocoptors aro
m|ss|ng.

Or |sn't thoro? As Var|otto do|vod moro doop|y |nto th|s |ssuo, ho roa||zod that thoro ls a ho|o |n our v|s|on-what has como to bo known as tho
°b||nd spot' |n oach oyo. 1o domonstrato th|s to yourso|t, c|oso your |ott oyo and koop your r|ght oyo t|xod on tho p|us s|gn.
3|ow|y movo tho pago c|osor to and tarthor trom your taco unt|| tho b|ack dot d|sappoars (probab|y whon tho pago |s about two|vo |nchos away).
You can no |ongor soo tho dot bocauso |t |s s|tt|ng |n your b||nd spot.
0on't assumo that your b||nd spot |s sma||. lt's hugo. lmag|no tho d|amotor ot tho moon |n tho n|ght sky. You can t|t sovontoon moons |nto your
b||nd spot.
3o why hadn't anyono not|cod th|s ho|o |n v|s|on botoro Var|otto? |ow cou|d br||||ant m|nds ||ko V|cho|ango|o, 3hakospoaro, and Ga|||oo havo
||vod and d|od w|thout ovor dotoct|ng th|s bas|c tact ot v|s|on? Ono roason |s bocauso thoro aro two oyos and tho b||nd spots aro |n d|ttoront,
nonovor|app|ng |ocat|ons, th|s moans that w|th both oyos opon you havo tu|| covorago ot tho scono. 3ut moro s|gn|t|cant|y, no ono had not|cod
bocauso tho bra|n °t|||s |n' tho m|ss|ng |ntormat|on trom tho b||nd spot. lot|co what you soo |n tho |ocat|on ot tho dot whon |t's |n your b||nd spot.
Whon tho dot d|sappoars, you do not porco|vo a ho|o ot wh|tonoss or b|acknoss |n |ts p|aco, |nstoad your bra|n lovoots a patch ot tho background
pattorn. Your bra|n, w|th no |ntormat|on trom that part|cu|ar spot |n v|sua| spaco, t|||s |n w|th tho pattorns around |t.
You'ro not porco|v|ng what's out thoro. You'ro porco|v|ng whatovor your bra|n to||s you.
¯ ¯ ¯

3y tho m|d-1800s, tho Gorman phys|c|st and phys|c|an |ormann von |o|mho|tz (1821-1804) had bogun to ontorta|n tho susp|c|on that tho tr|ck|o ot
data mov|ng trom tho oyos to tho bra|n |s too sma|| to roa||y account tor tho r|ch oxpor|onco ot v|s|on. |o conc|udod that tho bra|n must mako
ossomptloos about tho |ncom|ng data, and that thoso assumpt|ons aro basod on our prov|ous oxpor|onco.
14
ln othor words, g|von a ||tt|o
|ntormat|on, your bra|n usos |ts bost guossos to turn |t |nto somoth|ng |argor.
Cons|dor th|s: basod on your prov|ous oxpor|onco, your bra|n assumos that v|sua| sconos aro |||um|natod by a ||ght sourco trom abovo.
1b
3o a
t|at c|rc|o w|th shad|ng that |s ||ghtor at tho top and darkor at tho bottom w||| bo soon as bu|g|ng out, ono w|th shad|ng |n tho oppos|to d|roct|on w|||
bo porco|vod to bo d|mp||ng |n. lotat|ng tho t|guro n|noty dogroos w||| romovo tho |||us|on, mak|ng |t c|oar that thoso aro moro|y t|at, shadod c|rc|os
-but whon tho t|guro |s turnod r|ght s|do up aga|n, ono cannot ho|p but too| an |||usory sonso ot dopth.

As a rosu|t ot tho bra|n's not|ons about ||ght|ng sourcos, |t makos unconsc|ous assumpt|ons about shadows as wo||: |t a squaro casts a shadow
and tho shadow suddon|y movos, you w||| bo||ovo tho squaro has movod |n dopth.
10
1ako a |ook at tho t|guro bo|ow: tho squaro hasn't movod at a||, tho dark squaro roprosont|ng |ts shadow has moro|y boon drawn |n a s||ght|y
d|ttoront p|aco. 1h|s coo|o havo happonod bocauso tho ovorhoad ||ght|ng sourco suddon|y sh|ttod pos|t|on-but bocauso ot your prov|ous
oxpor|onco w|th tho s|ow-mov|ng sun and t|xod o|octr|ca| ||ght|ng, your porcopt|on automat|ca||y g|vos protoronco to tho ||ko||or oxp|anat|on: tho
objoct has movod toward you.

|o|mho|tz ca||od th|s concopt ot v|s|on °unconsc|ous |ntoronco,' whoro loíorooco rotors to tho |doa that tho bra|n conjocturos what m|ght bo out
thoro, and oocooscloos rom|nds us that wo havo no awaronoss ot tho procoss. Wo havo no accoss to tho rap|d and automat|c mach|nory that
gathors and ost|matos tho stat|st|cs ot tho wor|d. Wo'ro moro|y tho bonot|c|ar|os r|d|ng on top ot tho mach|nory, onjoy|ng tho p|ay ot ||ght and
shadows.
EOW CAN ROCK5 DR|F1 uPWARD W|1EOu1 CEANC|NC PO5|1|ON?

Whon wo bog|n to |ook c|oso|y at that mach|nory, wo t|nd a comp|ox systom ot spoc|a||zod co||s and c|rcu|ts |n tho part ot your bra|n ca||od tho v|sua|
cortox. 1horo |s a d|v|s|on ot |abor among thoso c|rcu|ts: somo aro spoc|a||zod tor co|or, somo tor mot|on, somo tor odgos, and othors tor scoros ot
d|ttoront attr|butos. 1hoso c|rcu|ts aro donso|y |ntorconnoctod, and thoy como to conc|us|ons as a group. Whon nocossary, thoy sorvo up a hoad||no
tor what wo m|ght ca|| tho Cooscloosooss Post. 1ho hoad||no roports on|y that a bus |s com|ng or that somoono has t|ashod a t||rtat|ous sm||o-but
|t doos not c|to tho var|od sourcos. 3omot|mos |t |s tompt|ng to th|nk that soo|ng |s oasy oosplto tho comp||catod noura| mach|nory that undor||os |t.
1o tho contrary, |t |s oasy bocooso oí tho comp||catod noura| mach|nory.
Whon wo tako a c|oso |ook at tho mach|nory, wo t|nd that v|s|on can bo doconstructod |nto parts. 3taro at a watorta|| tor a tow m|nutos, attor
sh|tt|ng your gazo, stat|onary objocts such as tho noarby rocks w||| br|ot|y appoar to craw| upward.
17
3trango|y, thoro |s no chango |n tho|r pos|t|on
ovor t|mo, ovon though tho|r movomont |s c|oar. |oro tho |mba|ancod act|v|ty ot your mot|on dotoctors (usua||y upward-s|gna||ng nourons aro
ba|ancod |n a push-pu|| ro|at|onsh|p w|th downward-s|gna||ng nourons) a||ows you to soo what |s |mposs|b|o |n tho outs|do wor|d: mot|on w|thout
pos|t|on chango. 1h|s |||us|on-known as tho mot|on attorottoct or tho watorta|| |||us|on-has onjoyod a r|ch h|story ot study dat|ng back to Ar|stot|o.
1ho |||us|on |||ustratos that v|s|on |s tho product ot d|ttoront modu|os: |n th|s caso, somo parts ot tho v|sua| systom |ns|st (|ncorroct|y) that tho rocks
aro mov|ng, wh||o othor parts |ns|st that tho rocks aro not, |n tact, chang|ng pos|t|on. As tho ph||osophor 0an|o| 0onnott has arguod, tho naïvo
|ntrospoctor usua||y ro||os on tho bad motaphor ot tho to|ov|s|on scroon,
18
whoro mov|ng-wh||o-stay|ng-st||| cannot happon. 3ut tho v|sua| wor|d ot
tho bra|n |s noth|ng ||ko a to|ov|s|on scroon, and mot|on w|th no chango |n pos|t|on |s a conc|us|on |t somot|mos |ands upon.


Vot|on can bo soon ovon whon thoro |s no chango |n pos|t|on. (a) ||gh-contrast t|guros ||ko thoso st|mu|ato mot|on dotoctors, g|v|ng tho |mpross|on ot constant movomont around
tho r|ngs. (b) 3|m||ar|y, tho z|gzag whoo|s horo appoar to turn s|ow|y.

1horo aro many |||us|ons ot mot|on w|th no chango ot pos|t|on. 1ho t|guro bo|ow domonstratos that stat|c |magos can appoar to movo |t thoy
happon to t|ck|o mot|on dotoctors |n tho r|ght way. 1hoso |||us|ons ox|st bocauso tho oxact shad|ng |n tho p|cturos st|mu|atos mot|on dotoctors |n tho
v|sua| systom-and tho act|v|ty ot thoso rocoptors |s oqolvo|oot to tho porcopt|on ot mot|on. lt your mot|on dotoctors doc|aro that somoth|ng |s
mov|ng out thoro, tho consc|ous you bo||ovos |t w|thout quost|on. And not moro|y bo||ovos |t but oxporloocos |t.
A str|k|ng oxamp|o ot th|s pr|nc|p|o comos trom a woman who |n 1078 suttorod carbon monox|do po|son|ng.
10
|ortunato|y, sho ||vod,
untortunato|y, sho suttorod |rrovors|b|o bra|n damago to parts ot hor v|sua| systom-spoc|t|ca||y, tho rog|ons |nvo|vod |n roprosont|ng mot|on.
3ocauso tho rost ot hor v|sua| systom was |ntact, sho was ab|o to soo stat|onary objocts w|th no prob|om. 3ho cou|d to|| you thoro was a ba|| ovor
thoro and a to|ophono ovor horo. 3ut sho cou|d no |ongor soo mot|on. lt sho stood on a s|dowa|k try|ng to cross tho stroot, sho cou|d soo tho rod
truck ovor thoro, and thon horo a momont |ator, and t|na||y ovor thoro, past hor, anothor momont |ator-but tho truck had no sonso ot movomoot to |t.
lt sho tr|od to pour wator out ot a p|tchor, sho wou|d soo a t||tod p|tchor, thon a g|oam|ng co|umn ot wator hang|ng trom tho p|tchor, and t|na||y a
pudd|o ot wator around tho g|ass as |t ovort|owod-but sho cou|dn't soo tho ||qu|d movo. |or ||to was a sor|os ot snapshots. 1ust as w|th tho
watorta|| ottoct, hor cond|t|on ot mot|on b||ndnoss to||s us that pos|t|on and mot|on aro soparab|o |n tho bra|n. Vot|on |s °pa|ntod on' our v|ows ot tho
wor|d, just as |t |s orronoous|y pa|ntod on tho |magos abovo.
A phys|c|st th|nks about mot|on as chango |n pos|t|on through t|mo. 3ut tho bra|n has |ts own |og|c, and th|s |s why th|nk|ng about mot|on ||ko a
phys|c|st rathor than ||ko a nourosc|ont|st w||| |oad to wrong prod|ct|ons about how poop|o oporato. Cons|dor basoba|| outt|o|dors catch|ng t|y ba||s.
|ow do thoy doc|do whoro to run to |ntorcopt tho ba||? lrobab|y tho|r bra|ns roprosont whoro tho ba|| |s trom momont to momont: now |t's ovor
thoro, now |t's a ||tt|o c|osor, now |t's ovon c|osor. l|ght? Wrong.
3o porhaps tho outt|o|dor's bra|n ca|cu|atos tho ba||'s vo|oc|ty, r|ght? Wrong.
Acco|orat|on? Wrong.
3c|ont|st and basoba|| tan V|ko Vc3oath sot out to undorstand tho h|ddon noura| computat|ons boh|nd catch|ng t|y ba||s.
20
|o d|scovorod that
outt|o|dors uso an unconsc|ous program that to||s thom not whoro to ond up but s|mp|y how to koop runn|ng. 1hoy movo |n such a way that tho
parabo||c path ot tho ba|| a|ways progrossos |n a stra|ght ||no trom tho|r po|nt ot v|ow. lt tho ba||'s path |ooks ||ko |ts dov|at|ng trom a stra|ght ||no,
thoy mod|ty tho|r runn|ng path.
1h|s s|mp|o program makos tho strango prod|ct|on that tho outt|o|dors w||| not dash d|roct|y to tho |and|ng po|nt ot tho ba|| but w||| |nstoad tako a
pocu||ar|y curvod runn|ng path to got thoro. And that's oxact|y what p|ayors do, as vor|t|od by Vc3oath and h|s co||oaguos by aor|a| v|doo.
21
And
bocauso th|s runn|ng stratogy g|vos no |ntormat|on about whoro tho po|nt ot |ntorsoct|on w||| bo, on|y how to koop mov|ng to got thoro, tho program
oxp|a|ns why outt|o|dors crash |nto wa||s wh||o chas|ng uncatchab|o t|y ba||s.
3o wo soo that tho systom doos not nood to oxp||c|t|y roprosont pos|t|on, vo|oc|ty, or acco|orat|on |n ordor tor tho p|ayor to succood |n catch|ng or
|ntorcopt|on. 1h|s |s probab|y not what a phys|c|st wou|d havo prod|ctod. And th|s dr|vos homo tho po|nt that |ntrospoct|on has ||tt|o moan|ngtu|
|ns|ght |nto what |s happon|ng boh|nd tho sconos. Outt|o|d|ng groats such as lyan 3raun and Vatt Komp havo no |doa that thoy'ro runn|ng thoso
programs, thoy s|mp|y onjoy tho consoquoncos and cash tho rosu|t|ng paychocks.
LEARN|NC 1O 5EE

Whon V|ko Vay was throo yoars o|d, a chom|ca| oxp|os|on rondorod h|m comp|oto|y b||nd. 1h|s d|d not stop h|m trom bocom|ng tho bost b||nd
downh||| spood sk|or |n tho wor|d, as wo|| as a bus|nossman and tam||y man. 1hon, torty-throo yoars attor tho oxp|os|on robbod h|m ot h|s v|s|on, ho
hoard about a now surg|ca| dovo|opmont that m|ght bo ab|o to rostoro |t. A|though ho was succosstu| |n h|s ||to as a b||nd man, ho doc|dod to
undorgo tho surgory.
Attor tho oporat|on, tho bandagos woro romovod trom around h|s oyos. Accompan|od by a photographor, V|ko sat on a cha|r wh||o h|s two
ch||dron woro brought |n. 1h|s was a b|g momont. lt wou|d bo tho t|rst t|mo ho wou|d ovor gazo |nto tho|r tacos w|th h|s now|y c|oarod oyos. ln tho
rosu|t|ng photograph, V|ko has a p|oasant but awkward sm||o on h|s taco as h|s ch||dron boam at h|m.
1ho scono was supposod to bo touch|ng, but |t wasn't. 1horo was a prob|om. V|ko's oyos woro now work|ng portoct|y, but ho starod w|th uttor
puzz|omont at tho objocts |n tront ot h|m. ||s bra|n d|dn't know what to mako ot tho barrago ot |nputs. |o wasn't oxpor|onc|ng h|s sons' tacos, ho
was oxpor|onc|ng on|y un|ntorprotab|o sonsat|ons ot odgos and co|ors and ||ghts. A|though h|s oyos woro tunct|on|ng, ho d|dn't havo vlsloo.
22
And th|s |s bocauso tho bra|n has to |ooro how to soo. 1ho strango o|octr|ca| storms |ns|do tho p|tch-b|ack sku|| got turnod |nto consc|ous
summar|os attor a |ong hau| ot t|gur|ng out how objocts |n tho wor|d match up across tho sonsos. Cons|dor tho oxpor|onco ot wa|k|ng down a
ha||way. V|ko know trom a ||tot|mo ot mov|ng down corr|dors that wa||s roma|n para||o|, at arm's |ongth, tho who|o way down. 3o whon h|s v|s|on was
rostorod, tho concopt ot convorg|ng porspoct|vo ||nos was boyond h|s capac|ty to undorstand. lt mado no sonso to h|s bra|n.
3|m||ar|y, whon l was a ch||d l mot a b||nd woman and was amazod at how |nt|mato|y sho know tho |ayout ot hor rooms and turn|turo. l askod hor |t
sho wou|d bo ab|o to draw out tho b|uopr|nts w|th h|ghor accuracy than most s|ghtod poop|o. |or rosponso surpr|sod mo: sho sa|d sho wou|d oot bo
ab|o to draw tho b|uopr|nts at a||, bocauso sho d|dn't undorstand how s|ghtod poop|o convortod throo d|mons|ons (tho room) |nto two d|mons|ons (a
t|at p|oco ot papor). 1ho |doa s|mp|y d|dn't mako sonso to hor.
28
v|s|on doos not s|mp|y oxlst whon a porson contronts tho wor|d w|th c|oar oyos. lnstoad, an |ntorprotat|on ot tho o|octrochom|ca| s|gna|s
stroam|ng a|ong tho opt|c norvos has to bo tra|nod up. V|ko's bra|n d|dn't undorstand how h|s own movomonts changod tho sonsory
consoquoncos. |or oxamp|o, whon ho movos h|s hoad to tho |ott, tho scono sh|tts to tho r|ght. 1ho bra|ns ot s|ghtod poop|o havo como to oxpoct
such th|ngs and know how to |gnoro thom. 3ut V|ko's bra|n was t|ummoxod at thoso strango ro|at|onsh|ps. And th|s |||ustratos a koy po|nt: tho
consc|ous oxpor|onco ot v|s|on occurs on|y whon thoro |s accurato prod|ct|on ot sonsory consoquoncos,
24
a po|nt to wh|ch wo w||| roturn short|y. 3o
a|though v|s|on sooms ||ko a rond|t|on ot somoth|ng that's objoct|vo|y out thoro, |t doosn't como tor troo. lt has to bo |oarnod.
Attor mov|ng around tor sovora| wooks, star|ng at th|ngs, k|ck|ng cha|rs, oxam|n|ng s||vorwaro, rubb|ng h|s w|to's taco, V|ko camo to havo tho
oxpor|onco ot s|ght as wo oxpor|onco |t. |o now oxpor|oncos v|s|on tho samo way you do. |o just approc|atos |t moro.
¯ ¯ ¯

V|ko's story shows that tho bra|n can tako a torront ot |nput and |oarn to mako sonso ot |t. 3ut doos th|s |mp|y tho b|zarro prod|ct|on that you can
sobstltoto ono sonso tor anothor? ln othor words, |t you took a data stroam trom a v|doo camora and convortod |t |nto an |nput to a d|ttoront sonso
-tasto or touch, say-wou|d you ovontua||y bo ab|o to soo tho wor|d that way? lncrod|b|y, tho answor |s yos, and tho consoquoncos run doop, as wo
aro about to soo.
5EE|NC W|1E 1EE BRA|N

ln tho 1000s, tho nourosc|ont|st lau| 3ach-y-l|ta at tho Un|vors|ty ot W|scons|n bogan chow|ng on tho prob|om ot how to g|vo v|s|on to tho b||nd.
2b
||s tathor had rocont|y had a m|racu|ous rocovory trom a stroko, and lau| tound h|mso|t onchantod by tho potont|a| tor dynam|ca||y rocont|gur|ng tho
bra|n.
A quost|on grow |n h|s m|nd: cou|d tho bra|n subst|tuto ono sonso tor anothor? 3ach-y-l|ta doc|dod to try prosont|ng a tact||o °d|sp|ay' to b||nd
poop|o.
20
|oro's tho |doa: attach a v|doo camora to somoono's torohoad and convort tho |ncom|ng v|doo |ntormat|on |nto an array ot t|ny v|brators
attachod to tho|r back. lmag|no putt|ng th|s dov|co on and wa|k|ng around a room b||ndto|dod. At t|rst you'd too| a b|zarro pattorn ot v|brat|ons on tho
sma|| ot your back. A|though tho v|brat|ons wou|d chango |n str|ct ro|at|on to your own movomonts, |t wou|d bo qu|to d|tt|cu|t to t|guro out what was
go|ng on. As you h|t your sh|n aga|nst tho cottoo tab|o, you'd th|nk, °1h|s roa||y |s noth|ng ||ko v|s|on.'
Or |sn't |t? Whon b||nd subjocts strap on thoso v|sua|-tact||o subst|tut|on g|assos and wa|k around tor a wook, thoy bocomo qu|to good at
nav|gat|ng a now onv|ronmont. 1hoy can trans|ato tho too||ngs on tho|r back |nto know|ng tho r|ght way to movo. 3ut that's not tho stunn|ng part. 1ho
stunn|ng part |s that thoy actua||y bog|n to porco|vo tho tact||o |nput-to soo w|th |t. Attor onough pract|co, tho tact||o |nput bocomos moro than a
cogn|t|vo puzz|o that noods trans|at|on, |t bocomos a d|roct sonsat|on.
27
lt |t sooms strango that norvo s|gna|s com|ng trom tho back can roprosont v|s|on, boar |n m|nd that your own sonso ot v|s|on |s carr|od by noth|ng
but m||||ons ot norvo s|gna|s that just happon to travo| a|ong d|ttoront cab|os. Your bra|n |s oncasod |n abso|uto b|acknoss |n tho vau|t ot your sku||. lt
doosn't soo anyth|ng. A|| |t knows aro thoso ||tt|o s|gna|s, and noth|ng o|so. And yot you porco|vo tho wor|d |n a|| shados ot br|ghtnoss and co|ors.
Your bra|n |s |n tho dark but your m|nd constructs ||ght.
1o tho bra|n, |t doosn't mattor whoro thoso pu|sos como trom-trom tho oyos, tho oars, or somowhoro o|so ont|ro|y. As |ong as thoy cons|stont|y
corro|ato w|th your own movomonts as you push, thump, and k|ck th|ngs, your bra|n can construct tho d|roct porcopt|on wo ca|| v|s|on.
28
Othor sonsory subst|tut|ons aro a|so undor act|vo |nvost|gat|on.
20
Cons|dor Er|c Wo|honmayor, an oxtromo rock c||mbor, who sca|os dangorous|y
shoor rock tacos by thrust|ng h|s body upward and c||ng|ng to procar|ous|y sha||ow toot |odgos and handho|ds. Add|ng to h|s toats |s tho tact that ho
|s b||nd. |o was born w|th a raro oyo d|soaso ca||od rot|nosch|s|s, wh|ch rondorod h|m b||nd at th|rtoon yoars o|d. |o d|d not, howovor, |ot that crush
h|s droam ot bo|ng a mounta|noor, and |n 2001 ho bocamo tho t|rst (and so tar on|y) b||nd porson to c||mb Vount Evorost. 1oday ho c||mbs w|th a
gr|d ot ovor s|x hundrod t|ny o|octrodos |n h|s mouth, ca||od tho 3ra|nlort.
80
1h|s dov|co a||ows h|m to soo wltb bls toogoo wh||o ho c||mbs. A|though
tho tonguo |s norma||y a tasto organ, |ts mo|sturo and chom|ca| onv|ronmont mako |t an oxco||ont bra|n-mach|no |ntortaco whon a t|ng||ng o|octrodo
gr|d |s |a|d on |ts surtaco.
81
1ho gr|d trans|atos a v|doo |nput |nto pattorns ot o|octr|ca| pu|sos, a||ow|ng tho tonguo to d|scorn qua||t|os usua||y
ascr|bod to v|s|on, such as d|stanco, shapo, d|roct|on ot movomont, and s|zo. 1ho apparatus rom|nds us that wo soo not w|th our oyos but rathor
w|th our bra|ns. 1ho tochn|quo was or|g|na||y dovo|opod to ass|st tho b||nd, ||ko Er|c, but moro rocont app||cat|ons that tood |ntrarod or sonar |nput to
tho tonguo gr|d a||ow d|vors to soo |n murky wator and so|d|ors to havo 800-dogroo v|s|on |n tho dark.
82
Er|c roports that a|though ho t|rst porco|vod tho tonguo st|mu|at|on as un|dont|t|ab|o odgos and shapos, ho qu|ck|y |oarnod to rocogn|zo tho
st|mu|at|on at a doopor |ovo|. |o can now p|ck up a cup ot cottoo or k|ck a soccor ba|| back and torth w|th h|s daughtor.
88
lt soo|ng w|th your tonguo sounds strango, th|nk ot tho oxpor|onco ot a b||nd porson |oarn|ng to road 3ra|||o. At t|rst |t's just bumps, ovontua||y
thoso bumps como to havo moan|ng. And |t you'ro hav|ng a hard t|mo |mag|n|ng tho trans|t|on trom cogn|t|vo puzz|o to d|roct porcopt|on, just
cons|dor tho way you aro road|ng tho |ottors on th|s pago. Your oyos t||ck ottort|oss|y ovor tho ornato shapos w|thout any awaronoss that you aro
trans|at|ng thom: tho moan|ng ot tho words s|mp|y comos to you. You porco|vo tho |anguago, not tho |ow-|ovo| dota||s ot tho graphomos. 1o dr|vo
homo tho po|nt, try road|ng th|s:

lt you woro an anc|ont 3umor|an, tho moan|ng wou|d bo road||y apparont-|t wou|d t|ow ott tho tab|ot d|roct|y |nto moan|ng w|th no awaronoss ot
tho mod|at|ng shapos. And tho moan|ng ot tho noxt sontonco |s |mmod|ato|y apparont |t you'ro trom 1|nghong, Ch|na (but not trom othor Ch|noso
rog|ons):

1h|s noxt sontonco |s h||ar|ous|y tunny |t you aro a roador ot tho northwostorn lran|an |anguago ot 3a|uch|:

1o tho roador ot cuno|torm, low 1a| luo, or 3a|uch|, tho rost ot tho Eng||sh scr|pt on th|s pago |ooks as toro|gn and un|ntorprotab|o as tho|r scr|pt
|ooks to you. 3ut thoso |ottors aro ottort|oss tor you, bocauso you'vo a|roady turnod tho choro ot cogn|t|vo trans|at|on |nto d|roct porcopt|on.
And so |t goos w|th tho o|octr|ca| s|gna|s com|ng |nto tho bra|n: at t|rst thoy aro moan|ng|oss, w|th t|mo thoy accruo moan|ng. ln tho samo way that
you |mmod|ato|y °soo' tho moan|ng |n thoso words, your bra|n °soos' a t|mod barrago ot o|octr|ca| and chom|ca| s|gna|s as, say, a horso ga||op|ng
botwoon snow-b|ankotod p|no troos. 1o V|ko Vay's bra|n, tho noura| |ottors com|ng |n aro st||| |n nood ot trans|at|on. 1ho v|sua| s|gna|s gonoratod
by tho horso aro un|ntorprotab|o bursts ot act|v|ty, g|v|ng ||tt|o |nd|cat|on, |t any, ot what's out thoro, tho s|gna|s on h|s rot|na aro ||ko |ottors ot 3a|uch|
that strugg|o to bo trans|atod ono by ono. 1o Er|c Wo|honmayor's bra|n, h|s tonguo |s sond|ng mossagos |n low 1a| luo-but w|th onough
pract|co, h|s bra|n |oarns to undorstand tho |anguago. At that po|nt, h|s undorstand|ng ot tho v|sua| wor|d |s as d|roct|y apparont as tho words ot h|s
nat|vo tonguo.
|oro's an amaz|ng consoquonco ot tho bra|n's p|ast|c|ty: |n tho tuturo wo may bo ab|o to p|ug now sorts ot data stroams d|roct|y |nto tho bra|n,
such as |ntrarod or u|trav|o|ot v|s|on, or ovon woathor data or stock markot data.
84
1ho bra|n w||| strugg|o to absorb tho data at t|rst, but ovontua||y |t
w||| |oarn to spoak tho |anguago. Wo'|| bo ab|o to add now tunct|ona||ty and ro|| out 3ra|n 2.0.
1h|s |doa |s not sc|onco t|ct|on, tho work has a|roady bogun. locont|y, rosoarchors Gora|d 1acobs and 1oromy lathans took tho gono tor a
human photop|gmont-a proto|n |n tho rot|na that absorbs ||ght ot a part|cu|ar wavo|ongth-and sp||cod |t |nto co|or-b||nd m|co.
8b
What omorgod?
Co|or v|s|on. 1hoso m|co can now to|| d|ttoront co|ors apart. lmag|no you g|vo thom a task |n wh|ch thoy can ga|n a roward by h|tt|ng a b|uo button
but thoy got no roward tor h|tt|ng a rod button. You random|zo tho pos|t|ons ot tho buttons on oach tr|a|. 1ho mod|t|od m|co, |t turns out, |oarn to
chooso tho b|uo button, wh||o to norma| m|co tho buttons |ook |nd|st|ngu|shab|o-and honco thoy chooso random|y. 1ho bra|ns ot tho now m|co havo
t|gurod out how to ||ston to tho now d|a|oct tho|r oyos aro spoak|ng.
|rom tho natura| |aboratory ot ovo|ut|on comos a ro|atod phonomonon |n humans. At |oast 1b porcont ot human toma|os possoss a gonot|c
mutat|on that g|vos thom an oxtra (tourth) typo ot co|or photorocoptor-and th|s a||ows thom to d|scr|m|nato botwoon co|ors that |ook |dont|ca| to tho
major|ty ot us w|th a moro throo typos ot co|or photorocoptors.
80
1wo co|or swatchos that |ook |dont|ca| to tho major|ty ot poop|o wou|d bo c|oar|y
d|st|ngu|shab|o to thoso |ad|os. (lo ono has yot dotorm|nod what porcontago ot tash|on argumonts |s causod by th|s mutat|on.)
3o p|ugg|ng now data stroams |nto tho bra|n |s not a thoorot|ca| not|on, |t a|roady ox|sts |n var|ous gu|sos. lt may soom surpr|s|ng how oas||y now
|nputs can bocomo oporab|o-but, as lau| 3ach-y-l|ta s|mp|y summar|zod h|s docados ot rosoarch, °1ust g|vo tho bra|n tho |ntormat|on and |t w|||
t|guro |t out.'
lt any ot th|s has changod your v|ow ot how you porco|vo roa||ty, strap |n, bocauso |t gots strangor. Wo'|| noxt d|scovor why soo|ng has vory ||tt|o to
do w|th your oyos.
AC1|V|1Y FRON W|1E|N

ln tho trad|t|ona||y taught v|ow ot porcopt|on, data trom tho sonsor|um pours |nto tho bra|n, works |ts way up tho sonsory h|orarchy, and makos |tso|t
soon, hoard, smo||od, tastod, to|t-°porco|vod.' 3ut a c|osor oxam|nat|on ot tho data suggosts th|s |s |ncorroct. 1ho bra|n |s propor|y thought ot as a
most|y c|osod systom that runs on |ts own |ntorna||y gonoratod act|v|ty.
87
Wo a|roady havo many oxamp|os ot th|s sort ot act|v|ty: tor oxamp|o,
broath|ng, d|gost|on, and wa|k|ng aro contro||od by autonomous|y runn|ng act|v|ty gonorators |n your bra|n stom and sp|na| cord. 0ur|ng droam
s|oop tho bra|n |s |so|atod trom |ts norma| |nput, so |ntorna| act|vat|on |s tho on|y sourco ot cort|ca| st|mu|at|on. ln tho awako stato, |ntorna| act|v|ty |s
tho bas|s tor |mag|nat|on and ha||uc|nat|ons.
1ho moro surpr|s|ng aspoct ot th|s tramowork |s that tho |ntorna| data |s not gooorotoo by oxtorna| sonsory data but moro|y mooo|otoo by |t. ln
1011, tho 3cott|sh mounta|noor and nourophys|o|og|st 1homas Graham 3rown showod that tho program tor mov|ng tho musc|os tor wa|k|ng |s bu||t
|nto tho mach|nory ot tho sp|na| cord.
88
|o sovorod tho sonsory norvos trom a cat's |ogs and domonstratod that tho cat cou|d wa|k on a troadm|||
portoct|y wo||. 1h|s |nd|catod that tho program tor wa|k|ng was |ntorna||y gonoratod |n tho sp|na| cord and that sonsory toodback trom tho |ogs was
usod on|y to mooo|oto tho program-whon, say, tho cat stoppod on a s||ppory surtaco and noodod to stay upr|ght.
1ho doop socrot ot tho bra|n |s that not on|y tho sp|na| cord but tho ont|ro contra| norvous systom works th|s way: |ntorna||y gonoratod act|v|ty |s
modu|atod by sonsory |nput. ln th|s v|ow, tho d|ttoronco botwoon bo|ng awako and bo|ng as|oop |s moro|y that tho data com|ng |n trom tho oyos
oocbors tho porcopt|on. As|oop v|s|on (droam|ng) |s porcopt|on that |s not t|od down to anyth|ng |n tho roa| wor|d, wak|ng porcopt|on |s somoth|ng
||ko droam|ng w|th a ||tt|o moro comm|tmont to what's |n tront ot you. Othor oxamp|os ot unanchorod porcopt|on aro tound |n pr|sonors |n p|tch-dark
so||tary cont|nomont, or |n poop|o |n sonsory dopr|vat|on chambors. 3oth ot thoso s|tuat|ons qu|ck|y |oad to ha||uc|nat|ons.
1on porcont ot poop|o w|th oyo d|soaso and v|sua| |oss w||| oxpor|onco v|sua| ha||uc|nat|ons. ln tho b|zarro d|sordor known as Char|os 3onnot
syndromo, poop|o |os|ng tho|r s|ght w||| bog|n to soo th|ngs-such as t|owors, b|rds, othor poop|o, bu||d|ngs-that thoy know aro not roa|. 3onnot, a
3w|ss ph||osophor who ||vod |n tho 1700s, t|rst doscr|bod th|s phonomonon whon ho not|cod that h|s grandtathor, who was |os|ng h|s v|s|on to
cataracts, tr|od to |ntoract w|th objocts and an|ma|s that woro not phys|ca||y thoro.
A|though tho syndromo has boon |n tho ||toraturo tor contur|os, |t |s undord|agnosod tor two roasons. 1ho t|rst |s that many phys|c|ans do not know
about |t and attr|buto |ts symptoms to domont|a. 1ho socond |s that tho poop|o oxpor|onc|ng tho ha||uc|nat|ons aro d|scomt|tod by tho know|odgo
that tho|r v|sua| scono |s at |oast part|a||y tho countorto|t co|nago ot tho|r bra|ns. Accord|ng to sovora| survoys, most ot thom w||| novor mont|on tho|r
ha||uc|nat|ons to tho|r doctor out ot toar ot bo|ng d|agnosod w|th monta| |||noss.
As tar as tho c||n|c|ans aro concornod, what mattors most |s whothor tho pat|ont can portorm a roa||ty chock and know that ho |s ha||uc|nat|ng, |t
so, tho v|s|on |s |abo|od a psoooobo||oclootloo. Ot courso, somot|mos |t's qu|to d|tt|cu|t to know |t you'ro ha||uc|nat|ng. You m|ght ha||uc|nato a s||vor
pon on your dosk r|ght now and novor suspoct |t's not roa|-bocauso |ts prosonco |s p|aus|b|o. lt's oasy to spot a ha||uc|nat|on on|y whon |t's b|zarro.
|or a|| wo know, wo ha||uc|nato a|| tho t|mo.
As wo'vo soon, what wo ca|| norma| porcopt|on doos not roa||y d|ttor trom ha||uc|nat|ons, oxcopt that tho |attor aro not anchorod by oxtorna| |nput.
|a||uc|nat|ons aro s|mp|y untastonod v|s|on.
Co||oct|vo|y, thoso strango tacts g|vo us a surpr|s|ng way to |ook at tho bra|n, as wo aro about to soo.


Ear|y |doas ot bra|n tunct|on woro squaro|y basod on a computor ana|ogy: tho bra|n was an |nput-output dov|co that movod sonsory |ntormat|on
through d|ttoront procoss|ng stagos unt|| roach|ng an ond po|nt.
3ut th|s assomb|y ||no modo| bogan to draw susp|c|on whon |t was d|scovorod that bra|n w|r|ng doos not s|mp|y run trom A to 3 to C: thoro aro
toodback |oops trom C to 3, C to A, and 3 to A. 1hroughout tho bra|n thoro |s as much toodback as toodtorward-a toaturo ot bra|n w|r|ng that |s
tochn|ca||y ca||od rocurronco and co||oqu|a||y ca||od |oop|noss.
80
1ho who|o systom |ooks a |ot moro ||ko a markotp|aco than an assomb|y ||no. 1o
tho carotu| obsorvor, thoso toaturos ot tho nouroc|rcu|try |mmod|ato|y ra|so tho poss|b|||ty that v|sua| porcopt|on |s not a procoss|on ot data
crunch|ng that bog|ns trom tho oyos and onds w|th somo mystor|ous ond po|nt at tho back ot tho bra|n.
ln tact, nostod toodback connoct|ons aro so oxtons|vo that tho systom can ovon run backward. 1hat |s, |n contrast to tho |doa that pr|mary sonsory
aroas moro|y procoss |nput |nto succoss|vo|y moro comp|ox |ntorprotat|ons tor tho noxt h|ghost aroa ot tho bra|n, tho h|ghor aroas aro a|so ta|k|ng
d|roct|y back to tho |owor onos. |or |nstanco: shut your oyos and |mag|no an ant craw||ng on a rod-and-wh|to tab|oc|oth toward a jar ot purp|o jo||y.
1ho |ow-|ovo| parts ot your v|sua| systom just ||t up w|th act|v|ty. Evon though you woron't actua||y soo|ng tho ant, you woro soo|ng |t |n your m|nd's
oyo. 1ho h|ghor-|ovo| aroas woro dr|v|ng tho |owor onos. 3o a|though tho oyos tood |nto thoso |ow-|ovo| bra|n aroas, tho |ntorconnoctodnoss ot tho
systom moans thoso aroas do just t|no on tho|r own |n tho dark.
lt gots strangor. 3ocauso ot thoso r|ch markotp|aco dynam|cs, tho d|ttoront sonsos |nt|uonco ono anothor, chang|ng tho story ot what |s thought to
bo out thoro. What comos |n through tho oyos |s not just tho bus|noss ot tho v|sua| systom-tho rost ot tho bra|n |s |nvostod as wo||. ln tho
vontr||oqu|st |||us|on, sound comos trom ono |ocat|on (tho vontr||oqu|st's mouth), but your oyos soo a mov|ng mouth |n a d|ttoront |ocat|on (that ot tho
vontr||oqu|st's dummy). Your bra|n conc|udos that tho sound comos d|roct|y trom tho dummy's mouth. vontr||oqu|sts don't °throw' tho|r vo|co. Your
bra|n doos a|| ot tho work tor thom.
1ako tho VcGurk ottoct as anothor oxamp|o: whon tho sound ot a sy||ab|o ( ) |s synchron|zod w|th a v|doo ot ||p movomonts mouth|ng a d|ttoront
sy||ab|o (), |t producos tho powortu| |||us|on that you aro hoar|ng yot a th|rd sy||ab|o (). 1h|s rosu|ts trom tho donso |ntorconnoct|v|ty and
|oop|noss |n tho bra|n, wh|ch a||ows vo|co and ||p-movomont cuos to bocomo comb|nod at an oar|y procoss|ng stago.
40
v|s|on usua||y dom|natos ovor hoar|ng, but a countor oxamp|o |s tho |||usory t|ash ottoct: whon a t|ashod spot |s accompan|od by two boops, |t
appoars to t|ash tw|co.
41
1h|s |s ro|atod to anothor phonomonon ca||od °aud|tory dr|v|ng,' |n wh|ch tho apparont rato ot a t||ckor|ng ||ght |s dr|von
tastor or s|owor by an accompany|ng boop|ng sound prosontod at a d|ttoront rato.
42
3|mp|o |||us|ons ||ko thoso sorvo as powortu| c|uos |nto noura|
c|rcu|try, to|||ng us that tho v|sua| and aud|tory systoms aro donso|y t|od |n w|th oach othor, try|ng to ro|ato a un|t|od story ot ovonts |n tho wor|d. 1ho
assomb|y ||no modo| ot v|s|on |n |ntroductory toxtbooks |sn't just m|s|oad|ng, |t's doad wrong.
¯ ¯ ¯

3o what |s tho advantago ot a |oopy bra|n? ||rst, |t porm|ts an organ|sm to transcond st|mu|us-rosponso bohav|or, and |nstoad contors tho ab|||ty to
mako prod|ct|ons ahoad ot actua| sonsory |nput. 1h|nk about try|ng to catch a t|y ba||. lt you woro moro|y an assomb|y ||no dov|co, you cou|dn't do |t:
thoro'd bo a do|ay ot hundrods ot m||||soconds trom tho t|mo ||ght str|kos your rot|na unt|| you cou|d oxocuto a motor command. Your hand wou|d
a|ways bo roach|ng tor a p|aco whoro tho ba|| osoo to bo. Wo'ro ab|o to catch basoba||s on|y bocauso wo havo doop|y hardw|rod |ntorna| modo|s ot
phys|cs.
48
1hoso |ntorna| modo|s gonorato oxpoctat|ons about whon and whoro tho ba|| w||| |and g|von tho ottocts ot grav|tat|ona| acco|orat|on.
44
1ho paramotors ot tho prod|ct|vo |ntorna| modo|s aro tra|nod by ||to|ong oxposuro |n norma|, Earth-bound oxpor|onco. 1h|s way, our bra|ns do not
work so|o|y trom tho |atost sonsory data, but |nstoad construct prod|ct|ons about whoro tho ba|| |s about to bo.
1h|s |s a spoc|t|c oxamp|o ot tho broador concopt ot |ntorna| modo|s ot tho outs|do wor|d. 1ho bra|n |ntorna||y s|mu|atos what w||| happon |t you
woro to portorm somo act|on undor spoc|t|c cond|t|ons. lntorna| modo|s not on|y p|ay a ro|o |n motor acts (such as catch|ng or dodg|ng) but a|so
undor||o consc|ous porcoptloo. As oar|y as tho 1040s, th|nkors bogan to toy w|th tho |doa that porcopt|on works not by bu||d|ng up b|ts ot capturod
data, but |nstoad by match|ng oxpoctotloos to |ncom|ng sonsory data.
4b
As strango as |t sounds, th|s tramowork was |nsp|rod by tho obsorvat|on that our oxpoctat|ons |nt|uonco what wo soo. 0on't bo||ovo |t? 1ry to
d|scorn what's |n tho t|guro on tho to||ow|ng pago. lt your bra|n doosn't havo a pr|or oxpoctat|on about what tho b|obs moan, you s|mp|y soo b|obs.
1horo has to bo a match botwoon your oxpoctat|ons and tho |ncom|ng data tor you to °soo' anyth|ng.

A domonstrat|on ot tho ro|o ot oxpoctat|on |n porcopt|on. 1hoso b|obs gonora||y havo no moan|ng to a v|owor |n|t|a||y, and on|y attor a h|nt doos tho |mago mako sonso. (0on't worry |t
thoy st||| |ook ||ko b|obs to you, a h|nt comos |ator |n tho chaptor.) |rom Ah|ssar and |ochsto|n, 2004.

Ono ot tho oar||ost oxamp|os ot th|s tramowork camo trom tho nourosc|ont|st 0ona|d VacKay, who |n 10b0 proposod that tho v|sua| cortox |s
tundamonta||y a mach|no whoso job |s to gonorato a modo| ot tho wor|d.
40
|o suggostod that tho pr|mary v|sua| cortox constructs an |ntorna| modo|
that a||ows |t to ant|c|pato tho data stroam|ng up trom tho rot|na (soo tho appond|x tor an anatom|ca| gu|do). 1ho cortox sonds |ts prod|ct|ons to tho
tha|amus, wh|ch roports on tho olííorooco botwoon what comos |n through tho oyos and what was a|roady ant|c|patod. 1ho tha|amus sonds back to
tho cortox on|y that d|ttoronco |ntormat|on-that |s, tho b|t that wasn't prod|ctod away. 1h|s unprod|ctod |ntormat|on adjusts tho |ntorna| modo| so
thoro w||| bo |oss ot a m|smatch |n tho tuturo. ln th|s way, tho bra|n rot|nos |ts modo| ot tho wor|d by pay|ng attont|on to |ts m|stakos. VacKay po|ntod
out that th|s modo| |s cons|stont w|th tho anatom|ca| tact that thoro aro ton t|mos as many t|bors projoct|ng trom tho pr|mary v|sua| cortox back to tho
v|sua| tha|amus as thoro aro go|ng tho othor d|roct|on-just what you'd oxpoct |t dota||od oxpoctat|ons woro sont trom tho cortox to tho tha|amus and
tho torward-mov|ng |ntormat|on roprosontod on|y a sma|| s|gna| carry|ng tho d|ttoronco.
What a|| th|s to||s us |s that porcopt|on rot|octs tho act|vo compar|son ot sonsory |nputs w|th |ntorna| prod|ct|ons. And th|s g|vos us a way to
undorstand a b|ggor concopt: awaronoss ot your surround|ngs occurs on|y whon sonsory |nputs vlo|oto oxpoctat|ons. Whon tho wor|d |s succosstu||y
prod|ctod away, awaronoss |s not noodod bocauso tho bra|n |s do|ng |ts job wo||. |or oxamp|o, whon you t|rst |oarn how to r|do a b|cyc|o, a groat
doa| ot consc|ous concontrat|on |s roqu|rod, attor somo t|mo, whon your sonsory-motor prod|ct|ons havo boon portoctod, r|d|ng bocomos
unconsc|ous. l don't moan you'ro unawaro that you'ro r|d|ng a b|cyc|o, but you oro unawaro ot how you'ro ho|d|ng tho hand|obars, app|y|ng prossuro
to tho poda|s, and ba|anc|ng your torso. |rom oxtons|vo oxpor|onco, your bra|n knows oxact|y what to oxpoct as you mako your movomonts. 3o
you'ro consc|ous no|thor ot tho movomonts nor ot tho sonsat|ons un|oss somoth|ng changos-||ko a strong w|nd or a t|at t|ro. Whon thoso now
s|tuat|ons causo your norma| oxpoctat|ons to bo v|o|atod, consc|ousnoss comos on||no and your |ntorna| modo| adjusts.
1h|s prod|ctab|||ty that you dovo|op botwoon your own act|ons and tho rosu|t|ng sonsat|ons |s tho roason you cannot t|ck|o yourso|t. Othor poop|o
can t|ck|o you bocauso tho|r t|ck||ng manouvors aro not prod|ctab|o to you. And |t you'd roa||y ||ko to, thoro aro ways to tako prod|ctab|||ty away trom
your own act|ons so that you can t|ck|o yourso|t. lmag|no contro|||ng tho pos|t|on ot a toathor w|th a t|mo-do|ay joyst|ck: whon you movo tho st|ck, at
|oast ono socond passos botoro tho toathor movos accord|ng|y. 1h|s takos away tho prod|ctab|||ty and grants you tho ab|||ty to so|t-t|ck|o.
lntorost|ng|y, sch|zophron|cs can t|ck|o thomso|vos bocauso ot a prob|om w|th tho|r t|m|ng that doos not a||ow tho|r motor act|ons and rosu|t|ng
sonsat|ons to bo corroct|y soquoncod.
47
locogn|z|ng tho bra|n as a |oopy systom w|th |ts own |ntorna| dynam|cs a||ows us to undorstand othorw|so b|zarro d|sordors. 1ako Anton's
syndromo, a d|sordor |n wh|ch a stroko rondors a porson b||nd-and tho pat|ont ooolos hor b||ndnoss.
48
A group ot doctors w||| stand around tho
bods|do and say, °Vrs. 1ohnson, how many ot us aro around your bod?' and sho'|| cont|dont|y answor, °|our,' ovon though |n tact thoro aro sovon ot
thom. A doctor w||| say, °Vrs. 1ohnson, how many t|ngors am l ho|d|ng up?' 3ho'|| say, °1hroo,' wh||o |n tact ho |s ho|d|ng up nono. Whon ho asks,
°What co|or |s my sh|rt?' sho'|| to|| h|m |t |s wh|to whon |t |s b|uo. 1hoso w|th Anton's syndromo aro not protooolog thoy aro not b||nd, thoy tru|y
bo||ovo thoy aro not b||nd. 1ho|r vorba| roports, wh||o |naccurato, aro not ||os. lnstoad, thoy aro oxpor|onc|ng what thoy tako to bo v|s|on, but |t |s a||
|ntorna||y gonoratod. Otton a pat|ont w|th Anton's syndromo w||| not sook mod|ca| attont|on tor a ||tt|o wh||o attor tho stroko, bocauso sho has no |doa
sho |s b||nd. lt |s on|y attor bump|ng |nto onough turn|turo and wa||s that sho bog|ns to too| that somoth|ng |s am|ss. Wh||o tho pat|ont's answors
soom b|zarro, thoy can bo undorstood as hor |ntorna| modo|: tho oxtorna| data |s not gott|ng to tho r|ght p|acos bocauso ot tho stroko, and so tho
pat|ont's roa||ty |s s|mp|y that wh|ch |s gonoratod by tho bra|n, w|th ||tt|o attachmont to tho roa| wor|d. ln th|s sonso, what sho oxpor|oncos |s no
d|ttoront trom droam|ng, drug tr|ps, or ha||uc|nat|ons.
EOW FAR |N 1EE PA51 DO YOu L|VE?

lt |s not on|y v|s|on and hoar|ng that aro construct|ons ot tho bra|n. 1ho porcopt|on ot t|mo |s a|so a construct|on.
Whon you snap your t|ngors, your oyos and oars rog|stor |ntormat|on about tho snap, wh|ch |s procossod by tho rost ot tho bra|n. 3ut s|gna|s
movo ta|r|y s|ow|y |n tho bra|n, m||||ons ot t|mos moro s|ow|y than o|octrons carry|ng s|gna|s |n coppor w|ro, so noura| procoss|ng ot tho snap takos
t|mo. At tho momont you porco|vo |t, tho snap has a|roady como and gono. Your porcoptua| wor|d a|ways |ags boh|nd tho roa| wor|d. ln othor words,
your porcopt|on ot tho wor|d |s ||ko a °||vo' to|ov|s|on show (th|nk 5otorooy Nlgbt Llvo), wh|ch |s not octoo||y ||vo. lnstoad, thoso shows aro a|rod w|th
a do|ay ot a tow soconds, |n caso somoono usos |nappropr|ato |anguago, hurts h|mso|t, or |osos a p|oco ot c|oth|ng. And so |t |s w|th your
consc|ous ||to: |t co||octs a |ot ot |ntormat|on botoro |t a|rs |t ||vo.
40
3trangor st|||, aud|tory and v|sua| |ntormat|on aro procossod at d|ttoront spoods |n tho bra|n, yot tho s|ght ot your t|ngors and tho sound ot tho
snap appoar s|mu|tanoous. |urthor, your doc|s|on to snap oowand tho act|on |tso|t soom s|mu|tanoous w|th tho momont ot tho snap. 3ocauso |t's
|mportant tor an|ma|s to got t|m|ng r|ght, your bra|n doos qu|to a b|t ot tancy od|t|ng work to put tho s|gna|s togothor |n a usotu| way.
1ho bottom ||no |s that t|mo |s a monta| construct|on, not an accurato baromotor ot what's happon|ng °out thoro.' |oro's a way to provo to yourso|t
that somoth|ng strango |s go|ng on w|th t|mo: |ook at your own oyos |n a m|rror and movo your po|nt ot tocus back and torth so that you'ro |ook|ng at
your r|ght oyo, thon at your |ott oyo, and back aga|n. Your oyos tako tons ot m||||soconds to movo trom ono pos|t|on to tho othor, but-horo's tho
mystory-you novor soo thom movo. What happons to tho gaps |n t|mo wh||o your oyos aro mov|ng? Why doosn't your bra|n caro about tho sma||
absoncos ot v|sua| |nput?
And tho durat|on ot an ovont-how |ong |t |astod-can bo oas||y d|stortod as wo||. You may havo not|cod th|s upon g|anc|ng at a c|ock on tho wa||:
tho socond hand sooms to bo trozon tor s||ght|y too |ong botoro |t starts t|ck|ng a|ong at |ts norma| paco. ln tho |aboratory, s|mp|o man|pu|at|ons
rovoa| tho ma||oab|||ty ot durat|on. |or oxamp|o, |mag|no l t|ash a squaro on your computor scroon tor ha|t a socond. lt l now t|ash a socond squaro
that |s |argor, you'|| th|nk tho socond ono |astod |ongor. 3amo |t l t|ash a squaro that's br|ghtor. Or mov|ng. 1hoso w||| a|| bo porco|vod to havo a
|ongor durat|on than tho or|g|na| squaro.
b0
As anothor oxamp|o ot tho strangonoss ot t|mo, cons|dor how you know whon you portormod an act|on and whon you sonsod tho consoquoncos.
lt you woro an ong|noor, you wou|d roasonab|y supposo that somoth|ng you do at t|mopo|nt 1 wou|d rosu|t |n sonsory toodback at t|mopo|nt 2. 3o
you wou|d bo surpr|sod to d|scovor that |n tho |ab wo can mako |t soom to you as though 2 happons botoro 1. lmag|no that you can tr|ggor a t|ash ot
||ght by pross|ng a button. low |mag|no that wo |njoct a s||ght do|ay-say, a tonth ot a socond-botwoon your pross and tho consoquont t|ash. Attor
you'vo prossod tho button sovora| t|mos, your bra|n adapts to th|s do|ay, so that tho two ovonts soom s||ght|y c|osor |n t|mo. Onco you aro adaptod
to tho do|ay, wo surpr|so you by prosont|ng tho t|ash |mmod|ato|y attor you pross tho button. ln th|s cond|t|on, you w||| bo||ovo tho t|ash happonod
botoro your act|on: you oxpor|onco an |||usory rovorsa| ot act|on and sonsat|on. 1ho |||us|on prosumab|y rot|octs a roca||brat|on ot motor-sonsory
t|m|ng wh|ch rosu|ts trom a pr|or oxpoctat|on that sonsory consoquoncos shou|d to||ow motor acts w|thout do|ay. 1ho bost way to ca||brato t|m|ng
oxpoctat|ons ot |ncom|ng s|gna|s |s to |ntoract w|th tho wor|d: oach t|mo a porson k|cks or knocks on somoth|ng, tho bra|n can mako tho assumpt|on
that tho sound, s|ght, and touch shou|d bo s|mu|tanoous. lt ono ot tho s|gna|s arr|vos w|th a do|ay, tho bra|n adjusts |ts oxpoctat|ons to mako |t soom
as though both ovonts happonod c|osor |n t|mo.
lntorprot|ng tho t|m|ng ot motor and sonsory s|gna|s |s not moro|y a party tr|ck ot tho bra|n, |t |s cr|t|ca| to so|v|ng tho prob|om ot causa||ty. At
bottom, causa||ty roqu|ros a tompora| ordor judgmont: d|d my motor act procodo or to||ow tho sonsory |nput? 1ho on|y way th|s prob|om can bo
accurato|y so|vod |n a mu|t|sonsory bra|n |s by koop|ng tho oxpoctod t|mo ot s|gna|s wo|| ca||bratod, so that °botoro' and °attor' can bo accurato|y
dotorm|nod ovon |n tho taco ot d|ttoront sonsory pathways ot d|ttoront spoods.
1|mo porcopt|on |s an act|vo aroa ot |nvost|gat|on |n my |aboratory and othors, but tho ovorarch|ng po|nt l want to mako horo |s that our sonso ot
t|mo-how much t|mo passod and what happonod whon-|s constructod by our bra|ns. And th|s sonso |s oas||y man|pu|atod, just ||ko our v|s|on can
bo.
3o tho t|rst |osson about trust|ng your sonsos |s: don't. 1ust bocauso you bo|lovo somoth|ng to bo truo, just bocauso you koow|t's truo, that
doosn't moan |t ls truo. 1ho most |mportant max|m tor t|ghtor p||ots |s °1rust your |nstrumonts.' 1h|s |s bocauso your sonsos w||| to|| you tho most
|ng|or|ous ||os, and |t you trust thom-|nstoad ot your cockp|t d|a|s-you'|| crash. 3o tho noxt t|mo somoono says, °Who aro you go|ng to bo||ovo, mo
or your |y|ng oyos?', cons|dor tho quost|on carotu||y.
Attor a||, wo aro awaro ot vory ||tt|o ot what |s °out thoro.' 1ho bra|n makos t|mo-sav|ng and rosourco-sav|ng assumpt|ons and tr|os to soo tho
wor|d on|y as wo|| as |t noods to. And as wo roa||zo that wo aro not consc|ous ot most th|ngs unt|| wo ask ourso|vos quost|ons about thom, wo havo
takon tho t|rst stop |n tho journoy ot so|t-oxcavat|on. Wo soo that what wo porco|vo |n tho outs|do wor|d |s gonoratod by parts ot tho bra|n to wh|ch
wo do not havo accoss.
1hoso pr|nc|p|os ot |naccoss|b|o mach|nory and r|ch |||us|on do not app|y on|y to bas|c porcopt|ons ot v|s|on and t|mo. 1hoy a|so app|y at h|ghor
|ovo|s-to what wo th|nk and too| and bo||ovo-as wo sha|| soo |n tho noxt chaptor.

A h|nt a||ows tho |mago to tako on moan|ng as a boardod t|guro. 1ho ||ght pattorns h|tt|ng your oyos aro gonora||y |nsutt|c|ont tor v|s|on |n tho absonco ot oxpoctat|ons.

¯
Cons|dor tho ana|ogous quost|on ot know|ng whothor your rotr|gorator ||ght |s a|ways on. You m|ght orronoous|y conc|udo that |t |s, s|mp|y bocauso |t appoars that way ovory t|mo
you snoak up to tho rotr|gorator door and yank |t opon.
¯¯
lt you havon't spottod |t yot, tho chango |n tho t|guro |s tho ho|ght ot tho wa|| boh|nd tho statuo.
Nind: 1ho Caµ

°l cannot grasp a|| that l am'
-August|no

CEANC|NC LANE5

1horo |s a |oom|ng chasm botwoon what your bra|n knows and what your m|nd |s capab|o ot accoss|ng. Cons|dor tho s|mp|o act ot chang|ng |anos
wh||o dr|v|ng a car. 1ry th|s: c|oso your oyos, gr|p an |mag|nary stoor|ng whoo|, and go through tho mot|ons ot a |ano chango. lmag|no that you aro
dr|v|ng |n tho |ott |ano and you wou|d ||ko to movo ovor to tho r|ght |ano. 3otoro road|ng on, actua||y put down tho book and try |t. l'|| g|vo you 100
po|nts |t you can do |t corroct|y.
lt's a ta|r|y oasy task, r|ght? l'm guoss|ng that you ho|d tho stoor|ng whoo| stra|ght, thon bankod |t ovor to tho r|ght tor a momont, and thon
stra|ghtonod |t out aga|n. lo prob|om.
l|ko a|most ovoryono o|so, you got |t comp|oto|y wrong.
1
1ho mot|on ot turn|ng tho whoo| r|ghtward tor a b|t, thon stra|ghton|ng |t out aga|n wou|d
stoor you ott tho road: you just p||otod a courso trom tho |ott |ano onto tho s|dowa|k. 1ho corroct mot|on tor chang|ng |anos |s bank|ng tho whoo| to
tho r|ght, thon back through tho contor, and cont|nu|ng to turn tho whoo| jost os íor to tbo |oít sloo, and on|y thon stra|ghton|ng out. 0on't bo||ovo |t?
vor|ty |t tor yourso|t whon you'ro noxt |n tho car. lt's such a s|mp|o motor task that you havo no prob|om accomp||sh|ng |t |n your da||y dr|v|ng. 3ut
whon torcod to accoss |t consc|ous|y, you'ro t|ummoxod.
1ho |ano-chang|ng oxamp|o |s ono ot a thousand. You aro not consc|ous|y awaro ot tho vast major|ty ot your bra|n's ongo|ng act|v|t|os, and nor
wou|d you want to bo-|t wou|d |ntortoro w|th tho bra|n's wo||-o||od procossos. 1ho bost way to moss up your p|ano p|oco |s to concontrato on your
t|ngors, tho bost way to got out ot broath |s to th|nk about your broath|ng, tho bost way to m|ss tho go|t ba|| |s to ana|yzo your sw|ng. 1h|s w|sdom |s
apparont ovon to ch||dron, and wo t|nd |t |mmorta||zod |n pooms such as °1ho luzz|od Cont|podo':
A cont|podo was happy qu|to,
Unt|| a trog |n tun
3a|d, °lray to|| wh|ch |og comos attor wh|ch?'
1h|s ra|sod hor m|nd to such a p|tch,
3ho |ay d|stractod |n tho d|tch
lot know|ng how to run.

1ho ab|||ty to romombor motor acts ||ko chang|ng |anos |s ca||od procodura| momory, and |t |s a typo ot lmp|lclt momory-moan|ng that your bra|n
ho|ds know|odgo ot somoth|ng that your m|nd cannot oxp||c|t|y accoss.
2
l|d|ng a b|ko, ty|ng your shoos, typ|ng on a koyboard, or stoor|ng your car
|nto a park|ng spaco wh||o spoak|ng on your co|| phono aro oxamp|os ot th|s. You oxocuto thoso act|ons oas||y, but w|thout know|ng tho dota||s ot
how you do |t. You wou|d bo tota||y unab|o to doscr|bo tho portoct|y t|mod choroography w|th wh|ch your musc|os contract and ro|ax as you nav|gato
around othor poop|o |n a catotor|a wh||o ho|d|ng a tray, yot you havo no troub|o do|ng |t. 1h|s |s tho gap botwoon what your bra|n can do and what
you can tap |nto consc|ous|y.
1ho concopt ot |mp||c|t momory has a r|ch, |t ||tt|o known, trad|t|on. 3y tho oar|y 1000s, lono 0oscartos had a|roady bogun to suspoct that
a|though oxpor|onco w|th tho wor|d |s storod |n momory, not a|| momory |s accoss|b|o. 1ho concopt was rok|nd|od |n tho |ato 1800s by tho
psycho|og|st |ormann Ebb|nghaus, who wroto that °most ot thoso oxpor|oncos roma|n concoa|od trom consc|ousnoss and yot produco an ottoct
wh|ch |s s|gn|t|cant and wh|ch authont|catos tho|r prov|ous oxpor|onco.'
8
1o tho oxtont that consc|ousnoss |s usotu|, |t |s usotu| |n sma|| quant|t|os, and tor vory part|cu|ar k|nds ot tasks. lt's oasy to undorstand why you
wou|d not want to bo consc|ous|y awaro ot tho |ntr|cac|os ot your musc|o movomont, but th|s can bo |oss |ntu|t|vo whon app||od to your porcopt|ons,
thoughts and bo||ots, wh|ch aro a|so t|na| products ot tho act|v|ty ot b||||ons ot norvo co||s. Wo turn to thoso now.
1EE NY51ERY OF 1EE CE|CKEN 5EXER5 AND 1EE PLANE 5PO11ER5

1ho bost ch|ckon soxors |n tho wor|d ha|| trom 1apan. Whon ch|ckon hatch||ngs aro born, |argo commorc|a| hatchor|os usua||y sot about d|v|d|ng
thom |nto ma|os and toma|os, and tho pract|co ot d|st|ngu|sh|ng tho two gondors |s known as ch|ck sox|ng. 3ox|ng |s nocossary bocauso tho two
gondors roco|vo d|ttoront tood|ng programs: ono tor tho toma|os, who w||| ovontua||y produco oggs, and anothor tor tho ma|os, who aro typ|ca||y
dost|nod to bo d|sposod ot bocauso ot tho|r uso|ossnoss |n tho commorco ot produc|ng oggs, on|y a tow ma|os aro kopt and tattonod tor moat. 3o
tho job ot tho ch|ck soxor |s to p|ck up oach hatch||ng and qu|ck|y dotorm|no |ts sox |n ordor to chooso tho corroct b|n to put |t |n. 1ho prob|om |s that
tho task |s tamous|y d|tt|cu|t: ma|o and toma|o ch|cks |ook oxact|y a||ko.
Wo||, a|most oxact|y. 1ho 1apanoso |nvontod a mothod ot sox|ng ch|cks known as vont sox|ng, by wh|ch oxport ch|ckon soxors cou|d rap|d|y
ascorta|n tho sox ot ono-day-o|d hatch||ngs. 3og|nn|ng |n tho 1080s, pou|try broodors trom around tho wor|d travo|od to tho Zon-l|ppon Ch|ck
3ox|ng 3choo| |n 1apan to |oarn tho tochn|quo.
1ho mystory was that no ono cou|d oxp|a|n oxact|y how |t was dono.
4
lt was somohow basod on vory subt|o v|sua| cuos, but tho protoss|ona|
soxors cou|d not roport what thoso cuos woro. lnstoad, thoy wou|d |ook at tho ch|ck's roar (whoro tho vont |s) and s|mp|y soom to koowtho corroct
b|n to throw |t |n.
And th|s |s how tho protoss|ona|s taught tho studont soxors. 1ho mastor wou|d stand ovor tho appront|co and watch. 1ho studonts wou|d p|ck up a
ch|ck, oxam|no |ts roar, and toss |t |nto ono b|n or tho othor. 1ho mastor wou|d g|vo toodback: yos or oo. Attor wooks on ond ot th|s act|v|ty, tho
studont's bra|n was tra|nod up to mastortu|-a|bo|t unconsc|ous-|ovo|s.
Voanwh||o, a s|m||ar story was unto|d|ng ocoans away. 0ur|ng Wor|d War ll, undor constant throat ot bomb|ngs, tho 3r|t|sh had a groat nood to
d|st|ngu|sh |ncom|ng a|rcratt qu|ck|y and accurato|y. Wh|ch a|rcratt woro 3r|t|sh p|anos com|ng homo and wh|ch woro Gorman p|anos com|ng to
bomb? 3ovora| a|rp|ano onthus|asts had provod to bo oxco||ont °spottors,' so tho m|||tary oagor|y omp|oyod tho|r sorv|cos. 1hoso spottors woro so
va|uab|o that tho govornmont qu|ck|y tr|od to on||st moro spottors-but thoy turnod out to bo raro and d|tt|cu|t to t|nd. 1ho govornmont thorotoro
taskod tho spottors w|th tra|n|ng othors. lt was a gr|m attompt. 1ho spottors tr|od to oxp|a|n tho|r stratog|os but ta||od. lo ono got |t, not ovon tho
spottors thomso|vos. l|ko tho ch|ckon soxors, tho spottors had ||tt|o |doa how thoy d|d what thoy d|d-thoy s|mp|y saw tho r|ght answor.
W|th a ||tt|o |ngonu|ty, tho 3r|t|sh t|na||y t|gurod out how to succosstu||y tra|n now spottors: by tr|a|-and-orror toodback. A nov|co wou|d hazard a
guoss and tho oxport wou|d say yos or oo. Evontua||y tho nov|cos bocamo, ||ko tho|r montors, vosso|s ot tho mystor|ous, |nottab|o oxport|so.
b
1horo can bo a |argo gap botwoon know|odgo and awaronoss. Whon wo oxam|no sk|||s that aro not amonab|o to |ntrospoct|on, tho t|rst surpr|so
|s that |mp||c|t momory |s comp|oto|y soparab|o trom oxp||c|t momory: you can damago ono w|thout hurt|ng tho othor. Cons|dor pat|onts w|th
antorogrado amnos|a, who cannot consc|ous|y roca|| now oxpor|oncos |n tho|r ||vos. lt you spond an attornoon try|ng to toach thom tho v|doo gamo
1otr|s, thoy w||| to|| you tho noxt day that thoy havo no roco||oct|on ot tho oxpor|onco, that thoy havo novor soon th|s v|doo gamo botoro, and, most
||ko|y, that thoy havo no |doa who you aro, o|thor. 3ut |t you |ook at tho|r poríormooco on tho gamo tho noxt day, you'|| t|nd that thoy havo |mprovod
oxact|y as much as nonamnos|acs.
0
lmp||c|t|y tho|r bra|ns havo |oarnod tho gamo-tho know|odgo |s s|mp|y not accoss|b|o to tho|r consc|ousnoss.
(lntorost|ng|y, |t you wako up an amnos|c pat|ont dur|ng tho n|ght attor thoy'vo p|ayod 1otr|s, thoy'|| roport that thoy woro droam|ng ot co|ortu| ta|||ng
b|ocks, but thoy havo no |doa why.)
Ot courso, |t's not just soxors and spottors and amnos|acs who onjoy unconsc|ous |oarn|ng: ossont|a||y ovoryth|ng about your |ntoract|on w|th tho
wor|d rosts on th|s procoss.
7
You may havo a d|tt|cu|t t|mo putt|ng |nto words tho charactor|st|cs ot your tathor's wa|k, or tho shapo ot h|s noso, or
tho way ho |aughs-but whon you soo somoono who wa|ks, |ooks, or |aughs ||ko h|m, you know |t |mmod|ato|y.
EOW 1O KNOW |F YOu'RE A RAC|51

Wo otton do not know what's bur|od |n tho cavorns ot our unconsc|ous. An oxamp|o ot th|s comos up, |n |ts ug||ost torm, w|th rac|sm.
Cons|dor th|s s|tuat|on: A wh|to company ownor rotusos omp|oymont to a b|ack app||cant, and tho caso goos to court. 1ho omp|oyor |ns|sts that
ho harbors no rac|sm, tho app||cant |ns|sts othorw|so. 1ho judgo |s stuck: how can ono ovor know what sort ot b|asos may |urk |n somoono's
unconsc|ous, modu|at|ng tho|r doc|s|ons, ovon |t thoy aro not awaro ot |t consc|ous|y? loop|o don't a|ways spoak tho|r m|nds, |n part bocauso
poop|o don't a|ways koowtho|r m|nds. As E. V. |orstor qu|ppod: °|ow do l know what l th|nk unt|| l hoar what l say?'
3ut |t somoono |s unw||||ng to soy somoth|ng, aro thoro ways ot prob|ng what |s |n tho unconsc|ous bra|n? Aro thoro ways to torrot out
subtorranoan bo||ots by obsorv|ng somoono's bohav|or?
lmag|no that you s|t down |n tront ot two buttons, and you'ro askod to h|t tho r|ght button whonovor a pos|t|vo word t|ashos on tho scroon (joy, |ovo,
boppy, and so on), and tho |ott button whonovor you soo a nogat|vo word (torrlb|o, oosty, íol|oro). lrotty stra|ghttorward. low tho task changos a
b|t: h|t tho r|ght button whonovor you soo a photo ot an ovorwo|ght porson, and tho |ott button whonovor you soo a photo ot a th|n porson. Aga|n,
protty oasy. 3ut tor tho noxt task, th|ngs aro pa|rod up: you'ro askod to h|t tho r|ght button whon you soo o|thor a pos|t|vo word or an ovorwo|ght
porson, and tho |ott button whonovor you soo a nogat|vo word or a th|n porson. ln anothor group ot tr|a|s, you do tho samo th|ng but w|th tho pa|r|ngs
sw|tchod-so you now pross tho r|ght button tor a nogat|vo word or a th|n porson.
1ho rosu|ts can bo troub||ng. 1ho roact|on t|mos ot subjocts aro tastor whon tho pa|r|ngs havo a strong assoc|at|on unconsc|ous|y.
8
|or oxamp|o,
|t ovorwo|ght poop|o aro ||nkod w|th a nogat|vo assoc|at|on |n tho subjoct's unconsc|ous, thon tho subjoct roacts tastor to a photo ot an ovorwo|ght
porson whon tho rosponso |s ||nkod to tho samo button as a nogat|vo word. 0ur|ng tr|a|s |n wh|ch tho oppos|to concopts aro ||nkod (th|n w|th bad),
subjocts w||| tako a |ongor t|mo to rospond, prosumab|y bocauso tho pa|r|ng |s moro d|tt|cu|t. 1h|s oxpor|mont has boon mod|t|od to moasuro
|mp||c|t att|tudos toward racos, ro||g|ons, homosoxua||ty, sk|n tono, ago, d|sab|||t|os, and pros|dont|a| cand|datos.
0
Anothor mothod tor toas|ng out |mp||c|t b|asos s|mp|y moasuros tho way a part|c|pant movos a computor cursor.
10
lmag|no that you start w|th
your cursor pos|t|onod at tho bottom ot tho scroon, and |n tho uppor cornors ot tho scroon you havo buttons |abo|od °||ko' and °d|s||ko'. 1hon a word
appoars |n tho m|dd|o (say, tho namo ot a ro||g|on), and you aro |nstructod to movo tho mouso as qu|ck|y as you can to your answor about whothor
you ||ko or d|s||ko poop|o ot that crood. What you don't roa||zo |s that tho oxact trojoctory ot your mouso movomont |s bo|ng rocordod-ovory
pos|t|on at ovory momont. 3y ana|yz|ng tho path your mouso travo|od, rosoarchors can dotoct whothor your motor systom startod mov|ng toward
ono button botoro othor cogn|t|vo systoms k|ckod |nto goar and drovo |t toward tho othor rosponso. 3o, tor oxamp|o, ovon |t you answorod °||ko' tor
a part|cu|ar ro||g|on, |t may bo that your trajoctory dr|ttod s||ght|y toward tho °d|s||ko' button botoro |t got back on track tor tho moro soc|a||y
appropr|ato rosponso.
Evon poop|o w|th corta|nty about tho|r att|tudos toward d|ttoront racos, gondors, and ro||g|ons can t|nd thomso|vos surpr|sod-and appa||od-by
what's |urk|ng |n tho|r bra|ns. And ||ko othor torms ot |mp||c|t assoc|at|on, thoso b|asos aro |mponotrab|o to consc|ous |ntrospoct|on.
¯
EOW DO | LOVE 1EEE? LE1 NE COuN1 1EE '5

lot's cons|dor what happons whon two poop|o ta|| |n |ovo. Common sonso to||s us that tho|r ardor grows trom any numbor ot soods, |nc|ud|ng ||to
c|rcumstancos, a sonso ot undorstand|ng, soxua| attract|on, and mutua| adm|rat|on. 3uro|y tho covort mach|nory ot tho unconsc|ous |s not
|mp||catod |n who you chooso as a mato. Or |sn't |t?
lmag|no you run |nto your tr|ond 1oo|, and ho to||s you that ho has tound tho |ovo ot h|s ||to, a woman namod 1onny. 1hat's tunny, you cons|dor,
bocauso your tr|ond A|ox just marr|od Amy, and 0onny |s crazy tor 0a|sy. ls thoro somoth|ng go|ng on w|th thoso |ottor pa|r|ngs? ls ||ko attractod to
||ko? 1hat's crazy, you conc|udo: |mportant ||to doc|s|ons-such as who to spond your ||to w|th-can't bo |nt|uoncod by somoth|ng as capr|c|ous as
tho t|rst |ottor ot a namo. lorhaps a|| thoso a|||torat|vo a|||ancos aro just an acc|dont.
3ut thoy'ro not an acc|dont. ln 2004, psycho|og|st 1ohn 1onos and h|s co||oaguos oxam|nod t|ttoon thousand pub||c marr|ago rocords trom
Wa|kor County, Goorg|a, and l|borty County, ||or|da. 1hoy tound that, |ndood, poop|o moro otton got marr|od to othors w|th tho samo t|rst |ottor ot
tho|r t|rst namo than wou|d bo oxpoctod by chanco.
11
3ut why? lt's not about tho |ottors, oxact|y-|nstoad |t's about tho tact that thoso matos somohow rom|nd tho|r spousos ot thomso|vos. loop|o
tond to |ovo rot|oct|ons ot thomso|vos |n othors. lsycho|og|sts |ntorprot th|s as an unconsc|ous so|t-|ovo, or porhaps a comtort |ovo| w|th th|ngs that
aro tam|||ar -and thoy torm th|s lmp|lclt ogotlsm.
lmp||c|t ogot|sm |s not just about ||to partnors-|t a|so |nt|uoncos tho products you protor and purchaso. ln ono study, subjocts woro prosontod w|th
two (t|ct|ona|) brands ot toa to tasto-tost. Ono ot tho brand namos ot tho toas happonod to sharo |ts t|rst throo |ottors w|th tho subjoct's namo, that |s,
1ommy m|ght bo samp||ng toas namod 1omova and lau|or. 3ubjocts wou|d tasto tho toas, smack tho|r ||ps, cons|dor both carotu||y, and a|most
a|ways doc|do that thoy protorrod tho toa whoso namo happonod to match tho t|rst |ottors ot tho|r namo. lot surpr|s|ng|y, a subjoct namod laura
wou|d chooso tho toa namod lau|or. 1hoy woron't oxp||c|t|y oworo ot tho connoct|on w|th tho |ottors, thoy s|mp|y bo||ovod tho toa tastod bottor. As |t
turns out, both cups ot toa had boon pourod trom tho samo toapot.
1ho powor ot |mp||c|t ogot|sm goos boyond your namo to othor arb|trary toaturos ot yourso|t, such as your b|rthday. ln a un|vors|ty study, studonts
woro g|von an ossay to road about tho luss|an monk lasput|n. |or ha|t tho studonts, lasput|n's b|rthday was mont|onod |n tho ossay-and |t was
g|mm|ckod so that |t °happonod' to bo tho samo as tho roador's own b|rthday. |or tho othor ha|t ot tho studonts, a b|rthday d|ttoront trom tho|r own
was usod, othorw|so tho ossays woro |dont|ca|. At tho ond ot tho road|ng, tho studonts woro askod to answor sovora| quost|ons covor|ng what thoy
thought ot lasput|n as a porson. 1hoso who bo||ovod thoy sharod a b|rthday w|th lasput|n gavo h|m moro gonorous rat|ngs.
12
1hoy s|mp|y ||kod
h|m moro, w|thout hav|ng any consc|ous accoss as to why.
1ho magnot|c powor ot unconsc|ous so|t-|ovo goos boyond what and whom you protor. lncrod|b|y, |t can subt|y |nt|uonco whoro you ||vo and what
you do, as wo||. lsycho|og|st 3rott lo|ham and h|s co||oaguos p|umbod pub||c rocords and tound that poop|o w|th b|rthdays on |obruary 2 (2/2) aro
d|sproport|onato|y ||ko|y to movo to c|t|os w|th a rotoronco to tho numbor two |n tho|r namos, such as 1w|n lakos, W|scons|n. loop|o born on 8/8
aro stat|st|ca||y ovorroprosontod |n p|acos ||ko 1hroo |orks, Vontana, as aro poop|o born on 0/0 |n p|acos ||ko 3|x V||o, 3outh Caro||na, and so on
tor a|| tho b|rthdays and c|t|os tho authors cou|d t|nd. Cons|dor how amaz|ng that |s: assoc|at|ons w|th tho numbors |n poop|o's arb|trary b|rth datos
can bo |nt|uont|a| onough to sway tho|r ros|dont|a| cho|cos, howovor s||ght|y. Aga|n, |t's unconsc|ous.
lmp||c|t ogot|sm can a|so |nt|uonco what you choso to do w|th your ||to. 3y ana|yz|ng protoss|ona| momborsh|p d|roctor|os, lo|ham and h|s
co||oaguos tound that poop|o namod 0on|so or 0onn|s aro d|sproport|onato|y ||ko|y to bocomo dont|sts, wh||o poop|o namod laura or lawronco
aro moro ||ko|y to bocomo |awyors, and poop|o w|th namos ||ko Goorgo or Goorg|na to bocomo goo|og|sts. 1hoy a|so tound that ownors ot root|ng
compan|os aro moro ||ko|y to havo a t|rst |n|t|a| ot l |nstoad ot |, wh||o hardwaro storo ownors aro moro ||ko|y to havo namos bog|nn|ng w|th |
|nstoad ot l.
18
A d|ttoront study m|nod troo|y ava||ab|o on||no protoss|ona| databasos to t|nd that phys|c|ans havo d|sproport|onato|y moro
surnamos that |nc|udo ooc, ook, or moo, wh||o |awyors aro moro ||ko|y to havo |ow, |oo, or ott |n tho|r surnamos.
14
As crazy as |t sounds, a|| thoso t|nd|ngs passod tho stat|st|ca| throsho|ds tor s|gn|t|canco. 1ho ottocts aro not |argo, but thoy'ro vor|t|ab|o. Wo aro
|nt|uoncod by dr|vos to wh|ch wo havo ||tt|o accoss, and wh|ch wo novor wou|d havo bo||ovod had not tho stat|st|cs |a|d thom baro.
1|CKL|NC 1EE BRA|N BELOW 1EE 5uRFACE OF AWARENE55

Your bra|n can bo subt|y man|pu|atod |n ways that chango your tuturo bohav|or. lmag|no l ask you to road somo pagos ot toxt. lator, l ask you to t|||
|n tho b|anks ot somo part|a| torms, such as cbl___ so___. You'ro moro ||ko|y to chooso torms that you'vo rocont|y soon-say, cblckoo soxor rathor
than cbloo sot-whothor or not you havo any oxp||c|t momory ot hav|ng rocont|y soon thoso words.
1b
3|m||ar|y, |t l ask you to t||| |n tho b|anks |n
somo word, such as s_b|_m_oo_, you aro bottor ab|o to do so |t you'vo prov|ous|y soon tho word on a ||st, whothor or not you romombor hav|ng
soon |t.
10
3omo part ot your bra|n has boon touchod and changod by tho words on tho ||st. 1h|s ottoct |s ca||od pr|m|ng: your bra|n has boon pr|mod
||ko a pump.
17
lr|m|ng undorscoros tho po|nt that |mp||c|t momory systoms aro tundamonta||y soparato trom oxp||c|t momory systoms: ovon whon tho socond
ono has |ost tho data, tho tormor ono has a |ock on |t. 1ho soparab|||ty botwoon tho systoms |s aga|n |||ustratod by pat|onts w|th antorogrado
amnos|a rosu|t|ng trom bra|n damago. 3ovoro|y amnos|c pat|onts can bo pr|mod to t||| |n part|a| words ovon though thoy havo no consc|ous
roco||oct|on ot hav|ng boon prosontod w|th any toxt |n tho t|rst p|aco.
18
3oyond a tomporary t|ck||ng ot tho bra|n, tho ottocts ot prov|ous oxposuro can bo |ong |ast|ng. lt you havo soon a p|cturo ot somoono's taco
botoro, you w||| judgo thom to bo moro attract|vo upon a |ator v|ow|ng. 1h|s |s truo ovon whon you havo no roco||oct|on ot ovor hav|ng soon thom
prov|ous|y.
10
1h|s |s known as tho moro oxposoro oííoct, and |t |||ustratos tho worr|somo tact that your |mp||c|t momory |nt|uoncos your |ntorprotat|on
ot tho wor|d-wh|ch th|ngs you ||ko, don't ||ko, and so on. lt w||| como as no surpr|so to you that tho moro oxposuro ottoct |s part ot tho mag|c boh|nd
product brand|ng, co|obr|ty bu||d|ng, and po||t|ca| campa|gn|ng: w|th ropoatod oxposuro to a product or taco, you como to protor |t moro. 1ho moro
oxposuro ottoct |s why poop|o |n tho pub||c spot||ght aro not a|ways as d|sturbod as ono m|ght oxpoct by nogat|vo pross. As tamous porsona||t|os
otton qu|p, °1ho on|y bad pub||c|ty |s no pub||c|ty,' or °l don't caro what tho nowspapors say about mo as |ong as thoy spo|| my namo r|ght.'
20
Anothor roa|-wor|d man|tostat|on ot |mp||c|t momory |s known as tho l||osloo-oí-trotb oííoct: you aro moro ||ko|y to bo||ovo that a statomont |s truo
|t you havo hoard |t botoro-whothor or not |t |s actua||y truo. ln ono study, subjocts ratod tho va||d|ty ot p|aus|b|o sontoncos ovory two wooks.
W|thout |ott|ng on, tho oxpor|montors snuck |n somo ropoat sontoncos (both truo and ta|so onos) across tho tost|ng soss|ons. And thoy tound a
c|oar rosu|t: |t subjocts had hoard a sontonco |n prov|ous wooks, thoy woro moro ||ko|y to now rato |t as truo, ovon |t thoy sworo thoy had novor hoard
|t botoro.
21
1h|s |s tho caso ovon whon tho oxpor|montor to||s tho subjocts that tho sontoncos thoy aro about to hoar aro ta|so: dosp|to th|s, moro
oxposuro to an |doa |s onough to boost |ts bo||ovab|||ty upon |ator contact.
22
1ho |||us|on-ot-truth ottoct h|gh||ghts tho potont|a| dangor tor poop|o who
aro ropoatod|y oxposod to tho samo ro||g|ous od|cts or po||t|ca| s|ogans.
A s|mp|o pa|r|ng ot concopts can bo onough to |nduco an unconsc|ous assoc|at|on and, ovontua||y, tho sonso that thoro |s somoth|ng tam|||ar and
truo about tho pa|r|ng. 1h|s |s tho bas|s ot ovory ad wo'vo ovor soon that pa|rs a product w|th attract|vo, choory, and soxua||y chargod poop|o. And
|t's a|so tho bas|s ot a movo mado by Goorgo W. 3ush's advort|s|ng toam dur|ng h|s 2000 campa|gn aga|nst A| Goro. ln 3ush's $2.b m||||on do||ar
to|ov|s|on commorc|a|, a tramo w|th tho word lA13 t|ashos on tho scroon |n conjunct|on w|th °1ho Goro proscr|pt|on p|an.' ln tho noxt momont |t
bocomos c|oar that tho word |s actua||y tho ond ot tho word 3UlEAUClA13, but tho ottoct tho ad makors woro go|ng tor was obv|ous-and, thoy
hopod, momorab|o.
1EE EuNCE

lmag|no that you arrango a|| your t|ngors ovor ton buttons, and oach button corrosponds to a co|orod ||ght. Your task |s s|mp|o: oach t|mo a ||ght
b||nks on, you h|t tho corrospond|ng button as qu|ck|y as you can. lt tho soquonco ot ||ghts |s random, your roact|on t|mos w||| gonora||y not bo vory
tast, howovor, |nvost|gators d|scovorod that |t thoro |s a h|ddon pattorn to tho ||ghts, your roact|on t|mos w||| ovontua||y spood up, |nd|cat|ng that you
havo p|ckod up on tho soquonco and can mako somo sort ot prod|ct|ons about wh|ch ||ght w||| t|ash noxt. lt an unoxpoctod ||ght thon comos on, your
roact|on t|mo w||| bo s|ow aga|n. 1ho surpr|so |s that th|s spood up works ovon whon you aro comp|oto|y unawaro ot tho soquonco, tho consc|ous
m|nd doos not nood to bo |nvo|vod at a|| tor th|s typo ot |oarn|ng to occur.
28
Your ab|||ty to namo what |s go|ng to occur noxt |s ||m|tod or non-ox|stont.
And yot you m|ght havo a boocb.
3omot|mos thoso th|ngs can roach consc|ous awaronoss, but not a|ways-and whon thoy do, thoy do so s|ow|y. ln 1007, nourosc|ont|st Anto|no
3ochara and h|s co||oaguos |a|d out tour docks ot cards |n tront ot subjocts and askod thom to chooso ono card at a t|mo. Each card rovoa|od a
ga|n or |oss ot monoy. W|th t|mo, tho subjocts bogan to roa||zo that oach dock had a charactor to |t: two ot tho docks woro °good,' moan|ng that tho
subjocts wou|d mako monoy, wh||o tho othor two woro °bad,' moan|ng thoy wou|d ond up w|th a not |oss.
As subjocts pondorod wh|ch dock to draw trom, thoy woro stoppod at var|ous po|nts by tho |nvost|gators and askod tor tho|r op|n|on: Wh|ch
docks woro good? Wh|ch woro bad? ln th|s way, tho |nvost|gators tound that |t typ|ca||y roqu|rod about twonty-t|vo draws trom tho docks tor subjocts
to bo ab|o to say wh|ch onos thoy thought woro good and bad. lot torr|b|y |ntorost|ng, r|ght? Wo||, not yot.
1ho |nvost|gators a|so moasurod tho subjoct's sk|n conductanco rosponso, wh|ch rot|octs tho act|v|ty ot tho autonom|c (t|ght-or-t||ght) norvous
systom. And horo thoy not|cod somoth|ng amaz|ng: tho autonom|c norvous systom p|ckod up on tho stat|st|cs ot tho dock wo|| botoro a subjoct's
consc|ousnoss d|d. 1hat |s, whon subjocts roachod tor tho bad docks, thoro was an ant|c|patory sp|ko ot act|v|ty-ossont|a||y, a warn|ng s|gn.
24
1h|s sp|ko was dotoctab|o by about tho th|rtoonth card draw. 3o somo part ot tho subjocts' bra|ns was p|ck|ng up on tho oxpoctod roturn trom tho
docks wo|| botoro tho subjocts' consc|ous m|nds cou|d accoss that |ntormat|on. And tho |ntormat|on was bo|ng do||vorod |n tho torm ot a °hunch':
subjocts bogan to chooso tho good docks ovon botoro thoy cou|d consc|ous|y say why. 1h|s moans that consc|ous know|odgo ot tho s|tuat|on was
not roqu|rod tor mak|ng advantagoous doc|s|ons.
Evon bottor, |t turnod out that poop|o oooooo tho gut too||ng: w|thout |t tho|r doc|s|on mak|ng wou|d novor bo vory good. 0amas|o and h|s
co||oaguos ran tho card-cho|co task us|ng pat|onts w|th damago to a tronta| part ot tho bra|n ca||od tho vontromod|a| protronta| cortox, an aroa
|nvo|vod |n mak|ng doc|s|ons. 1ho toam d|scovorod that thoso pat|onts woro unab|o to torm tho ant|c|patory warn|ng s|gna| ot tho ga|van|c sk|n
rosponso. 1ho pat|onts' bra|ns s|mp|y woron't p|ck|ng up on tho stat|st|cs and g|v|ng thom an admon|t|on. Amaz|ng|y, ovon attor thoso pat|onts
consc|ous|y roa||zod wh|ch docks woro bad, thoy stl|| cont|nuod to mako tho wrong cho|cos. ln othor words, tho gut too||ng was ossont|a| tor
advantagoous doc|s|on mak|ng.
1h|s |od 0amas|o to proposo that tho too||ngs producod by phys|ca| statos ot tho body como to gu|do bohav|or and doc|s|on mak|ng.
2b
3ody
statos bocomo ||nkod to outcomos ot ovonts |n tho wor|d. Whon somoth|ng bad happons, tho bra|n |ovoragos tho ont|ro body (hoart rato,
contract|on ot tho gut, woaknoss ot tho musc|os, and so on) to rog|stor that too||ng, and that too||ng bocomos assoc|atod w|th tho ovont. Whon tho
ovont |s noxt pondorod, tho bra|n ossont|a||y runs a s|mu|at|on, ro||v|ng tho phys|ca| too||ngs ot tho ovont. 1hoso too||ngs thon sorvo to nav|gato, or at
|oast b|as, subsoquont doc|s|on mak|ng. lt tho too||ngs trom a g|von ovont aro bad, thoy d|ssuado tho act|on, |t thoy aro good, thoy oncourago |t.
ln th|s v|ow, phys|ca| statos ot tho body prov|do tho hunchos that can stoor bohav|or. 1hoso hunchos turn out to bo corroct moro otton than chanco
wou|d prod|ct, most|y bocauso your unconsc|ous bra|n |s p|ck|ng up on th|ngs t|rst, and your consc|ousnoss |ags boh|nd.
ln tact, consc|ous systoms can broak ont|ro|y, w|th no ottoct on tho unconsc|ous systoms. loop|o w|th a cond|t|on ca||od prosopagnos|a cannot
d|st|ngu|sh botwoon tam|||ar and untam|||ar tacos. 1hoy ro|y ont|ro|y on cuos such as ha|r||nos, ga|t, and vo|cos to rocogn|zo poop|o thoy know.
londor|ng th|s cond|t|on |od rosoarchors 0an|o| 1rano| and Anton|o 0amas|o to try somoth|ng c|ovor: ovon though prosopagnos|cs cannot
consc|ous|y rocogn|zo tacos, wou|d thoy havo a moasurab|o sk|n conductanco rosponso to tacos that woro tam|||ar? lndood, thoy d|d. Evon though
tho prosopagnos|c tru|y |ns|sts on bo|ng unab|o to rocogn|zo tacos, somo part ot h|s bra|n can (and doos) d|st|ngu|sh tam|||ar tacos trom untam|||ar
onos.
lt you cannot a|ways o||c|t a stra|ght answor trom tho unconsc|ous bra|n, how can you accoss |ts know|odgo? 3omot|mos tho tr|ck |s moro|y to
probo what your gut |s to|||ng you. 3o tho noxt t|mo a tr|ond |amonts that sho cannot doc|do botwoon two opt|ons, to|| hor tho oas|ost way to so|vo
hor prob|om: t||p a co|n. 3ho shou|d spoc|ty wh|ch opt|on bo|ongs to hoads and wh|ch to ta||s, and thon |ot tho co|n t|y. 1ho |mportant part |s to
assoss hor gut too||ng attor tho co|n |ands. lt sho too|s a subt|o sonso ot ro||ot at bo|ng °to|d' what to do by tho co|n, that's tho r|ght cho|co tor hor. lt,
|nstoad, sho conc|udos that |t's |ud|crous tor hor to mako a doc|s|on basod on a co|n toss, that w||| cuo hor to chooso tho othor opt|on.
¯ ¯ ¯

3o tar wo'vo boon |ook|ng at tho vast and soph|st|catod know|odgo that ||vos undor tho surtaco ot awaronoss. Wo'vo soon that you don't havo
accoss to tho dota||s ot how your bra|n doos th|ngs, trom road|ng |ottors to chang|ng |anos. 3o what ro|o doos tho consc|ous m|nd p|ay, |t any, |n a||
your know-how? A b|g ono, |t turns out-bocauso much ot tho know|odgo storod |n tho dopths ot tho unconsc|ous bra|n bogan ||to |n tho torm ot
consc|ous p|ans. Wo turn to th|s now.
1EE ROBO1 1EA1 WON W|NBLEDON

lmag|no that you havo r|son through tho ranks to tho top tonn|s tournamont |n tho wor|d and you aro now po|sod on a groon court tac|ng tho p|anot's
groatost tonn|s robot. 1h|s robot has |ncrod|b|y m|n|atur|zod compononts and so|t-ropa|r|ng parts, and |t runs on such opt|m|zod onorgy pr|nc|p|os
that |t can consumo throo hundrod grams ot hydrocarbons and thon |oap a|| ovor tho court ||ko a mounta|n goat. 3ounds ||ko a torm|dab|o opponont,
r|ght? Wo|como to W|mb|odon-you'ro p|ay|ng aga|nst a human bo|ng.
1ho compot|tors at W|mb|odon aro rap|d, ott|c|ont mach|nos that p|ay tonn|s shock|ng|y wo||. 1hoy can track a ba|| travo||ng n|noty m||os por hour,
movo toward |t rap|d|y, and or|ont a sma|| surtaco to |ntorsoct |ts trajoctory. And thoso protoss|ona| tonn|s p|ayors do a|most nono ot th|s
consc|ous|y. ln oxact|y tho samo way that you road |ottors on a pago or chango |anos, thoy ro|y ont|ro|y on tho|r unconsc|ous mach|nory. 1hoy aro, tor
a|| pract|ca| purposos, robots. lndood, whon l||o lastaso |ost tho W|mb|odon t|na| |n 1070, ho su||on|y sa|d ot h|s w|nn|ng opponont, 3jörn 3org,
°|o's a robot trom outor spaco.'
3ut thoso robots aro trolooo by consc|ous m|nds. An asp|r|ng tonn|s p|ayor doos not havo to know anyth|ng about bu||d|ng robot|cs (that was
takon caro ot by ovo|ut|on). lathor, tho cha||ongo |s to progrom tho robot|cs. ln th|s caso, tho cha||ongo |s to program tho mach|nory to dovoto |ts
t|ox|b|o computat|ona| rosourcos to rap|d|y and accurato|y vo||oy|ng a tuzzy yo||ow ba|| ovor a short not.
And th|s |s whoro consc|ousnoss p|ays a ro|o. Consc|ous parts ot tho bra|n tra|n othor parts ot tho noura| mach|nory, ostab||sh|ng tho goa|s and
a||ocat|ng tho rosourcos. °Gr|p tho rackot |owor whon you sw|ng,' tho coach says, and tho young p|ayor mumb|os that to horso|t. 3ho pract|cos hor
sw|ng ovor and ovor, thousands ot t|mos, oach t|mo sott|ng as hor ond po|nt tho goa| ot smash|ng tho ba|| d|roct|y |nto tho othor quadrant. As sho
sorvos aga|n and aga|n, tho robot|c systom makos t|ny adjustmonts across a notwork ot |nnumorab|o synapt|c connoct|ons. |or coach g|vos
toodback wh|ch sho noods to hoar and undorstand consc|ous|y. And sho cont|nua||y |ncorporatos tho |nstruct|ons (°3tra|ghton your wr|st. 3top |nto
tho sw|ng.') |nto tho tra|n|ng ot tho robot unt|| tho movomonts bocomo so |ngra|nod as to no |ongor bo accoss|b|o.
Consc|ousnoss |s tho |ong-torm p|annor, tho CEO ot tho company, wh||o most ot tho day-to-day oporat|ons aro run by a|| thoso parts ot hor bra|n
to wh|ch sho has no accoss. lmag|no a CEO who has |nhor|tod a g|ant b|uo-ch|p company: ho has somo |nt|uonco, but ho |s a|so com|ng |nto a
s|tuat|on that has a|roady boon ovo|v|ng tor a |ong t|mo botoro ho got thoro. ||s job |s to dot|no a v|s|on and mako |ong-torm p|ans tor tho company,
|nsotar as tho tochno|ogy ot tho company |s ab|o to support h|s po||c|os. 1h|s |s what consc|ousnoss doos: |t sots tho goa|s, and tho rost ot tho
systom |oarns how to moot thom.
You may not bo a protoss|ona| tonn|s p|ayor, but you'vo boon through th|s procoss |t you ovor |oarnod to r|do a b|cyc|o. 1ho t|rst t|mo you got on,
you wobb|od and crashod and tr|od dosporato|y to t|guro |t out. Your consc|ous m|nd was hoav||y |nvo|vod. Evontua||y, attor an adu|t gu|dod tho
b|cyc|o a|ong, you bocamo ab|o to r|do on your own. Attor somo t|mo, tho sk||| bocamo ||ko a rot|ox. lt bocamo automat|zod. lt bocamo just ||ko
road|ng and spoak|ng your |anguago, or ty|ng your shoos, or rocogn|z|ng your tathor's wa|k. 1ho dota||s bocamo no |ongor consc|ous and no |ongor
accoss|b|o.
Ono ot tho most |mpross|vo toaturos ot bra|ns-and ospoc|a||y human bra|ns-|s tho t|ox|b|||ty to |oarn a|most any k|nd ot task that comos |ts way.
G|vo an appront|co tho dos|ro to |mpross h|s mastor |n a ch|ckon-sox|ng task, and h|s bra|n dovotos |ts mass|vo rosourcos to d|st|ngu|sh|ng ma|os
trom toma|os. G|vo an unomp|oyod av|at|on onthus|ast a chanco to bo a nat|ona| horo, and h|s bra|n |oarns to d|st|ngu|sh onomy a|rcratt trom |oca|
t|yboys. 1h|s t|ox|b|||ty ot |oarn|ng accounts tor a |argo part ot what wo cons|dor human |nto|||gonco. Wh||o many an|ma|s aro propor|y ca||od
|nto|||gont, humans d|st|ngu|sh thomso|vos |n that thoy aro so í|oxlb|y |nto|||gont, tash|on|ng tho|r noura| c|rcu|ts to match tho tasks at hand. lt |s tor
th|s roason that wo can co|on|zo ovory rog|on on tho p|anot, |oarn tho |oca| |anguago wo'ro born |nto, and mastor sk|||s as d|vorso as p|ay|ng tho
v|o||n, h|gh-jump|ng and oporat|ng spaco shutt|o cockp|ts.
NAN1RA OF 1EE FA51 AND EFF|C|EN1 BRA|N: BuRN JOB5 |N1O 1EE C|RCu|1RY

Whon tho bra|n t|nds a task |t noods to so|vo, |t row|ros |ts own c|rcu|try unt|| |t can accomp||sh tho task w|th max|mum ott|c|oncy.
20
1ho task
bocomos burnod |nto tho mach|nory. 1h|s c|ovor tact|c accomp||shos two th|ngs ot ch|ot |mportanco tor surv|va|.
1ho t|rst |s spooo. Automat|zat|on porm|ts tast doc|s|on mak|ng. On|y whon tho s|ow systom ot consc|ousnoss |s pushod to tho back ot tho quouo
can rap|d programs do tho|r work. 3hou|d l sw|ng torohand or backhand at tho approach|ng tonn|s ba||? W|th a n|noty-m||o-por-hour projoct||o on |ts
way, ono doos not want to cogn|t|vo|y s|og through tho d|ttoront opt|ons. A common m|sconcopt|on |s that protoss|ona| ath|otos can soo tho court |n
°s|ow mot|on,' as suggostod by tho|r rap|d and smooth doc|s|on mak|ng. 3ut automat|zat|on s|mp|y a||ows tho ath|otos to ant|c|pato ro|ovant ovonts
and prot|c|ont|y doc|do what to do. 1h|nk about tho t|rst t|mo you tr|od a now sport. Voro-oxpor|oncod p|ayors dotoatod you w|th tho most
o|omontary movos bocauso you woro strugg||ng w|th a barrago ot now |ntormat|on-|ogs and arms and jump|ng bod|os. W|th oxpor|onco, you
|oarnod wh|ch tw|tchos and to|nts woro tho |mportant onos. W|th t|mo and automat|zat|on, you ach|ovod spood both |n doc|d|ng and |n act|ng.
1ho socond roason to burn tasks |nto tho c|rcu|try |s ooorgy oíílcloocy. 3y opt|m|z|ng |ts mach|nory, tho bra|n m|n|m|zos tho onorgy roqu|rod to
so|vo prob|oms. 3ocauso wo aro mob||o croaturos that run on battor|os, onorgy sav|ng |s ot tho h|ghost |mportanco.
27
ln h|s book Yoor Brolo ls
(A|most) Poríoct, nourosc|ont|st load Vontaguo h|gh||ghts tho |mpross|vo onorgy ott|c|oncy ot tho bra|n, compar|ng choss champ|on Garry
Kasparov's onorgy usago ot about 20 watts to tho consumpt|on ot h|s computor|zod compot|tor 0oop 3|uo, |n tho rango ot thousands ot watts.
Vontaguo po|nts out that Kasparov p|ayod tho gamo at norma| body tomporaturo, wh||o 0oop 3|uo was burn|ng hot to tho touch and roqu|rod a
|argo co||oct|on ot tans to d|ss|pato tho hoat. |uman bra|ns run w|th supor|at|vo ott|c|oncy.
Kasparov's bra|n |s so |ow-poworod bocauso Kasparov has spont a ||tot|mo burn|ng choss stratog|os |nto oconom|ca| roto a|gor|thms. Whon ho
startod p|ay|ng choss as a boy, ho had to wa|k h|mso|t through cogn|t|vo stratog|os about what to do noxt-but thoso woro h|gh|y |nott|c|ont, ||ko tho
movos ot an ovorth|nk|ng, socond-guoss|ng tonn|s p|ayor. As Kasparov |mprovod, ho no |ongor had to consc|ous|y wa|k through tho unto|d|ng stops
ot a gamo: ho cou|d porco|vo tho choss board rap|d|y, ott|c|ont|y, and w|th |oss consc|ous |ntortoronco.
ln ono study on ott|c|oncy, rosoarchors usod bra|n |mag|ng wh||o poop|o |oarnod how to p|ay tho v|doo gamo 1otr|s. 1ho subjocts' bra|ns woro
h|gh|y act|vo, burn|ng onorgy at a mass|vo sca|o wh||o tho noura| notworks soarchod tor tho undor|y|ng structuros and stratog|os ot tho gamo. 3y tho
t|mo tho subjocts bocamo oxports at tho gamo, attor a wook or so, tho|r bra|ns consumod vory ||tt|o onorgy wh||o p|ay|ng. lt's not that tho p|ayor
bocamo bottor dosp|to tho bra|n bo|ng qu|otor, tho p|ayor bocamo bottor bocooso tho bra|n was qu|otor. ln thoso p|ayors, tho sk|||s ot 1otr|s has
boon burnod down |nto tho c|rcu|try ot tho systom, such that thoro woro now spoc|a||zod and ott|c|ont programs to doa| w|th |t.
As an ana|ogy, |mag|no a warr|ng soc|oty that suddon|y t|nds |tso|t w|th no moro batt|os to wago. lts so|d|ors doc|do to turn to agr|cu|turo. At t|rst
thoy uso tho|r batt|o swords to d|g ||tt|o ho|os tor soods-a workab|o but mass|vo|y |nott|c|ont approach. Attor a t|mo, thoy boat tho|r swords |nto
p|owsharos. 1hoy opt|m|zo tho|r mach|nory to moot tho task domands. 1ust ||ko tho bra|n, thoy'vo mod|t|od what thoy havo to addross tho task at
hand.
1h|s tr|ck ot burn|ng tasks |nto tho c|rcu|try |s tundamonta| to how bra|ns oporato: thoy chango tho c|rcu|t board ot tho|r mach|nory to mo|d
thomso|vos to tho|r m|ss|on. 1h|s a||ows a d|tt|cu|t task that cou|d bo accomp||shod on|y c|ums||y to bo ach|ovod w|th rap|d|ty and ott|c|oncy. ln tho
|og|c ot tho bra|n, |t you don't havo tho r|ght too| tor tho job, crooto lt.


3o tar wo'vo |oarnod that consc|ousnoss tonds to |ntortoro w|th most tasks (romombor tho unhappy cont|podo |n tho d|tch)-but |t coo bo ho|ptu|
whon sott|ng goa|s and tra|n|ng tho robot. Evo|ut|onary so|oct|on has prosumab|y tunod tho oxact amount ot accoss tho consc|ous m|nd has: too
||tt|o, and tho company has no d|roct|on, too much, and tho systom gots boggod down so|v|ng prob|oms |n a s|ow, c|unky, onorgy-|nott|c|ont mannor.
Whon ath|otos mako m|stakos, coachos typ|ca||y yo||, °7blok oot tboro!' 1ho |rony |s that a protoss|ona| ath|oto's goa| |s to oot th|nk. 1ho goa| |s
to |nvost thousands ot hours ot tra|n|ng so that |n tho hoat ot tho batt|o tho r|ght manouvors w||| como automat|ca||y, w|th no |ntortoronco trom
consc|ousnoss. 1ho sk|||s nood to bo pushod down |nto tho p|ayors' c|rcu|try. Whon ath|otos °got |nto tho zono,' tho|r wo||-tra|nod unconsc|ous
mach|nory runs tho show, rap|d|y and ott|c|ont|y. lmag|no a baskotba|| p|ayor stand|ng at tho troo-throw ||no. 1ho crowd yo||s and stomps to d|stract
h|m. lt ho's runn|ng on consc|ous mach|nory, ho's corta|n to m|ss. On|y by ro|y|ng on tho ovortra|nod, robot|c mach|nory can ho hopo to dra|n tho ba||
through tho baskot.
28
low you can |ovorago tho know|odgo ga|nod |n th|s chaptor to a|ways w|n at tonn|s. Whon you aro |os|ng, s|mp|y ask your opponont how sho
sorvos tho ba|| so wo||. Onco sho contomp|atos tho mochan|cs ot hor sorvo and tr|os to oxp|a|n |t, sho's sunk.
Wo havo |oarnod that tho moro th|ngs got automat|zod, tho |oss consc|ous accoss wo havo. 3ut wo'ro just gott|ng startod. ln tho noxt chaptor wo'||
soo how |ntormat|on can got bur|od ovon doopor.
¯
lt |s curront|y an opon quost|on whothor courts ot |aw w||| a||ow thoso tosts to bo adm|ttod as ov|donco-tor oxamp|o, to probo whothor an omp|oyor (or attackor or murdoror) shows
s|gns ot rac|sm. At tho momont |t |s probab|y bost |t thoso tosts roma|n outs|do tho courtroom, tor wh||o comp||catod human doc|s|ons aro b|asod by |naccoss|b|o assoc|at|ons, |t |s
d|tt|cu|t to know how much thoso b|asos |nt|uonco our t|na| bohav|or. |or oxamp|o, somoono may ovorr|do tho|r rac|st b|asos by moro soc|a||zod doc|s|on-mak|ng mochan|sms. lt |s a|so
tho caso that somoono may bo a v|ru|ont rac|st, but that was not tho|r roason tor a part|cu|ar cr|mo.
1ho Kinda ot 1houghta 1hat Aro 1hinkabIo

°Van |s a p|ant wh|ch boars thoughts, just as a roso-troo boars rosos and an app|o-troo boars app|os.'
-Anto|no |abro 0'O||vot,
L`llstolro pbl|osopblqoo oo gooro bomolo

3pond a momont th|nk|ng about tho most boaut|tu| porson you know. lt wou|d soom |mposs|b|o tor oyos to gazo upon th|s porson and not bo
|ntox|catod w|th attract|on. 3ut ovoryth|ng doponds on tho ovo|ut|onary program thoso oyos aro connoctod to. lt tho oyos bo|ong to a trog, th|s
porson can stand |n tront ot |t a|| day-ovon nakod-and w||| attract no attont|on, porhaps on|y a b|t ot susp|c|on. And tho |ack ot |ntorost |s mutua|:
humans aro attractod to humans, trogs to trogs.
loth|ng sooms moro natura| than dos|ro, but tho t|rst th|ng to not|co |s that wo'ro w|rod on|y tor spoc|os-appropr|ato dos|ro. 1h|s undorscoros a
s|mp|o but cruc|a| po|nt: tho bra|n's c|rcu|ts aro dos|gnod to gonorato bohav|or that |s appropr|ato to our surv|va|. App|os and oggs and potatoos
tasto good to us not bocauso tho shapos ot tho|r mo|ocu|os aro |nhoront|y wondortu|, but bocauso thoy'ro portoct ||tt|o packagos ot sugars and
proto|ns: onorgy do||ars you can storo |n your bank. 3ocauso thoso toods aro usotu|, wo aro ong|noorod to t|nd thom tasty. 3ocauso toca| mattor
conta|ns harmtu| m|crobos, wo havo dovo|opod a hardw|rod avors|on to oat|ng |t. loto that baby koa|as-known as jooys-oat tho|r mothor's toca|
mattor to obta|n tho r|ght bactor|a tor tho|r d|gost|vo systoms. 1hoso bactor|a aro nocossary tor tho jooys to surv|vo on othorw|so-po|sonous
ouca|yptus |oavos. lt l had to guoss, l'd say that toca| mattor tastos as do||c|ous to tho jooy as an app|o doos to you. loth|ng |s |nhoront|y tasty or
ropu|s|vo-|t doponds on your noods. 0o||c|ousnoss |s s|mp|y an |ndox ot usotu|noss.
Vany poop|o aro a|roady tam|||ar w|th thoso concopts ot attract|on or tast|noss, but |t |s otton d|tt|cu|t to approc|ato how doop th|s ovo|ut|onary
carv|ng goos. lt's not s|mp|y that you aro attractod to humans ovor trogs or that you ||ko app|os moro than toca| mattor-thoso samo pr|nc|p|os ot
hardw|rod thought gu|danco app|y to a|| ot your doop|y ho|d bo||ots about |og|c, oconom|cs, oth|cs, omot|ons, boauty, soc|a| |ntoract|ons, |ovo, and
tho rost ot your vast monta| |andscapo. Our ovo|ut|onary goa|s nav|gato and structuro our thoughts. Chow on that tor a momont. lt moans thoro aro
corta|n k|nds ot thoughts wo coo th|nk, and who|o catogor|os ot thoughts wo cannot. lot's bog|n w|th a|| tho thoughts you d|dn't ovon know you woro
m|ss|ng.
1EE uNWEL1: L|FE ON 1EE 1E|N 5L|CE

°lncrod|b|o tho lodg|ng
3ut ||m|tod tho Guost.'
-Em||y 0|ck|nson

ln 1070, 3|a|so lasca| notod w|th awo that °man |s oqua||y |ncapab|o ot soo|ng tho noth|ngnoss trom wh|ch ho omorgos and tho |nt|n|ty |n wh|ch ho
|s ongu|tod.'
1
lasca| rocogn|zod that wo spond our ||vos on a th|n s||co botwoon tho un|mag|nab|y sma|| sca|os ot tho atoms that composo us and
tho |nt|n|to|y |argo sca|os ot ga|ax|os.
3ut lasca| d|dn't know tho ha|t ot |t. |orgot atoms and ga|ax|os-wo can't ovon soo most ot tho act|on at our owo spat|a| sca|os. 1ako what wo
ca|| v|s|b|o ||ght. Wo havo spoc|a||zod rocoptors |n tho backs ot our oyos that aro opt|m|zod tor captur|ng tho o|octromagnot|c rad|at|on that bouncos
ott objocts. Whon thoso rocoptors catch somo rad|at|on, thoy |aunch a sa|vo ot s|gna|s |nto tho bra|n. 3ut wo do not porco|vo tho ootlro
o|octromagnot|c spoctrum, on|y a part ot |t. 1ho part ot tho ||ght spoctrum that |s v|s|b|o to us |s |oss than a ton-tr||||onth ot |t. 1ho rost ot tho
spoctrum--carry|ng 1v shows, rad|o s|gna|s, m|crowavos, X-rays, gamma rays, co|| phono convorsat|ons, and so on--t|ows through us w|th no
awaronoss on our part.
2
Cll nows |s pass|ng through your body r|ght now and you aro uttor|y b||nd to |t, bocauso you havo no spoc|a||zod
rocoptors tor that part ot tho spoctrum. |onoyboos, by contrast, |nc|udo |ntormat|on carr|od on u|trav|o|ot wavo|ongths |n tho|r roa||ty, and
ratt|osnakos |nc|udo |ntrarod |n tho|r v|ow ot tho wor|d. Vach|nos |n tho hosp|ta| soo tho X-ray rango, and mach|nos |n tho dashboard ot your car soo
tho rad|o troquoncy rango. 3ut you can't sonso any ot thoso. Evon though |t's tho samo °stutt'-o|octromagnot|c rad|at|on-you don't como
oqu|ppod w|th tho propor sonsors. lo mattor how hard you try, you'ro not go|ng to p|ck up s|gna|s |n tho rost ot tho rango.
What you aro ab|o to oxpor|onco |s comp|oto|y ||m|tod by your b|o|ogy. 1h|s d|ttors trom tho commonsonso v|ow that our oyos, oars, and t|ngors
pass|vo|y roco|vo an objoct|vo phys|ca| wor|d outs|do ot ourso|vos. As sc|onco marchos torward w|th mach|nos that can soo what wo can't, |t has
bocomo c|oar that our bra|ns samp|o just a sma|| b|t ot tho surround|ng phys|ca| wor|d. ln 1000, tho 3a|t|c Gorman b|o|og|st 1akob von Uoxkü||
bogan to not|co that d|ttoront an|ma|s |n tho samo ocosystom p|ck up on d|ttoront s|gna|s trom tho|r onv|ronmont.
8
ln tho b||nd and doat wor|d ot tho
t|ck, tho |mportant s|gna|s aro tomporaturo and tho odor ot butyr|c ac|d. |or tho b|ack ghost kn|tot|sh, |t's o|octr|ca| t|o|ds. |or tho ocho|ocat|ng bat,
a|r-compross|on wavos. 3o von Uoxkü|| |ntroducod a now concopt: tho part that you aro ab|o to soo |s known as tho omwo|t (tho onv|ronmont, or
surround|ng wor|d), and tho b|ggor roa||ty (|t thoro |s such a th|ng) |s known as tho omgoboog.
Each organ|sm has |ts own umwo|t, wh|ch |t prosumab|y assumos to bo tho ont|ro objoct|vo roa||ty °out thoro.' Why wou|d wo ovor stop to th|nk
that thoro |s moro boyond what wo can sonso? ln tho mov|o 7bo 7romoo 5bow, tho oponymous 1ruman ||vos |n a wor|d comp|oto|y constructod
around h|m (otton on tho t|y) by an |ntrop|d to|ov|s|on producor. At ono po|nt an |ntorv|owor asks tho producor, °Why do you th|nk 1ruman has novor
como c|oso to d|scovor|ng tho truo naturo ot h|s wor|d?' 1ho producor rop||os, °Wo accopt tho roa||ty ot tho wor|d w|th wh|ch wo'ro prosontod.' |o
h|t tho na|| on tho hoad. Wo accopt tho umwo|t and stop thoro.
Ask yourso|t what |t wou|d bo ||ko to havo boon b||nd trom b|rth. loa||y th|nk about th|s tor a momont. lt your guoss |s °|t wou|d somoth|ng ||ko
b|acknoss' or °somoth|ng ||ko a dark ho|o whoro v|s|on shou|d bo,' you'ro wrong. 1o undorstand why, |mag|no you'ro a scont dog such as a
b|oodhound. Your |ong noso housos two hundrod m||||on scont rocoptors. On tho outs|do, your wot nostr||s attract and trap scont mo|ocu|os. 1ho s||ts
at tho cornors ot oach nostr|| t|aro out to a||ow moro a|r t|ow as you sn|tt. Evon your t|oppy oars drag a|ong tho ground and k|ck up scont mo|ocu|os.
Your wor|d |s a|| about smo|||ng. Ono attornoon, as you'ro to||ow|ng your mastor, you stop |n your tracks w|th a rovo|at|on. What |s |t ||ko to havo tho
p|t|tu|, |mpovor|shod noso ot a human bo|ng? What can humans poss|b|y dotoct whon thoy tako |n a toob|o ||tt|o nosotu| ot a|r? 0o thoy suttor a
b|acknoss? A ho|o ot smo|| whoro smo|| |s supposod to bo?
3ocauso you'ro a human, you know tho answor |s no. 1horo |s no ho|o or b|acknoss or m|ss|ng too||ng whoro tho scont |s absont. You accopt your
roa||ty as |t's prosontod to you. 3ocauso you don't havo tho smo|||ng capab|||t|os ot a b|oodhound, |t doosn't ovon str|ko you that th|ngs cou|d bo
d|ttoront. 1ho samo goos tor poop|o w|th co|or b||ndnoss: unt|| thoy |oarn that othors can soo huos thoy cannot, tho thought doos not ovon h|t tho|r
radar scroon.
lt you aro not co|or-b||nd, you may wo|| t|nd |t d|tt|cu|t to |mag|no yourso|t as co|or-b||nd. 3ut roca|| what wo |oarnod oar||or: that somo poop|o soo
moro co|ors than you do. A tract|on ot womon havo not just throo but tour typos ot co|or photorocoptors-and as a rosu|t thoy can d|st|ngu|sh co|ors
that tho major|ty ot humank|nd w||| novor d|ttoront|ato.
4
lt you aro not a mombor ot that sma|| toma|o popu|at|on, thon you havo just d|scovorod
somoth|ng about your own |mpovor|shmonts that you woro unawaro ot. You may not havo thought ot yourso|t as co|or-b||nd, but to thoso |ad|os
suporsons|t|vo to huos, you aro. ln tho ond, |t doos not ru|n your day, |nstoad, |t on|y makos you wondor how somoono o|so can soo tho wor|d so
strango|y.
And so |t goos tor tho congon|ta||y b||nd. 1hoy aro not m|ss|ng anyth|ng, thoy do not soo b|acknoss whoro v|s|on |s m|ss|ng. v|s|on was novor part
ot tho|r roa||ty |n tho t|rst p|aco, and thoy m|ss |t on|y as much as you m|ss tho oxtra sconts ot tho b|oodhound dog or tho oxtra co|ors ot tho
totrachromat|c womon.


1horo |s a |argo d|ttoronco botwoon tho umwo|ts ot humans and thoso ot t|cks and b|oodhounds, but thoro can ovon bo qu|to a b|t ot |nd|v|dua|
var|ab|||ty botwoon humans. Vost poop|o, dur|ng somo |ato-n|ght doparturo trom quot|d|an th|nk|ng, ask tho|r tr|onds tho to||ow|ng sort ot quost|on:
|ow do l know that what l oxpor|onco as rod and what you oxpor|onco as rod |s tho samo th|ng? 1h|s |s a good quost|on, bocauso as |ong as wo
agroo on |abo||ng somo toaturo °rod' |n tho outs|do wor|d, |t doosn't mattor |t tho swatch oxpor|oncod by you |s what l |ntorna||y porco|vo as canary
yo||ow. l ca|| |t rod, you ca|| |t rod, and wo can appropr|ato|y transact ovor a hand ot pokor.
3ut tho prob|om actua||y runs doopor. What l ca|| v|s|on and what you ca|| v|s|on m|ght bo d|ttoront-m|no m|ght bo ups|do down comparod to
yours, and wo wou|d novor know. And |t wou|dn't mattor, as |ong as wo agroo on what to ca|| th|ngs and how to po|nt to thom and whoro to nav|gato
|n tho outs|do wor|d.
1h|s sort ot quost|on usod to ||vo |n tho roa|m ot ph||osoph|ca| spocu|at|on, but |t has now boon promotod to tho roa|m ot sc|ont|t|c oxpor|mont.
Attor a||, across tho popu|at|on thoro aro s||ght d|ttoroncos |n bra|n tunct|on, and somot|mos thoso trans|ato d|roct|y |nto d|ttoront ways ot
oxpor|onc|ng tho wor|d. And oach |nd|v|dua| bo||ovos h|s way |s roo|lty. 1o got a sonso ot th|s, |mag|no a wor|d ot magonta 1uosdays, tastos that
havo shapos, and wavy groon symphon|os. Ono |n a hundrod othorw|so norma| poop|o oxpor|onco tho wor|d th|s way, bocauso ot a cond|t|on ca||od
synosthos|a (moan|ng °jo|nod sonsat|on').
b
ln synosthotos, st|mu|at|on ot a sonso tr|ggors an anoma|ous sonsory oxpor|onco: ono may hoar co|ors,
tasto shapos, or systomat|ca||y oxpor|onco othor sonsory b|ond|ngs. |or oxamp|o, a vo|co or mus|c may not on|y bo hoard but a|so soon, tastod, or
to|t as a touch. 3ynosthos|a |s a tus|on ot d|ttoront sonsory porcopt|ons: tho too| ot sandpapor m|ght ovoko an |-sharp, tho tasto ot ch|ckon m|ght
bo accompan|od by a too||ng ot p|npo|nts on tho t|ngort|ps, or a symphony m|ght bo oxpor|oncod |n b|uos and go|ds. 3ynosthotos aro so
accustomod to tho ottocts that thoy aro surpr|sod to t|nd that othors do not sharo tho|r oxpor|oncos. 1hoso synosthot|c oxpor|oncos aro not
abnorma| |n any patho|og|ca| sonso, thoy aro s|mp|y unusua| |n a stat|st|ca| sonso.
3ynosthos|a comos |n many var|ot|os, and hav|ng ono typo g|vos you a h|gh chanco ot hav|ng a socond or th|rd typo. Expor|onc|ng tho days ot
tho wook |n co|or |s tho most common man|tostat|on ot synosthos|a, to||owod by co|orod |ottors and numbors. Othor common var|ot|os |nc|udo
tastod words, co|orod hoar|ng, numbor ||nos porco|vod as throo-d|mons|ona| torms, and |ottors and numora|s oxpor|oncod as hav|ng gondor and
porsona||t|os.
0
3ynosthot|c porcopt|ons aro |nvo|untary, automat|c, and cons|stont ovor t|mo. 1ho porcopt|ons aro typ|ca||y bas|c, moan|ng that what |s sonsod |s
somoth|ng ||ko a s|mp|o co|or, shapo, or toxturo, rathor than somoth|ng p|ctor|a| or spoc|t|c (tor oxamp|o, synosthotos don't say, °1h|s mus|c makos
mo oxpor|onco a vaso ot t|owors on a rostaurant tab|o').
Why do somo poop|o soo tho wor|d th|s way? 3ynosthos|a |s tho rosu|t ot |ncroasod cross ta|k among sonsory aroas |n tho bra|n. 1h|nk ot |t ||ko
no|ghbor|ng countr|os w|th porous bordors on tho bra|n's map. And th|s cross ta|k rosu|ts trom t|ny gonot|c changos that pass down tam||y ||noagos.
1h|nk about that: m|croscop|c changos |n bra|n w|r|ng can |oad to d|ttoront roa||t|os.
7
1ho moro ox|stonco ot synosthos|a domonstratos that moro
than ono k|nd ot bra|n-and ono k|nd ot m|nd-|s poss|b|o.
lot's zoom |n on a part|cu|ar torm ot synosthos|a as an oxamp|o. |or most ot us, |obruary and Wodnosday do not havo any part|cu|ar p|aco |n
spaco. 3ut somo synosthotos oxpor|onco proc|so |ocat|ons |n ro|at|on to tho|r bod|os tor numbors, t|mo un|ts, and othor concopts |nvo|v|ng
soquonco or ord|na||ty. 1hoy can po|nt to tho spot whoro tho numbor 82 |s, whoro 0ocombor t|oats, or whoro tho yoar 1000 ||os.
8
1hoso objoct|t|od
throo-d|mons|ona| soquoncos aro common|y ca||od numbor torms, a|though moro proc|so|y tho phonomonon |s ca||od spat|a| soquonco
synosthos|a.
0
1ho most common typos ot spat|a| soquonco synosthos|a |nvo|vo days ot tho wook, months ot tho yoar, tho count|ng |ntogors, or
yoars groupod by docado. ln add|t|on to thoso common typos, rosoarchors havo oncountorod spat|a| cont|gurat|ons tor shoo and c|oth|ng s|zos,
basoba|| stat|st|cs, h|stor|ca| oras, sa|ar|os, 1v channo|s, tomporaturo, and moro. 3omo |nd|v|dua|s possoss a torm tor on|y ono soquonco, othors
havo torms tor moro than a dozon. l|ko a|| synosthotos, thoy oxpross amazomont that not ovoryono v|sua||zos soquoncos tho way thoy do. lt you aro
not synosthot|c yourso|t, tho tw|st |s th|s: |t |s d|tt|cu|t tor synosthotos to undorstand how poop|o copo wltboot a v|sua||zat|on ot t|mo. Your roa||ty |s as
strango to thom as tho|rs |s to you. 1hoy accopt tho roa||ty prosontod to thom, as you do yours.
10
lonsynosthotos otton |mag|no that sons|ng oxtra co|ors, toxturos, and spat|a| cont|gurat|ons wou|d somohow bo a porcoptua| burdon: °0oosn't |t
dr|vo thom crazy hav|ng to copo w|th a|| tho oxtra b|ts?' somo poop|o ask. 3ut tho s|tuat|on |s no d|ttoront trom a co|or-b||nd porson to|||ng a porson
w|th norma| v|s|on, °You poor th|ng. Evorywhoro you |ook you'ro a|ways soo|ng co|ors. 0oosn't |t dr|vo you crazy to havo to soo ovoryth|ng |n
co|ors?' 1ho answor |s that co|ors do not dr|vo us crazy, bocauso soo|ng |n co|or |s norma| to most poop|o and const|tutos what wo accopt as
roa||ty. ln tho samo way, synosthotos aro not dr|von crazy by tho oxtra d|mons|ons. 1hoy'vo novor known roa||ty to bo anyth|ng o|so. Vost
synosthotos ||vo tho|r ont|ro ||vos novor know|ng that othors soo tho wor|d d|ttoront|y than thoy do.
3ynosthos|a, |n |ts dozons ot var|ot|os, h|gh||ghts tho amaz|ng d|ttoroncos |n how |nd|v|dua|s subjoct|vo|y soo tho wor|d, rom|nd|ng us that oach
bra|n un|quo|y dotorm|nos what |t porco|vos, or |s capab|o ot porco|v|ng. 1h|s tact br|ngs us back to our ma|n po|nt horo--namo|y, that roa||ty |s tar
moro subjoct|vo than |s common|y supposod.
11
lnstoad ot roa||ty bo|ng pass|vo|y rocordod by tho bra|n, |t |s act|vo|y constructod by |t.
¯ ¯ ¯

3y ana|ogy to your porcopt|on ot tho wor|d, your monta| ||to |s bu||t to rango ovor a corta|n torr|tory, and |t |s rostr|ctod trom tho rost. 1horo aro
thoughts you cannot th|nk. You cannot comprohond tho soxt||||on stars ot our un|vorso, nor p|cturo a t|vo-d|mons|ona| cubo, nor too| attractod to a
trog. lt thoso oxamp|os soom obv|ous (Oí coorso l coo`t!), just cons|dor thom |n ana|ogy to soo|ng |n |ntrarod, or p|ck|ng up on rad|o wavos, or
dotoct|ng butyr|c ac|d as a t|ck doos. Your °thought umwo|t' |s a t|ny tract|on ot tho °thought umgobung.' lot's oxp|oro th|s torr|tory.
1ho tunct|on ot th|s wot computor, tho bra|n, |s to gonorato bohav|or that |s appropr|ato to tho onv|ronmonta| c|rcumstancos. Evo|ut|on has
carotu||y carvod your oyos, |ntorna| organs, soxua| organs, and so on-and a|so tho charactor ot your thoughts and bo||ots. Wo havo not on|y
ovo|vod spoc|a||zod |mmuno dotonsos aga|nst gorms, but wo havo a|so dovo|opod noura| mach|nory to so|vo spoc|a||zod prob|oms that woro tacod
by our huntor-gathoror ancostors ovor 00 porcont ot our spoc|os' ovo|ut|onary h|story. 1ho t|o|d ot ovo|otlooory psycbo|ogy oxp|oros why wo th|nk |n
somo ways and not othors. Wh||o nourosc|ont|sts study tho p|ocos and parts that mako up bra|ns, ovo|ut|onary psycho|og|sts study tho sottwaro that
so|vos soc|a| prob|oms. ln th|s v|ow, tho phys|ca| structuro ot tho bra|n ombod|os a sot ot programs, and tho programs aro thoro bocauso thoy
so|vod a part|cu|ar prob|om |n tho past. low dos|gn toaturos aro addod to or d|scardod trom tho spoc|os basod on tho|r consoquoncos.
Char|os 0arw|n toroto|d th|s d|sc|p||no |n tho c|os|ng ot 7bo Orlglo oí 5poclos: °ln tho d|stant tuturo l soo opon t|o|ds tor tar moro |mportant
rosoarchos. lsycho|ogy w||| bo basod on a now toundat|on, that ot tho nocossary acqu|romont ot oach monta| powor and capac|ty by gradat|on.' ln
othor words, our psychos ovo|vo, just ||ko oyos and thumbs and w|ngs.
Cons|dor bab|os. 3ab|os at b|rth aro not b|ank s|atos. lnstoad, thoy |nhor|t a groat doa| ot prob|om-so|v|ng oqu|pmont and arr|vo at many
prob|oms w|th so|ut|ons a|roady at hand.
12
1h|s |doa was t|rst spocu|atod about by 0arw|n (a|so |n 7bo Orlglo oí 5poclos), and |ator carr|od torward
by W||||am 1amos |n 7bo Prloclp|os oí Psycbo|ogy. 1ho concopt was thon |gnorod through most ot tho twont|oth contury. 3ut |t turnod out to bo
r|ght. 3ab|os, ho|p|oss as thoy aro, pop |nto tho wor|d w|th noura| programs spoc|a||zod tor roason|ng about objocts, phys|ca| causa||ty, numbors,
tho b|o|og|ca| wor|d, tho bo||ots and mot|vat|ons ot othor |nd|v|dua|s, and soc|a| |ntoract|ons. |or oxamp|o, a nowborn's bra|n oxpocts tacos: ovon
whon thoy aro |oss than ton m|nutos o|d, bab|os w||| turn toward taco-||ko pattorns, but not to scramb|od vors|ons ot tho samo pattorn.
18
3y two and
a ha|t months, an |ntant w||| oxpross surpr|so |t a so||d objoct appoars to pass through anothor objoct, or |t an objoct sooms to d|sappoar, as though
by mag|c, trom boh|nd a scroon. lntants show a d|ttoronco |n tho way thoy troat an|mato vorsus |nan|mato objocts, mak|ng tho assumpt|on that
an|mato toys havo |ntorna| statos (|ntont|ons) that thoy cannot soo. 1hoy a|so mako assumpt|ons about tho |ntont|ons ot adu|ts. lt an adu|t tr|os to
domonstrato how to do somoth|ng, a baby w||| |mporsonato h|m. 3ut |t tho adu|t appoars to moss up tho domonstrat|on (porhaps punctuatod w|th a
°Whoops!') tho |ntant w||| not try to |mporsonato what sho saw, but |nstoad what sho bo||ovos tho adu|t |ntondod.
14
ln othor words, by tho t|mo
bab|os aro o|d onough to bo tostod, thoy aro a|roady mak|ng assumpt|ons about tho work|ngs ot tho wor|d.
3o a|though ch||dron |oarn by |m|tat|ng what |s around thom-ap|ng tho|r paronts, pots and tho 1v-thoy aro not b|ank s|atos. 1ako babb||ng.
0oat ch||dron babb|o |n tho samo way that hoar|ng ch||dron do, and ch||dron |n d|ttoront countr|os sound s|m||ar ovon though thoy aro oxposod to
rad|ca||y d|ttoront |anguagos. 3o tho |n|t|a| babb||ng |s |nhor|tod as a proprogrammod tra|t |n humans.
Anothor oxamp|o ot proprogramm|ng |s tho so-ca||od m|nd-road|ng systom-th|s |s tho co||oct|on ot mochan|sms by wh|ch wo uso tho d|roct|on
and movomont ot othor poop|o's oyos to |ntor what thoy want, know, and bo||ovo. |or oxamp|o, |t somoono abrupt|y |ooks ovor your |ott shou|dor,
you'|| |mmod|ato|y supposo thoro |s somoth|ng |ntorost|ng go|ng on boh|nd you. Our gazo-road|ng systom |s tu||y |n p|aco oar|y |n |ntancy. ln
cond|t|ons ||ko aut|sm th|s systom can bo |mpa|rod. On tho t||p s|do, |t can bo sparod ovon wh||o othor systoms aro damagod, as |n a d|sordor
ca||od W||||ams syndromo, |n wh|ch gazo road|ng |s t|no but soc|a| cogn|t|on |s broad|y dot|c|ont |n othor ways.
lropackagod sottwaro can c|rcumvont tho oxp|os|on ot poss|b|||t|os that a b|ank-s|ato bra|n wou|d |mmod|ato|y run up aga|nst. A systom that
bog|ns w|th a b|ank s|ato wou|d bo unab|o to |oarn a|| tho comp|ox ru|os ot tho wor|d w|th on|y tho |mpovor|shod |nput that bab|os roco|vo.
1b
lt wou|d
havo to try ovoryth|ng, and |t wou|d ta||. Wo know th|s, |t tor no othor roason, than trom tho |ong h|story ot ta||uro ot art|t|c|a| noura| notworks that start
ott know|odgo-troo and attompt to |oarn tho ru|os ot tho wor|d.
Our proprogramm|ng |s doop|y |nvo|vod |n soc|a| oxchango-tho way humans |ntoract w|th ono anothor. 3oc|a| |ntoract|on has boon cr|t|ca| to our
spoc|os tor m||||ons ot yoars, and as a rosu|t tho soc|a| programs havo workod tho|r way doop down |nto tho noura| c|rcu|try. As tho psycho|og|sts
loda Cosm|dos and 1ohn 1ooby put |t, °1ho hoartboat |s un|vorsa| bocauso tho organ that gonoratos |t |s ovorywhoro tho samo. 1h|s |s a
pars|mon|ous oxp|anat|on tor tho un|vorsa||ty ot soc|a| oxchango as wo||.' ln othor words, tho bra|n, ||ko tho hoart, doosn't roqu|ro a part|cu|ar cu|turo
|n ordor to oxpross soc|a| bohav|or-that program comos pro-bund|od w|th tho hardwaro.
lot's turn to a part|cu|ar oxamp|o: your bra|n has troub|o w|th corta|n typos ot ca|cu|at|ons that |t d|d not ovo|vo to so|vo, but has an oasy t|mo w|th
ca|cu|at|ons that |nvo|vo soc|a| |ssuos. 3ay l show you tho tour cards bo|ow and assort tho to||ow|ng c|a|m: lt a card has an ovon numbor on ono
taco, |t has tho namo ot a pr|mary co|or on |ts oppos|to taco. Wh|ch two cards do you nood to turn ovor to assoss whothor l'm to|||ng you tho truth?

0on't worry |t th|s prob|om g|vos you troub|o: |t's d|tt|cu|t. 1ho answor |s that you nood to turn ovor on|y tho numbor 8 card and tho lurp|o card. lt you
had turnod ovor tho b card and tound lod on tho othor s|do, that wou|d to|| you noth|ng about tho truth ot tho ru|o, bocauso l mado a statomont on|y
about ovon-numborod cards. l|kow|so, |t you'd turnod ovor tho lod card and tound an odd numbor on tho othor s|do, |t wou|d a|so havo no boar|ng
on tho |og|ca| ru|o l gavo you, bocauso l novor spoc|t|od what odd numbors may havo on tho|r othor s|do.
lt your bra|n woro w|rod up tor tho ru|os ot cond|t|ona| |og|c, you wou|d havo no prob|om w|th th|s task. 3ut |oss than a quartor ot poop|o got |t r|ght,
and that's truo ovon |t thoy'vo had torma| tra|n|ng |n |og|c.
10
1ho tact that tho prob|om |s tound to bo d|tt|cu|t |nd|catos that our bra|ns aron't w|rod tor
gonora| |og|c prob|oms ot th|s sort. lrosumab|y th|s |s bocauso wo havo gotton by docont|y wo|| as a spoc|os w|thout nood|ng to na|| thoso sorts ot
|og|c puzz|os.
3ut horo's tho tw|st to tho story. lt tho oxact samo |og|c prob|om |s prosontod |n a way that wo aro hardw|rod to undorstand-that |s, cast |n tho
vocabu|ary ot th|ngs a soc|a| human bra|n caros about-thon |t |s so|vod oas||y.
17
3upposo tho now ru|o |s th|s: lt you'ro undor 18, you cannot dr|nk
a|coho|. low oach card, as shown bo|ow, has tho ago ot a porson on ono s|do and tho dr|nk thoy'ro ho|d|ng on tho othor.

Wh|ch cards do you nood to turn ovor to soo |t tho ru|o |s bo|ng brokon? |oro, most part|c|pants got |t r|ght (tho 10 and 1oqu||a cards). loto that tho
two puzz|os aro torma||y oqu|va|ont. 3o why d|d you t|nd tho t|rst ono d|tt|cu|t and tho socond ono oas|or? Cosm|dos and 1ooby arguo that tho
portormanco boost |n tho socond caso roprosonts a noura| spoc|a||zat|on. 1ho bra|n caros about soc|a| |ntoract|on so much that |t has ovo|vod
spoc|a| programs dovotod to |t: pr|m|t|vo tunct|ons to doa| w|th |ssuos ot ont|t|omont and ob||gat|on. ln othor words, your psycho|ogy has ovo|vod to
so|vo soc|a| prob|oms such as dotoct|ng choators-but not to bo smart and |og|ca| |n gonora|.
NAN1RA OF 1EE EVOLV|NC BRA|N: BuRN REALLY COOD PROCRAN5 ALL 1EE WAY DOWN 1O 1EE DNA

°ln gonora|, wo'ro |oast awaro ot what our m|nds do bost.'
-Varv|n V|nsky, 7bo 5ocloty oí Vloo

lnst|ncts aro comp|ox, |nborn bohav|ors that do not havo to bo |oarnod. 1hoy unpack thomso|vos moro or |oss |ndopondont|y ot oxpor|onco.
Cons|dor tho b|rth ot a horso: |t drops out ot tho mothor's womb, r|ghts |tso|t onto |ts sk|nny, uncorta|n |ogs, wobb|os around tor a b|t, and t|na||y
bog|ns to wa|k and run, to||ow|ng tho rost ot tho hord |n a mattor ot m|nutos to hours. 1ho toa| |s not |oarn|ng to uso |ts |ogs trom yoars ot tr|a| and
orror, as a human |ntant doos. lnstoad, tho comp|ox motor act|on |s |nst|nctua|.
3ocauso ot spoc|a||zod noura| c|rcu|ts that como as standard oqu|pmont w|th bra|ns, trogs aro mad w|th dos|ro tor othor trogs and cannot
|mag|no what |t wou|d moan tor a human to command sox appoa|-and v|co vorsa. 1ho programs ot |nst|nct, carvod by tho prossuros ot ovo|ut|on,
koop our bohav|ors runn|ng smooth|y and stoor our cogn|t|on w|th a t|rm hand.
lnst|ncts aro trad|t|ona||y thought to bo tho oppos|to ot roason|ng and |oarn|ng. lt you'ro ||ko most poop|o, you'|| cons|dor your dog to oporato
|argo|y on |nst|ncts, wh||o humans appoar to run on somoth|ng othor than |nst|ncts-somoth|ng moro ||ko roosoo. 1ho groat n|notoonth-contury
psycho|og|st W||||am 1amos was tho t|rst to got susp|c|ous ot th|s story. And not just susp|c|ous: ho thought |t was doad wrong. |o suggostod
|nstoad that human bohav|or may bo moro t|ox|b|y |nto|||gont than that ot othor an|ma|s bocauso wo possoss moro |nst|ncts than thoy do, not towor.
1hoso |nst|ncts aro too|s |n tho too|box, and tho moro you havo, tho moro adaptab|o you can bo.
Wo tond to bo b||nd to tho ox|stonco ot thoso |nst|ncts proc|so|y bocauso thoy work so wo||, procoss|ng |ntormat|on ottort|oss|y and automat|ca||y.
1ust ||ko tho unconsc|ous sottwaro ot tho ch|ckon soxors or p|ano spottors or tonn|s p|ayors, tho programs aro burnod down so doop|y |nto tho
c|rcu|try that wo can no |ongor accoss thom. Co||oct|vo|y, thoso |nst|ncts torm what wo th|nk ot as human naturo.
18
lnst|ncts d|ttor trom our automat|zod bohav|ors (typ|ng, b|cyc|o r|d|ng, sorv|ng a tonn|s ba||) |n that wo d|dn't havo to |oarn thom |n our ||tot|mo. Wo
|nhor|tod thom. Our |nnato bohav|ors roprosont |doas so usotu| that thoy bocamo oncodod |nto tho t|ny, crypt|c |anguago ot 0lA. 1h|s was
accomp||shod by natura| so|oct|on ovor m||||ons ot yoars: thoso who possossod |nst|ncts that tavorod surv|va| and roproduct|on tondod to mu|t|p|y.
1ho koy po|nt horo |s that tho spoc|a||zod, opt|m|zod c|rcu|try ot |nst|nct contors a|| tho bonot|ts ot spood and onorgy ott|c|oncy, but at tho cost ot
bo|ng turthor away trom tho roach ot consc|ous accoss. As a rosu|t, wo havo as ||tt|o accoss to our hardw|rod cogn|t|vo programs as wo do to our
tonn|s sorvo. 1h|s s|tuat|on |oads to what Cosm|dos and 1ooby ca|| °|nst|nct b||ndnoss': wo aro not ab|o to soo tho |nst|ncts that aro tho vory ong|nos
ot our bohav|or.
10
1hoso programs aro |naccoss|b|o to us oot bocauso thoy aro un|mportant, but bocauso thoy'ro crltlco|. Consc|ous modd||ng
wou|d do noth|ng to |mprovo thom.
W||||am 1amos roa||zod tho h|ddon naturo ot |nst|ncts and suggostod that wo coax |nst|ncts |nto tho ||ght by a s|mp|o monta| oxorc|so: try to mako
tho °natura| soom strango' by ask|ng °tho why ot any |nst|nct|vo human act':
Why do wo sm||o, whon p|oasod, and not scow|? Why aro wo unab|o to ta|k to a crowd as wo ta|k to a s|ng|o tr|ond? Why doos a part|cu|ar
ma|don turn our w|ts so ups|do-down? 1ho common man can on|y say, Oí coorso wo sm||o, oí coorso our hoart pa|p|tatos at tho s|ght ot tho
crowd, oí coorso wo |ovo tho ma|don, that boaut|tu| sou| c|ad |n that portoct torm, so pa|pab|y and t|agrant|y mado tor a|| otorn|ty to bo |ovod!
And so, probab|y, doos oach an|ma| too| about tho part|cu|ar th|ngs |t tonds to do |n tho prosonco ot part|cu|ar objocts.. 1o tho ||on |t |s tho
||onoss wh|ch |s mado to bo |ovod, to tho boar, tho sho-boar. 1o tho broody hon tho not|on wou|d probab|y soom monstrous that thoro shou|d
bo a croaturo |n tho wor|d to whom a nosttu| ot oggs was not tho uttor|y tasc|nat|ng and proc|ous and novor-to-bo-too-much-sat-upon objoct
wh|ch |t |s to hor.
1hus wo may bo suro that, howovor mystor|ous somo an|ma|s' |nst|ncts may appoar to us, our |nst|ncts w||| appoar no |oss mystor|ous to
thom.
20

Our most hardw|rod |nst|ncts havo usua||y boon |ott out ot tho spot||ght ot |nqu|ry as psycho|og|sts havo |nstoad sought to undorstand un|quo|y
human acts (such as h|ghor cogn|t|on) or how th|ngs go wrong (such as monta| d|sordors). 3ut tho most automat|c, ottort|oss acts-thoso that
roqu|ro tho most spoc|a||zod and comp|ox noura| c|rcu|try-havo boon |n tront ot us a|| a|ong: soxua| attract|on, toar|ng tho dark, ompath|z|ng,
argu|ng, bocom|ng joa|ous, sook|ng ta|rnoss, t|nd|ng so|ut|ons, avo|d|ng |ncost, rocogn|z|ng tac|a| oxpross|ons. 1ho vast notworks ot nourons
undorp|nn|ng thoso acts aro so wo|| tunod that wo ta|| to bo awaro ot tho|r norma| oporat|on. And just as |t was tor tho ch|ckon soxors, |ntrospoct|on
|s uso|oss tor accoss|ng programs burnod |nto tho c|rcu|try. Our consc|ous assossmont ot an act|v|ty as oasy or natura| can |oad us to gross|y
undorost|mato tho comp|ox|ty ot tho c|rcu|ts that mako |t poss|b|o. Easy th|ngs aro hard: most ot what wo tako tor grantod |s noura||y comp|ox.
As ono |||ustrat|on ot th|s, cons|dor what has happonod |n tho t|o|d ot art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco. ln tho 1000s |t mado rap|d progross |n programs that
cou|d doa| w|th tact-dr|von know|odgo, such as °a horso |s a typo ot mamma|.' 3ut thon tho t|o|d s|owod a|most to a ha|t. lt turnod out to bo much
moro d|tt|cu|t to crack °s|mp|o' prob|oms, such as wa|k|ng a|ong a s|dowa|k w|thout ta|||ng ott tho curb, romombor|ng whoro tho catotor|a |s,
ba|anc|ng a ta|| body on two t|ny toot, rocogn|z|ng a tr|ond, or undorstand|ng a joko. 1ho th|ngs wo do rap|d|y, ott|c|ont|y, and unconsc|ous|y aro so
d|tt|cu|t to modo| that thoy roma|n unso|vod prob|oms.
1ho moro obv|ous and ottort|oss somoth|ng sooms, tho moro wo nood to suspoct that |t sooms that way on|y bocauso ot tho mass|vo c|rcu|try
||v|ng boh|nd |t. As wo saw |n Chaptor 2, tho act ot soo|ng |s so oasy and rap|d proc|so|y bocauso |t |s undorp|nnod by comp||catod, dod|catod
mach|nory. 1ho moro natura| and ottort|oss somoth|ng sooms, tho |oss so |t ls.
21
Our |ust c|rcu|ts aro not dr|von by tho nakod trog bocauso wo
cannot mato w|th trogs and thoy havo ||tt|o to do w|th our gonot|c tuturo. On tho othor hand, as wo saw |n tho t|rst chaptor, wo oo caro qu|to a b|t
about tho d||at|on ot a woman's oyos, bocauso th|s broadcasts |mportant |ntormat|on about soxua| |ntorost. Wo ||vo |ns|do tho umwo|t ot our
|nst|ncts, and wo typ|ca||y havo as ||tt|o porcopt|on ot thom as tho t|sh doos ot |ts wator.
BEAu1Y: 5O PALPABLY AND FLACRAN1LY NADE FOR ALL E1ERN|1Y 1O BE LOVED

Why aro poop|o attractod to young matos and not to tho o|dor|y? 0o b|ondos roa||y havo moro tun? Why doos a br|ot|y g||mpsod porson appoar
moro attract|vo than a porson at whom wo'vo takon a good |ook? At th|s po|nt, you won't bo surpr|sod to t|nd that our sonso ot boauty |s burnod
doop|y (and |naccoss|b|y) |nto tho bra|n-a|| w|th tho purposo ot accomp||sh|ng somoth|ng b|o|og|ca||y usotu|.
lot's roturn to th|nk|ng about tho most boaut|tu| porson you know. Wo||-proport|onod, ottort|oss|y wo|| ||kod, magnot|c. Our bra|ns aro oxqu|s|to|y
honod to p|ck up on thoso |ooks. 3|mp|y bocauso ot sma|| dota||s ot symmotry and structuro, that porson onjoys a dost|ny ot groator popu|ar|ty,
tastor promot|ons, and a moro succosstu| caroor.
At th|s po|nt |t w||| not surpr|so you to d|scovor that our sonso ot attract|on |s not somoth|ng othoroa|-propor|y stud|od on|y by tho pons ot poots-
but |nstoad rosu|ts trom spoc|t|c s|gna|s that p|ug, ||ko a koy |nto a |ock, |nto dod|catod noura| sottwaro.
What poop|o so|oct as boaut|tu| qua||t|os pr|mar||y rot|oct s|gns ot tort|||ty brought on by hormona| changos. Unt|| puborty tho tacos and body
shapos ot boys and g|r|s aro s|m||ar. 1ho r|so |n ostrogon |n puboscont g|r|s g|vos thom tu||or ||ps, wh||o tostostorono |n boys producos a moro
prom|nont ch|n, a |argor noso, and a tu||or jaw. Estrogon causos tho growth ot tho broasts and buttocks, wh||o tostostorono oncouragos tho growth
ot musc|os and broad shou|dors. 3o tor a toma|o, tu|| ||ps, tu|| buttocks, and a narrow wa|st broadcast a c|oar mossago: l`m ío|| oí ostrogoo ooo
íortl|o. |or a ma|o, |t's tho tu|| jaw, stubb|o, and broad chost. 1h|s |s what wo aro programmod to t|nd boaut|tu|. |orm rot|octs tunct|on.
Our programs aro so |ngra|nod that thoro |s ||tt|o var|at|on across tho popu|at|on. losoarchors (as wo|| as purvoyors ot pornography) havo boon
ab|o to d|scorn a surpr|s|ng|y narrow rango tor tho toma|o proport|ons that ma|os t|nd most attract|vo: tho portoct rat|o botwoon tho wa|st and h|ps
usua||y ros|dos botwoon 0.07 and 0.8. 1ho wa|st-to-h|p rat|os ot P|oyboy contorto|ds has roma|nod at about 0.7 ovor t|mo, ovon as tho|r avorago
wo|ght has docroasod.
22
Womon w|th a rat|o |n th|s rango aro not on|y judgod by ma|os as moro attract|vo, but aro a|so prosumod to bo moro
hoa|thy, humorous, and |nto|||gont.
28
As womon bocomo o|dor, tho|r toaturos chango |n ways that dopart trom thoso proport|ons. V|dd|os th|ckon,
||ps th|n, broasts sag, and so on, a|| ot wh|ch broadcast tho s|gna| that thoy aro past poak tort|||ty. Evon a ma|o toonagor w|th no b|o|ogy oducat|on
w||| bo |oss attractod to an o|dor|y woman than to a young woman. ||s c|rcu|ts havo a c|oar m|ss|on (roproduct|on), h|s consc|ous m|nd roco|vos on|y
tho nood-to-know hoad||no (°3ho |s attract|vo, pursuo hor!') and noth|ng moro.
And tho h|ddon noura| programs dotoct moro than tort|||ty. lot a|| tort||o womon aro oqua||y hoa|thy, and thorotoro thoy do not a|| appoar oqua||y
attract|vo. 1ho nourosc|ont|st v||ayanur lamachandran spocu|atos that tho qu|p about mon protorr|ng b|ondos may havo a b|o|og|ca| sood ot truth
to |t: pa|or womon moro oas||y show s|gns ot d|soaso, wh||o tho darkor comp|ox|ons ot swarth|or womon can bottor d|sgu|so tho|r |mportoct|ons.
Voro hoa|th |ntormat|on a||ows a bottor cho|co, and thus |s protorab|o.
24
Va|os aro otton moro v|sua||y dr|von than toma|os, but womon aro nonotho|oss subjoct to tho samo |ntorna| torcos, thoy aro drawn by tho
attract|vo toaturos that t|ag tho matur|ty ot manhood. An |ntorost|ng tw|st |s that a woman's protoroncos can chango dopond|ng on tho t|mo ot month:
womon protor mascu||no-|ook|ng mon whon thoy aro ovu|at|ng, but whon not ovu|at|ng thoy protor sottor toaturos-wh|ch prosumab|y t|ag moro
soc|a| and car|ng bohav|or.
2b
A|though tho programs ot soduct|on and pursu|t run |argo|y undor tho mach|nory ot consc|ousnoss, tho ondgamo bocomos obv|ous to ovoryono.
1h|s |s why thousands ot c|t|zons ot r|ch countr|os sho|| out tor taco-||tts, tummy tucks, |mp|ants, ||posuct|on, and 3otox. 1hoy aro work|ng to ma|nta|n
tho koys that un|ock tho programs |n othor poop|o's bra|ns.
lot surpr|s|ng|y, wo havo a|most no d|roct accoss to tho mochan|cs ot our attract|ons. lnstoad, v|sua| |ntormat|on p|ugs |nto anc|ont noura|
modu|os that dr|vo our bohav|or. loca|| tho oxpor|mont |n tho t|rst chaptor: whon mon rankod tho boauty ot womon's tacos, thoy tound tho womon
w|th d||atod oyos moro attract|vo, bocauso d||atod oyos s|gna| soxua| |ntorost. 3ut tho mon had no consc|ous accoss to tho|r doc|s|on-mak|ng
procossos.
ln a study |n my |aboratory, part|c|pants v|owod br|ot t|ashos ot photographs ot mon and womon and ratod tho|r attract|vonoss.
20
ln a |ator round
thoy woro askod to rato tho samo photos thoy had soon botoro, but th|s t|mo w|th as much t|mo as thoy wantod to oxam|no tho photos. 1ho rosu|t?
3r|ot|y g||mpsod poop|o aro moro boaut|tu|. ln othor words, |t you catch a g||mpso ot somoono round|ng a cornor or dr|v|ng past qu|ck|y, your
porcoptua| systom w||| to|| you thoy aro moro boaut|tu| than you wou|d othorw|so judgo thom to bo. Von show th|s m|sjudgmont ottoct moro strong|y
than womon, prosumab|y bocauso mon aro moro v|sua| |n assoss|ng attract|on. 1h|s °g||mpso ottoct' accords w|th ovoryday oxpor|onco, |n wh|ch a
man catchos a br|ot g||mpso ot a woman and bo||ovos ho has just m|ssod a raro boauty, thon, whon ho rushos around tho cornor, ho d|scovors that
ho was m|stakon. 1ho ottoct |s c|oar, but tho roason boh|nd |t |s not. Why shou|d tho v|sua| systom, g|von just a b|t ot t|oot|ng |ntormat|on, a|ways orr
on tho s|do ot bo||ov|ng that tho woman |s moro boaut|tu|? ln tho absonco ot c|oar data, why wou|dn't your porcoptua| systom s|mp|y str|ko tor tho
m|dd|o and judgo tho woman to bo avorago, or ovon bo|ow avorago?
1ho answor p|vots on tho domands ot roproduct|on. lt you bo||ovo a br|ot|y g||mpsod unattract|vo porson |s boaut|tu|, |t roqu|ros on|y a doub|o tako
to corroct tho m|stako-not much ot a cost. On tho othor hand, |t you m|stako an attract|vo mato tor an unattract|vo ono, you can say soyoooro to a
potont|a||y rosy gonot|c tuturo. 3o |t bohoovos a porcoptua| systom to sorvo up tho t|sh ta|o that a br|ot|y g||mpsod porson |s attract|vo. As w|th tho
othor oxamp|os, a|| your consc|ous bra|n knows |s that you just passod an |ncrod|b|o boauty dr|v|ng tho othor way |n tratt|c, you havo no accoss to
tho noura| mach|nory nor to tho ovo|ut|onary prossuros that manutacturod tho bo||ot tor you.
Concopts |oarnod trom oxpor|onco can a|so tako advantago ot thoso hardw|rod mochan|sms ot attract|on. ln a rocont study, rosoarchors tostod
whothor bo|ng unconsc|ous|y pr|mod tor tho concopt ot a|coho| wou|d (a|so unconsc|ous|y) t|ck|o tho concopts assoc|atod w|th a|coho|, such as sox
and soxua| dos|ro.
27
Von woro shown words ||ko boor or booo-but tho words woro t|ashod too rap|d|y to bo consc|ous|y porco|vod. 1ho mon thon
ratod tho attract|vonoss ot photographs ot womon. Attor bo|ng unconsc|ous|y pr|mod w|th tho a|coho|-ro|atod words (||ko boor), tho subjocts ratod
tho photographs as moro attract|vo. And tho ma|os who moro strong|y bo||ovod that a|coho| |ncroasos soxua| dos|ro showod tho strongost ottoct.
Attract|on |s not a t|xod concopt, but |nstoad adjusts accord|ng to tho domands ot tho s|tuat|on-tako, tor oxamp|o, tho concopt ot bo|ng |n hoat.
A|most a|| toma|o mamma|s g|vo ott c|oar s|gna|s whon thoy aro |n hoat. 1ho roar ond ot toma|o baboons turns br|ght p|nk, an unm|stakab|o and
|rros|st|b|o |nv|tat|on tor a |ucky ma|o baboon. |uman toma|os, on tho othor hand, aro un|quo |n that thoy part|c|pato |n mat|ng yoar-round. 1hoy do
not broadcast any spoc|a| s|gna| to pub||c|zo whon thoy aro tort||o.
28
Or don't thoy? lt turns out that a woman |s cons|dorod to bo most boaut|tu| just at tho poak ot tort|||ty |n hor monstrua| cyc|o-about ton days
botoro monsos.
20
1h|s |s truo whothor sho's judgod by mon or by womon, and |t's not a mattor ot tho way sho acts: |t |s porco|vod ovon by thoso
|ook|ng at hor photographs. 3o hor good |ooks broadcast hor |ovo| ot tort|||ty. |or s|gna|s aro subt|or than tho baboon's roar ond, but thoy on|y nood
to bo c|oar onough to t|ck|o tho dod|catod, unconsc|ous mach|nory ot tho ma|os |n tho room. lt thoy can roach thoso c|rcu|ts, tho m|ss|on |s
accomp||shod. 1hoy a|so roach tho c|rcu|try ot othor toma|os: womon aro qu|to sons|t|vo to tho ottoct ot othor womon's cyc|os, porhaps bocauso
th|s |ots thom assoss tho|r compot|tors whon t|ght|ng tor matos. lt |s not yot c|oar what tho t|p-otts tor tort|||ty aro-thoy may |nc|udo somo qua||ty ot
tho sk|n (as tono bocomos ||ghtor dur|ng ovu|at|on) or tho tact that a woman's oars and broasts bocomo moro symmotr|ca| |n tho days |oad|ng up to
ovu|at|on.
80
Whatovor tho consto||at|on ot c|uos, our bra|ns aro ong|noorod to |atch on, ovon wh||o tho consc|ous m|nd has no accoss. 1ho m|nd
moro|y sonsos tho a|m|ghty and |noxp||cab|o tug ot dos|ro.
1ho ottocts ot ovu|at|on and boauty aro not just assossod |n tho |aboratory-thoy aro moasurab|o |n roa|-||to s|tuat|ons. A rocont study by
sc|ont|sts |n low Vox|co countod up tho t|ps mado by |ap dancors at |oca| str|p c|ubs and corro|atod th|s w|th tho monstrua| cyc|os ot tho dancors.
81
0ur|ng poak tort|||ty, dancors rakod |n an avorago ot $08 an hour. Whon thoy woro monstruat|ng, thoy oarnod on|y about $8b. ln botwoon, thoy
avoragod $b2. A|though thoso womon woro prosumab|y act|ng |n a h|gh capac|ty ot t||rtat|on throughout tho month, tho|r chango |n tort|||ty was
broadcast to hopotu| customors by changos |n body odor, sk|n, wa|st-to-h|p rat|o, and ||ko|y tho|r own cont|donco as wo||. lntorost|ng|y, str|ppors on
b|rth contro| d|d not show any c|oar poak |n portormanco, and oarnod on|y a month|y avorago ot $87 por hour (vorsus an avorago ot $b8 por hour tor
str|ppors not on b|rth contro|). lrosumab|y thoy oarnod |oss bocauso tho p||| |oads to hormona| changos (and cuos) |nd|cat|vo ot oar|y prognancy,
and tho dancors woro thus |oss |ntorost|ng to Casanovas |n tho gont|omon's c|ubs.
What doos th|s rosoarch to|| us? lt to||s us that t|sca||y concornod str|ppors shou|d oschow contracopt|on and doub|o up tho|r sh|tts just botoro
ovu|at|on. Voro |mportant|y, |t dr|vos homo tho po|nt that tho boauty ot tho ma|don (or man) |s noura||y proorda|nod. Wo havo no consc|ous accoss
to tho programs, and can toaso thom out on|y w|th carotu| stud|os. loto that bra|ns aro qu|to good at dotoct|ng tho subt|o cuos |nvo|vod. loturn|ng
to tho most boaut|tu| porson you know, |mag|no that you moasurod tho d|stanco botwoon h|s or hor oyos, as wo|| as noso |ongth, ||p th|cknoss, ch|n
shapo, and so on. lt you comparod thoso moasuromonts to thoso ot a not-so-attract|vo porson, you wou|d t|nd that tho d|ttoroncos aro subt|o. 1o a
spaco a||on or a Gorman 3hophord dog, tho two humans wou|d bo |nd|st|ngu|shab|o, just as attract|vo and unattract|vo spaco a||ons and Gorman
3hophord dogs aro d|tt|cu|t tor you to to|| apart. 3ut tho sma|| d|ttoroncos w|th|n your own spoc|os havo a groat doa| ot ottoct |n your bra|n. As an
oxamp|o, somo poop|o t|nd tho s|ght ot a woman |n short shorts |ntox|cat|ng and a ma|o |n short shorts ropu|s|vo, ovon though tho two sconos aro
hard|y d|ttoront trom a goomotr|ca| porspoct|vo. Our ab|||ty to mako subt|o d|st|nct|ons |s oxqu|s|to|y t|no-gra|nod, our bra|ns aro ong|noorod to
accomp||sh tho c|oar-cut tasks ot mato so|oct|on and pursu|t. A|| ot |t r|dos undor tho surtaco ot consc|ous awaronoss-wo got to s|mp|y onjoy tho
|ovo|y too||ngs that bubb|o up.
¯ ¯ ¯

3oauty judgmonts aro not on|y constructod by your v|sua| systom but aro |nt|uoncod by smo|| as wo||. Odor carr|os a groat doa| ot |ntormat|on,
|nc|ud|ng |ntormat|on about a potont|a| mato's ago, sox, tort|||ty, |dont|ty, omot|ons, and hoa|th. 1ho |ntormat|on |s carr|od by a t|ot|||a ot dr|tt|ng
mo|ocu|os. ln many an|ma| spoc|os, thoso compounds dr|vo bohav|or a|most ont|ro|y, |n humans, tho |ntormat|on otton t||os bonoath tho radar ot
consc|ous porcopt|on, but nonotho|oss |nt|uoncos our bohav|or.
lmag|no wo g|vo a toma|o mouso a so|oct|on ot ma|os to mato w|th. |or cho|co, tar trom bo|ng random, w||| bo basod on tho |ntorp|ay botwoon
hor gonot|cs and tho gonot|cs ot hor su|tors. 3ut how doos sho havo accoss to that k|nd ot h|ddon |ntormat|on? A|| mamma|s havo a sot ot gonos
known as tho major h|stocompat|b|||ty comp|ox, or V|C, thoso gonos aro koy p|ayors |n our |mmuno systoms. G|von a cho|co, tho mouso w|||
chooso a mato w|th olsslml|or V|C gonos. V|x|ng up tho gono poo| |s a|most a|ways a good |doa |n b|o|ogy: |t koops gonot|c dotocts to a
m|n|mum and |oads to a hoa|thy |ntorp|ay ot gonos known as hybr|d v|gor. 3o t|nd|ng gonot|ca||y d|stant partnors |s usotu|. 3ut how do m|co, who aro
|argo|y b||nd, pu|| th|s ott? W|th tho|r nosos. An organ |ns|do tho|r nosos p|cks up phoromonos, t|oat|ng chom|ca|s that carry s|gna|s through tho a|r-
s|gna|s about th|ngs such as a|arm, tood tra||s, soxua| road|noss, and, |n th|s caso, gonot|c s|m||ar|ty or d|ttoronco.
0o humans sonso and rospond to phoromonos tho way m|co do? lo ono knows tor suro, but rocont work has tound rocoptors |n tho ||n|ng ot tho
human noso just ||ko thoso usod |n phoromona| s|gna||ng |n m|co.
82
lt's not c|oar |t our rocoptors aro tunct|ona|, but tho bohav|ora| rosoarch |s
suggost|vo.
88
ln a study at tho Un|vors|ty ot 3orn, rosoarchors moasurod and quant|t|od tho V|Cs ot a group ot ma|o and toma|o studonts.
84
1ho
ma|os woro thon g|von cotton 1-sh|rts to woar, so that tho|r da||y swoat soakod |nto tho tabr|c. lator, back |n tho |aboratory, toma|os p|ungod tho|r
nosos |nto tho armp|ts ot thoso 1-sh|rts and p|ckod wh|ch body odor thoy protorrod. 1ho rosu|t? Exact|y ||ko tho m|co, thoy protorrod tho ma|os w|th
moro d|ss|m||ar V|Cs. Apparont|y our nosos aro a|so |nt|uonc|ng our cho|cos, aga|n t|y|ng tho roproduct|on m|ss|on undor tho radar ot
consc|ousnoss.
3oyond roproduct|on, human phoromonos may a|so carry |nv|s|b|o s|gna|s |n othor s|tuat|ons. |or oxamp|o, nowborns protoront|a||y movo toward
pads that havo boon rubbod on tho|r mothor's broast rathor than c|oan pads, prosumab|y basod on phoromona| cuos.
8b
And tho |ongth ot womon's
monstrua| cyc|os may chango attor thoy sn|tt tho armp|t swoat ot anothor woman.
80
A|though phoromonos c|oar|y carry s|gna|s, tho dogroo to wh|ch thoy |nt|uonco human bohav|or |s unknown. Our cogn|t|on |s so mu|t||ayorod that
thoso cuos havo boon roducod to b|t p|ayors. Whatovor othor ro|o thoy havo, phoromonos sorvo to rom|nd us that tho bra|n cont|nuous|y ovo|vos:
thoso mo|ocu|os unmask tho prosonco ot outdatod |ogacy sottwaro.
|NF|DEL|1Y |N 1EE CENE5?

Cons|dor your attachmont to your mothor, and tho good tortuno ot hor attachmont back to you-ospoc|a||y whon you noodod hor as a ho|p|oss
|ntant. 1hat sort ot bond|ng |s oasy onough to |mag|no as a natura| occurronco. 3ut wo nood moro|y to scratch tho surtaco to t|nd that soc|a|
attachmont ro||os on a soph|st|catod systom ot chom|ca| s|gna||ng. lt doosn't happon by dotau|t, |t happons on purposo. Whon m|co pups aro
gonot|ca||y ong|noorod to |ack a part|cu|ar typo ot rocoptor |n tho op|o|d systom (wh|ch |s |nvo|vod |n pa|n suppross|on and roward), thoy stop car|ng
about soparat|on trom tho|r mothors.
87
1hoy |ot out towor cr|os. 1h|s |s not to say that thoy aro unab|o to caro about th|ngs |n gonora|-|n tact, thoy
aro moro roact|vo than norma| m|co to a throaton|ng ma|o mouso or to co|d tomporaturos. lt's s|mp|y that thoy don't soom to bond to tho|r mothors.
Whon thoy aro g|von a cho|co botwoon smo||s trom tho|r mothor and smo||s trom an unknown mouso, thoy aro just as ||ko|y to chooso o|thor ono.
1ho samo th|ng happons whon thoy aro prosontod w|th tho|r mothor's nost vorsus a strangor's nost. ln othor words, pups must bo runn|ng tho propor
gonot|c programs to corroct|y caro about tho|r mothors. 1h|s sort ot prob|om may undor||o d|sordors that |nvo|vo d|tt|cu|t|os w|th attachmont, such as
aut|sm.
lo|atod to tho |ssuo ot paronta| bond|ng |s that ot stay|ng ta|thtu| to ono's partnor. Common sonso wou|d to|| us that monogamy |s a doc|s|on
basod on mora| charactor, r|ght? 3ut th|s |oads to tho quost|on ot what const|tutos °charactor' |n tho t|rst p|aco. Cou|d th|s, too, bo gu|dod by
mochan|sms bo|ow tho radar ot consc|ousnoss?
Cons|dor tho pra|r|o vo|o. 1hoso ||tt|o croaturos d|g through sha||ow undorground runways and stay act|vo a|| yoar. 3ut un||ko othor vo|os and othor
mamma|s moro gonora||y, pra|r|o vo|os roma|n monogamous. 1hoy torm ||to-|ong pa|r bonds |n wh|ch thoy nost togothor, hudd|o up, groom, and
ra|so tho pups as a toam. Why do thoy show th|s bohav|or ot comm|ttod att|||at|on wh||o tho|r c|oso cous|ns aro moro wanton? 1ho answor p|vots on
hormonos.
Whon a ma|o vo|o ropoatod|y matos w|th a toma|o, a hormono ca||od vasopross|n |s ro|oasod |n h|s bra|n. 1ho vasopross|n b|nds to rocoptors |n
a part ot tho bra|n ca||od tho nuc|ous accumbons, and tho b|nd|ng mod|atos a p|oasurab|o too||ng that bocomos assoc|atod w|th that toma|o. 1h|s
|ocks |n tho monogamy, wh|ch |s known as pa|r-bond|ng. lt you b|ock th|s hormono, tho pa|r-bond|ng goos away. Amaz|ng|y, whon rosoarchors
crank up tho |ovo|s ot vasopross|n w|th gonot|c tochn|quos, thoy can sh|tt po|ygamous spoc|os to monogamous bohav|or.
88
0oos vasopross|n mattor tor human ro|at|onsh|ps? ln 2008, a rosoarch toam at tho Karo||nska lnst|tuto |n 3wodon oxam|nod tho gono tor tho
vasopross|n rocoptor |n bb2 mon |n |ong-torm hotorosoxua| ro|at|onsh|ps.
80
1ho rosoarchors tound that a soct|on ot tho gono ca||od l38 884 can
como |n var|ab|o numbors: a man m|ght carry no cop|os ot th|s soct|on, ono copy, or two cop|os. 1ho moro cop|os, tho woakor tho ottoct that
vasopross|n |n tho b|oodstroam wou|d havo |n tho bra|n. 1ho rosu|ts woro surpr|s|ng |n tho|r s|mp||c|ty. 1ho numbor ot cop|os corro|atod w|th tho
mon's pa|r-bond|ng bohav|or. Von w|th moro cop|os ot l38 884 scorod worso on moasuros ot pa|r-bond|ng-|nc|ud|ng moasuros ot tho strongth
ot tho|r ro|at|onsh|ps, porco|vod mar|ta| prob|oms, and mar|ta| qua||ty as porco|vod by tho|r spousos. 1hoso w|th two cop|os woro moro ||ko|y to bo
unmarr|od, and |t thoy woro marr|od, thoy woro moro ||ko|y to havo mar|ta| troub|os.
1h|s |s not to say that cho|cos and onv|ronmont don't mattor-thoy do. 3ut |t ls to say that wo como |nto tho wor|d w|th d|ttoront d|spos|t|ons.
3omo mon may bo gonot|ca||y |nc||nod to havo and ho|d a s|ng|o partnor, wh||o somo may not. ln tho noar tuturo, young womon who stay curront w|th
tho sc|ont|t|c ||toraturo may domand gonot|c tosts ot tho|r boytr|onds to assoss how ||ko|y thoy aro to mako ta|thtu| husbands.
locont|y, ovo|ut|onary psycho|og|sts havo turnod tho|r s|ghts on |ovo and d|vorco. lt d|dn't tako thom |ong to not|co that whon poop|o ta|| |n |ovo,
thoro's a por|od ot up to throo yoars dur|ng wh|ch tho zoa| and |ntatuat|on r|do at a poak. 1ho |ntorna| s|gna|s |n tho body and bra|n aro ||tora||y a
|ovo drug. And thon |t bog|ns to doc||no. |rom th|s porspoct|vo, wo aro proprogrammod to |oso |ntorost |n a soxua| partnor attor tho t|mo roqu|rod to
ra|so a ch||d has passod-wh|ch |s, on avorago, about tour yoars.
40
1ho psycho|og|st |o|on ||shor suggosts that wo aro programmod tho samo
way as toxos, who pa|r-bond tor a brood|ng soason, st|ck around just |ong onough to ra|so tho ottspr|ng, and thon sp||t. 3y rosoarch|ng d|vorco |n
noar|y s|xty countr|os, ||shor has tound that d|vorco poaks at about tour yoars |nto a marr|ago, cons|stont w|th hor hypothos|s.
41
ln hor v|ow, tho
|ntorna||y gonoratod |ovo drug |s s|mp|y an ott|c|ont mochan|sm to got mon and womon to st|ck togothor |ong onough to |ncroaso tho surv|va|
||ko||hood ot tho|r young. 1wo paronts aro bottor than ono tor surv|va| purposos, and tho way to prov|do that satoty |s to coax thom |nto stay|ng
togothor.
ln tho samo vo|n, tho |argo oyos and round tacos ot bab|os |ook cuto to us not bocauso thoy possoss a natura| °cutonoss' but bocauso ot tho
ovo|ut|onary |mportanco ot adu|ts tak|ng caro ot bab|os. 1hoso gonot|c ||nos that d|d not t|nd tho|r |ntants cuto no |ongor ox|st, bocauso tho|r young
woro not propor|y carod tor. 3ut surv|vors ||ko us, whoso monta| umwo|t cannot |ot us oot t|nd bab|os cuto, succosstu||y ra|so bab|os to composo tho
noxt gonorat|on.


Wo'vo soon |n th|s chaptor that our doopost |nst|ncts, as wo|| as tho k|nds ot thoughts wo havo and ovon coo havo, aro burnod |nto tho mach|nory at
a vory |ow |ovo|. °1h|s |s groat nows,' you m|ght th|nk. °Vy bra|n |s do|ng a|| tho r|ght th|ngs to surv|vo, and l don't ovon havo to th|nk about thom!'
1ruo, that |s groat nows. 1ho unoxpoctod part ot tho nows |s that tho consc|ous yoo |s tho sma||ost b|t-p|ayor |n tho bra|n. lt |s somoth|ng ||ko a young
monarch who |nhor|ts tho throno and takos crod|t tor tho g|ory ot tho country-w|thout ovor bo|ng awaro ot tho m||||ons ot workors who koop tho
p|aco runn|ng.
Wo'|| nood somo bravory to start cons|dor|ng tho ||m|tat|ons ot our monta| |andscapo. loturn|ng to tho mov|o 7bo 7romoo 5bow, at ono po|nt an
anonymous woman on tho to|ophono suggosts to tho producor that poor 1ruman, unw|tt|ng|y on 1v |n tront ot an aud|onco ot m||||ons, |s |oss a
portormor than a pr|sonor. 1ho producor ca|m|y rop||os:
And can you to|| mo, ca||or, that you'ro not a p|ayor on tho stago ot ||to-p|ay|ng out your a||ottod ro|o? |o can |oavo at any t|mo. lt h|s was
moro than just a vaguo amb|t|on, |t ho woro abso|uto|y dotorm|nod to d|scovor tho truth, thoro's no way wo cou|d provont h|m. l th|nk what roa||y
d|strossos you, ca||or, |s that u|t|mato|y 1ruman protors tho comtort ot h|s °co||,' as you ca|| |t.

As wo bog|n to oxp|oro tho stago wo'ro on, wo t|nd that thoro |s qu|to a b|t boyond our umwo|t. 1ho soarch |s a s|ow, gradua| ono, but |t ongondors a
doop sonso ot awo at tho s|zo ot tho w|dor product|on stud|o.
Wo'ro now roady to movo ono |ovo| doopor |nto tho bra|n, uncovor|ng anothor |ayor ot socrots about what wo'vo boon b||tho|y rotorr|ng to as yoo,
as though you woro a s|ng|o ont|ty.
1ho Brain |a a 1oam ot RivaIa

°0o l contrad|ct myso|t?
vory wo|| thon l contrad|ct myso|t,
(l am |argo, l conta|n mu|t|tudos.)'
-Wa|t Wh|tman, 5oog oí Vyso|í

W|LL 1EE 1RuE NEL C|B5ON PLEA5E 51AND uP?

On 1u|y 28, 2000, tho actor Vo| G|bson was pu||od ovor tor spood|ng at noar|y tw|co tho postod spood ||m|t on tho lac|t|c Coast ||ghway |n Va||bu,
Ca||torn|a. 1ho po||co ott|cor, 1amos Voo, adm|n|storod a broatha|yzor tost, wh|ch rovoa|od G|bson's b|ood a|coho| |ovo| to bo 0.12 porcont, wo||
ovor tho |oga| ||m|t. On tho soat noxt to G|bson sat an opon bott|o ot toqu||a. 1ho ott|cor announcod to G|bson that ho was undor arrost and askod
h|m to got |nto tho squad car. What d|st|ngu|shod th|s arrost trom othor |o||ywood |nobr|at|ons was G|bson's surpr|s|ng and out-ot-p|aco
|nt|ammatory romarks. G|bson grow|od, °|uck|ng 1ows.. 1ows aro rospons|b|o tor a|| tho wars |n tho wor|d.' |o thon askod tho ott|cor, °Aro you a
1ow?' Voo was |ndood 1ow|sh. G|bson rotusod to got |nto tho squad car and had to bo handcuttod.
loss than n|notoon hours |ator, tho co|obr|ty wobs|to 1VZ.com obta|nod a |oak ot tho handwr|tton arrost roport and postod |t |mmod|ato|y. On 1u|y
20, attor a v|gorous rosponso trom tho mod|a, G|bson ottorod a noto ot apo|ogy:
Attor dr|nk|ng a|coho| on 1hursday n|ght, l d|d a numbor ot th|ngs that woro vory wrong and tor wh|ch l am ashamod.. l actod ||ko a porson
comp|oto|y out ot contro| whon l was arrostod, and sa|d th|ngs that l do not bo||ovo to bo truo and wh|ch aro dosp|cab|o. l am doop|y ashamod
ot ovoryth|ng l sa|d and l apo|og|zo to anyono who l havo ottondod.. l d|sgracod myso|t and my tam||y w|th my bohav|or and tor that l am tru|y
sorry. l havo batt|od tho d|soaso ot a|coho||sm tor a|| ot my adu|t ||to and protound|y rogrot my horr|t|c ro|apso. l apo|og|zo tor any bohav|or
unbocom|ng ot mo |n my |nobr|atod stato and havo a|roady takon nocossary stops to onsuro my roturn to hoa|th.

Abraham |oxman, hoad ot tho Ant|-0otamat|on loaguo, oxprossod outrago that thoro was no rotoronco |n tho apo|ogy to tho ant|-3om|t|c s|urs. ln
rosponso, G|bson oxtondod a |ongor noto ot contr|t|on spoc|t|ca||y toward tho 1ow|sh commun|ty:
1horo |s no oxcuso, nor shou|d thoro bo any to|oranco, tor anyono who th|nks or oxprossos any k|nd ot ant|-3om|t|c romark. l want to
apo|og|zo spoc|t|ca||y to ovoryono |n tho 1ow|sh commun|ty tor tho v|tr|o||c and harmtu| words that l sa|d to a |aw ontorcomont ott|cor tho n|ght l
was arrostod on a 0Ul chargo.. 1ho tonots ot what l protoss to bo||ovo nocoss|tato that l oxorc|so char|ty and to|oranco as a way ot ||to. Evory
human bo|ng |s God's ch||d, and |t l w|sh to honor my God l havo to honor h|s ch||dron. 3ut p|oaso know trom my hoart that l am not an ant|-
3om|to. l am not a b|got. |atrod ot any k|nd goos aga|nst my ta|th.

G|bson ottorod to moot ono-on-ono w|th |oadors ot tho 1ow|sh commun|ty to °d|scorn tho appropr|ato path tor hoa||ng.' |o soomod gonu|no|y
contr|to, and Abraham |oxman accoptod h|s apo|ogy on boha|t ot tho Ant|-0otamat|on loaguo.
Aro G|bson's truo co|ors that ot an ant|-3om|to? Or aro h|s truo co|ors thoso ho showod attorward, |n h|s o|oquont and apparont|y hoartto|t
apo|og|os?
ln a ¼osblogtoo Post art|c|o ont|t|od °Vo| G|bson: lt Wasn't 1ust tho 1oqu||a 1a|k|ng,' Eugono lob|nson wroto, °Wo||, l'm sorry about h|s ro|apso,
but l just don't buy tho |doa that a ||tt|o toqu||a, or ovon a |ot ot toqu||a, can somohow turn an unb|asod porson |nto a rag|ng ant|-3om|to-or a rac|st,
or a homophobo, or a b|got ot any k|nd, tor that mattor. A|coho| romovos |nh|b|t|ons, a||ow|ng a|| k|nds ot op|n|ons to oscapo unconsorod. 3ut you
can't b|amo a|coho| tor torm|ng and nurtur|ng thoso op|n|ons |n tho t|rst p|aco.'
lond|ng support to that out|ook, V|ko Yarv|tz, tho to|ov|s|on producor ot 5corboroogb Coootry, drank a|coho| on tho show unt|| ho ra|sod h|s
b|ood a|coho| |ovo| to 0.12 porcont, G|bson's |ovo| that n|ght. Yarv|tz roportod °not too||ng ant|-3om|t|c' attor dr|nk|ng.
lob|nson and Yarv|tz, ||ko many othors, suspoctod that tho a|coho| had |oosonod G|bson's |nh|b|t|ons and rovoa|od h|s truo so|t. And tho naturo ot
tho|r susp|c|on has a |ong h|story: tho Grook poot A|caous ot Vyt||ono co|nod a popu|ar phraso Eo oloo o|otbolo (ln w|no thoro |s tho truth), wh|ch
was ropoatod by tho loman l||ny tho E|dor as lo vloo vorltos. 1ho 3aby|on|an 1a|mud conta|ns a passago |n tho samo sp|r|t: °ln camo w|no, out
wont a socrot.' lt |ator adv|sos, °ln throo th|ngs |s a man rovoa|od: |n h|s w|no gob|ot, |n h|s purso, and |n h|s wrath.' 1ho loman h|stor|an 1ac|tus
c|a|mod that tho Gorman|c poop|os a|ways drank a|coho| wh||o ho|d|ng counc||s to provont anyono trom |y|ng.
3ut not ovoryono agrood w|th tho hypothos|s that a|coho| rovoa|od tho truo Vo| G|bson. 1ho Notlooo| Rovlowwr|tor 1ohn 0orbysh|ro arguod, °1ho
guy was drunk, tor hoavon's sako. Wo a|| say and do dumb th|ngs whon wo aro drunk. lt l woro to bo judgod on my drunkon oscapados and to|||os, l
shou|d bo uttor|y oxc|udod trom po||to soc|oty, and so wou|d you, un|oss you aro somo k|nd ot sa|nt.' 1ho 1ow|sh consorvat|vo act|v|st 0av|d
|orow|tz commontod on |ox lows, °loop|o dosorvo compass|on whon thoy'ro |n th|s k|nd ot troub|o. l th|nk |t wou|d bo vory ungrac|ous tor poop|o
to dony |t to h|m.' Add|ct|on psycho|og|st G. A|an Var|att wroto |n U5A 7oooy, °A|coho| |s not a truth sorum.. lt may or may not |nd|cato h|s truo
too||ngs.'
ln tact, G|bson had spont tho attornoon botoro tho arrost at tho houso ot a tr|ond, 1ow|sh t||m producor 0oan 0ov||n. 0ov||n statod, °l havo boon
w|th Vo| whon ho has ta||on ott, and ho bocomos a comp|oto|y d|ttoront porson. lt |s protty horr|ty|ng.' |o a|so statod, °lt Vo| |s an ant|-3om|to, thon
ho sponds a |ot ot t|mo w|th us [0ov||n and h|s w|to, who |s a|so 1ow|sh|, wh|ch makos no sonso.'
3o wh|ch aro G|bson's °truo' co|ors? 1hoso |n wh|ch ho snar|s ant|-3om|t|c commonts? Or thoso |n wh|ch ho too|s romorso and shamo and
pub||c|y says, °l am roach|ng out to tho 1ow|sh commun|ty tor |ts ho|p'?
Vany poop|o protor a v|ow ot human naturo that |nc|udos a truo s|do and a ta|so s|do-|n othor words, humans havo a s|ng|o gonu|no a|m and tho
rost |s docorat|on, ovas|on, or covor-up. 1hat's |ntu|t|vo, but |t's |ncomp|oto. A study ot tho bra|n nocoss|tatos a moro nuancod v|ow ot human naturo.
As wo w||| soo |n th|s chaptor, wo aro mado ot many noura| subpopu|at|ons, as Wh|tman put |t, wo °conta|n mu|t|tudos.' Evon though G|bson's
dotractors w||| cont|nuo to |ns|st that ho |s tru|y an ant|-3om|to, and h|s dotondors w||| |ns|st that ho |s not, both may bo dotond|ng an |ncomp|oto story
to support tho|r own b|asos. ls thoro any roason to bo||ovo that |t's not poss|b|o to havo both rac|st and nonrac|st parts ot tho bra|n?
| AN LARCE, | CON1A|N NuL1|1uDE5

1hroughout tho 1000s, art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco p|onoors workod |ato n|ghts to try to bu||d s|mp|o robot|c programs that cou|d man|pu|ato sma|| b|ocks ot
wood: t|nd thom, totch thom, stack thom |n pattorns. 1h|s was ono ot thoso apparont|y s|mp|o prob|oms that turn out to bo oxcopt|ona||y d|tt|cu|t. Attor
a||, t|nd|ng a b|ock ot wood roqu|ros t|gur|ng out wh|ch camora p|xo|s corrospond to tho b|ock and wh|ch do not. locogn|t|on ot tho b|ock shapo
must bo accomp||shod rogard|oss ot tho ang|o and d|stanco ot tho b|ock. Grabb|ng |t roqu|ros v|sua| gu|danco ot graspors that must c|onch at tho
corroct t|mo, trom tho corroct d|roct|on, and w|th tho corroct torco. 3tack|ng roqu|ros an ana|ys|s ot tho rost ot tho b|ocks and adjustmont to thoso
dota||s. And a|| thoso programs nood to bo coord|natod so that thoy happon at tho corroct t|mos |n tho corroct soquonco. As wo havo soon |n tho
prov|ous chaptors, tasks that appoar s|mp|o can roqu|ro groat computat|ona| comp|ox|ty.
Contront|ng th|s d|tt|cu|t robot|cs prob|om a tow docados ago, tho computor sc|ont|st Varv|n V|nsky and h|s co||oaguos |ntroducod a progross|vo
|doa: porhaps tho robot cou|d so|vo tho prob|om by d|str|but|ng tho |abor among spoc|a||zod subagonts-sma|| computor programs that oach b|to
ott a sma|| p|oco ot tho prob|om. Ono computor program cou|d bo |n chargo ot tho job íloo. Anothor cou|d so|vo tho íotcb prob|om, and yot anothor
program cou|d tako caro ot stock b|ock. 1hoso m|nd|oss subagonts cou|d bo connoctod |n a h|orarchy, just ||ko a company, and thoy cou|d roport to
ono anothor and to tho|r bossos. 3ocauso ot tho h|orarchy, stock b|ock wou|d not try to start |ts job unt|| íloo and íotcb had t|n|shod tho|rs.
1h|s |doa ot subagonts d|d not so|vo tho prob|om ont|ro|y-but |t ho|pod qu|to a b|t. Voro |mportant|y, |t brought |nto tocus a now |doa about tho
work|ng ot b|o|og|ca| bra|ns. V|nsky suggostod that human m|nds may bo co||oct|ons ot onormous numbors ot mach|no||ko, connoctod subagonts
that aro thomso|vos m|nd|oss.
1
1ho koy |doa |s that a groat numbor ot sma||, spoc|a||zod workors can g|vo r|so to somoth|ng ||ko a soc|oty, w|th a||
|ts r|ch proport|os that no s|ng|o subagont, a|ono, possossos. V|nsky wroto, °Each monta| agont by |tso|t can on|y do somo s|mp|o th|ng that noods
no m|nd or thought at a||. Yot whon wo jo|n thoso agonts |n soc|ot|os-|n corta|n vory spoc|a| ways-th|s |oads to |nto|||gonco.' ln th|s tramowork,
thousands ot ||tt|o m|nds aro bottor than ono |argo ono.
1o approc|ato th|s approach, just cons|dor how tactor|os work: oach porson on tho assomb|y ||no |s spoc|a||zod |n a s|ng|o aspoct ot product|on.
lo ono knows how to do ovoryth|ng, nor wou|d that oquato to ott|c|ont product|on |t thoy d|d. 1h|s |s a|so how govornmont m|n|str|os oporato: oach
buroaucrat has ono task or a tow vory spoc|t|c tasks, and tho govornmont succoods on |ts ab|||ty to d|str|buto tho work appropr|ato|y. On |argor
sca|os, c|v|||zat|ons oporato |n tho samo mannor: thoy roach tho noxt |ovo| ot soph|st|cat|on whon thoy |oarn to d|v|do |abor, comm|tt|ng somo
oxports to agr|cu|turo, somo to art, somo to wartaro, and so on.
2
1ho d|v|s|on ot |abor a||ows spoc|a||zat|on and a doopor |ovo| ot oxport|so.
1ho |doa ot d|v|d|ng up prob|oms |nto subrout|nos |gn|tod tho young t|o|d ot art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco. lnstoad ot try|ng to dovo|op a s|ng|o, a||-purposo
computor program or robot, computor sc|ont|sts sh|ttod tho|r goa| to oqu|pp|ng tho systom w|th sma||or °|oca| oxport' notworks that know how to do
ono th|ng, and how to do |t wo||.
8
ln such a tramowork, tho |argor systom noods on|y to sw|tch wh|ch ot tho oxports has contro| at any g|von t|mo. 1ho
|oarn|ng cha||ongo now |nvo|vos not so much how to do oach ||tt|o task but, |nstoad, how to d|str|buto who's do|ng what whon.
4
As V|nsky suggosts |n h|s book 7bo 5ocloty oí Vloo, porhaps that's a|| tho human bra|n has to do as wo||. Echo|ng W||||am 1amos' concopt ot
|nst|ncts, V|nsky notos that |t bra|ns |ndood work th|s way-as co||oct|ons ot subagonts-wo wou|d not havo any roason to bo awaro ot tho
spoc|a||zod procossos:
1housands and, porhaps, m||||ons ot ||tt|o procossos must bo |nvo|vod |n how wo ant|c|pato, |mag|no, p|an, prod|ct, and provont-and yot a||
th|s procoods so automat|ca||y that wo rogard |t as °ord|nary common sonso.' . At t|rst |t may soom |ncrod|b|o that our m|nds cou|d uso such
|ntr|cato mach|nory and yot bo unawaro ot |t.
b

Whon sc|ont|sts bogan to |ook |nto tho bra|ns ot an|ma|s, th|s soc|oty-ot-m|nd |doa oponod up now ways ot |ook|ng at th|ngs. ln tho oar|y 1070s,
rosoarchors roa||zod that tho trog, tor oxamp|o, has at |oast two soparato mochan|sms tor dotoct|ng mot|on: ono systom d|rocts tho snapp|ng ot tho
trog's tonguo to sma||, dart|ng objocts, such as t||os, wh||o a socond systom commands tho |ogs to jump |n rosponso to |argo, |oom|ng objocts.
0
lrosumab|y, no|thor ot thoso systoms |s consc|ous-|nstoad, thoy aro s|mp|o, automatod programs burnod down |nto tho c|rcu|try.
1ho soc|oty-ot-m|nd tramowork was an |mportant stop torward. 3ut dosp|to tho |n|t|a| oxc|tomont about |t, a co||oct|on ot oxports w|th d|v|dod
|abor has novor provon sutt|c|ont to y|o|d tho proport|os ot tho human bra|n. lt |s st||| tho caso that our smartost robots aro |oss |nto|||gont than a
throo-yoar-o|d ch||d.
3o what wont wrong? l suggost that a cr|t|ca| tactor has boon m|ss|ng trom tho d|v|s|on-ot-|abor modo|s, and wo turn to that now.
1EE DENOCRACY OF N|ND

1ho m|ss|ng tactor |n V|nsky's thoory was compotltloo among oxports who a|| bo||ovo thoy know tho r|ght way to so|vo tho prob|om. 1ust ||ko a good
drama, tho human bra|n runs on cont||ct.
ln an assomb|y ||no or govornmont m|n|stry, oach workor |s an oxport |n a sma|| task. ln contrast, part|os |n a domocracy ho|d d|ttor|ng op|n|ons
oboot tbo somo lssoos-and tho |mportant part ot tho procoss |s tho batt|o tor stoor|ng tho sh|p ot stato. 3ra|ns aro ||ko roprosontat|vo
domocrac|os.
7
1hoy aro bu||t ot mu|t|p|o, ovor|app|ng oxports who wo|gh |n and compoto ovor d|ttoront cho|cos. As Wa|t Wh|tman corroct|y
surm|sod, wo aro |argo and wo harbor mu|t|tudos w|th|n us. And thoso mu|t|tudos aro |ockod |n chron|c batt|o.
1horo |s an ongo|ng convorsat|on among tho d|ttoront tact|ons |n your bra|n, oach compot|ng to contro| tho s|ng|o output channo| ot your bohav|or.
As a rosu|t, you can accomp||sh tho strango toats ot argu|ng w|th yourso|t, curs|ng at yourso|t, and cajo||ng yourso|t to do somoth|ng-toats that
modorn computors s|mp|y do not do. Whon tho hostoss at a party ottors choco|ato cako, you t|nd yourso|t on tho horns ot a d||omma: somo parts ot
your bra|n havo ovo|vod to cravo tho r|ch onorgy sourco ot sugar, and othor parts caro about tho nogat|vo consoquoncos, such as tho hoa|th ot your
hoart or tho bu|go ot your |ovo hand|os. lart ot you wants tho cako and part ot you tr|os to mustor tho tort|tudo to torgo |t. 1ho t|na| voto ot tho
par||amont dotorm|nos wh|ch party contro|s your act|on-that |s, whothor you put your hand out or up. ln tho ond, you o|thor oat tho choco|ato cako or
you do not, but you cannot do both.
3ocauso ot thoso |ntorna| mu|t|tudos, b|o|og|ca| croaturos can bo cont||ctod. 1ho torm cooí|lctoo cou|d not bo sons|b|y app||od to an ont|ty that
has a s|ng|o program. Your car cannot bo cont||ctod about wh|ch way to turn: |t has ono stoor|ng whoo| commandod by on|y ono dr|vor, and |t to||ows
d|roct|ons w|thout comp|a|nt. 3ra|ns, on tho othor hand, can bo ot two m|nds, and otton many moro. Wo don't know whothor to turn toward tho cako
or away trom |t, bocauso thoro aro sovora| ||tt|o sots ot hands on tho stoor|ng whoo| ot our bohav|or.
Cons|dor th|s s|mp|o oxpor|mont w|th a |aboratory rat: |t you put both tood ooo an o|octr|ca| shock at tho ond ot an a||oy, tho rat t|nds h|mso|t stuck
at a corta|n d|stanco trom tho ond. |o bog|ns to approach but w|thdraws, ho bog|ns to w|thdraw but t|nds tho courago to approach aga|n. |o
osc|||atos, cont||ctod.
8
lt you outt|t tho rat w|th a ||tt|o harnoss to moasuro tho torco w|th wh|ch ho pu||s toward tood a|ono and, soparato|y, you
moasuro tho torco w|th wh|ch ho pu||s away trom an o|octr|c shock a|ono, you t|nd that tho rat gots stuck at tho po|nt whoro tho two torcos aro oqua|
and canco| out. 1ho pu|| matchos tho push. 1ho porp|oxod rat has two pa|r ot paws on h|s stoor|ng whoo|, oach pu|||ng |n oppos|to d|roct|ons-and
as a rosu|t ho cannot got anywhoro.
3ra|ns-whothor rat or human-aro mach|nos mado ot cont||ct|ng parts. lt bu||d|ng a contrapt|on w|th |ntorna| d|v|s|on sooms strango, just
cons|dor that wo a|roady bu||d soc|a| mach|nos ot th|s typo: th|nk ot a jury ot poors |n a courtroom tr|a|. 1wo|vo strangors w|th d|ttor|ng op|n|ons aro
taskod w|th tho s|ng|o m|ss|on ot com|ng to a consonsus. 1ho jurors dobato, coax, |nt|uonco, ro|ont-and ovontua||y tho jury cohoros to roach a
s|ng|o doc|s|on. |av|ng d|ttor|ng op|n|ons |s not a drawback to tho jury systom, |t |s a contra| toaturo.
lnsp|rod by th|s art ot consonsus bu||d|ng, Abraham l|nco|n choso to p|aco advorsar|os W||||am 3oward and 3a|mon Chaso |n h|s pros|dont|a|
cab|not. |o was choos|ng, |n tho momorab|o phraso ot h|stor|an 0or|s Koarns Goodw|n, a toam ot r|va|s. l|va|rous toams aro contra| |n modorn
po||t|ca| stratogy. ln |obruary 2000, w|th Z|mbabwo's oconomy |n troo ta||, lros|dont lobort Vugabo agrood to sharo powor w|th Vorgan
1svang|ra|, a r|va| ho'd oar||or tr|od to assass|nato. ln Varch 2000, Ch|noso pros|dont lros|dont |u 1|ntao namod two |nd|gnant|y oppos|ng tact|on
|oadors, X| 1|np|ng and l| Koq|ang, to ho|p cratt Ch|na's oconom|c and po||t|ca| tuturo.
l proposo that tho bra|n |s bost undorstood as a toam ot r|va|s, and tho rost ot th|s chaptor w||| oxp|oro that tramowork: who tho part|os aro, how
thoy compoto, how tho un|on |s ho|d togothor, and what happons whon th|ngs ta|| apart. As wo procood, romombor that compot|ng tact|ons typ|ca||y
havo tho samo goa|-succoss tor tho country-but thoy otton havo d|ttoront ways ot go|ng about |t. As l|nco|n put |t, r|va|s shou|d bo turnod |nto
a|||os °tor tho sako ot tho groator good,' and tor noura| subpopu|at|ons tho common |ntorost |s tho thr|v|ng and surv|va| ot tho organ|sm. ln tho samo
way that ||bora|s and consorvat|vos both |ovo tho|r country but can havo acr|mon|ous|y d|ttoront stratog|os tor stoor|ng |t, so too doos tho bra|n havo
compot|ng tact|ons that a|| bo||ovo thoy know tho r|ght way to so|vo prob|oms.
1EE DON|NAN1 1WO-PAR1Y 5Y51EN: REA5ON AND ENO1|ON

Whon try|ng to undorstand tho strango dota||s ot human bohav|or, psycho|og|sts and oconom|sts somot|mos appoa| to a °dua|-procoss' account.
0
ln
th|s v|ow, tho bra|n conta|ns two soparato systoms: ono |s tast, automat|c, and bo|ow tho surtaco ot consc|ous awaronoss, wh||o tho othor |s s|ow,
cogn|t|vo, and consc|ous. 1ho t|rst systom can bo |abo|od automat|c, |mp||c|t, hour|st|c, |ntu|t|vo, ho||st|c, roact|vo, and |mpu|s|vo, wh||o tho socond
systom |s cogn|t|vo, systomat|c, oxp||c|t, ana|yt|c, ru|o-basod, and rot|oct|vo.
10
1hoso two procossos aro a|ways batt||ng |t out.
0osp|to tho °dua|-procoss' mon|kor, thoro |s no roa| roason to assumo that thoro aro on|y two systoms-|n tact, thoro may bo sovora| systoms.
|or oxamp|o, |n 1020 3|gmund |roud suggostod throo compot|ng parts |n h|s modo| ot tho psycho: tho |d (|nst|nct|vo), tho ogo (roa||st|c and
organ|zod), and tho suporogo (cr|t|ca| and mora||z|ng).
11
ln tho 10b0s, tho Amor|can nourosc|ont|st lau| Vacloan suggostod that tho bra|n |s mado
ot throo |ayors roprosont|ng succoss|vo stagos ot ovo|ut|onary dovo|opmont: tho ropt|||an bra|n (|nvo|vod |n surv|va| bohav|ors), tho ||mb|c systom
(|nvo|vod |n omot|ons), and tho noocortox (usod |n h|ghor-ordor th|nk|ng). 1ho dota||s ot both ot thoso thoor|os havo |argo|y ta||on out ot tavor among
nouroanatom|sts, but tho hoart ot tho |doa surv|vos: bra|ns aro mado ot compot|ng subsystoms. Wo w||| procood us|ng tho gonora||zod dua|-
procoss modo| as a start|ng po|nt, bocauso |t adoquato|y convoys tho thrust ot tho argumont.
A|though psycho|og|sts and oconom|sts th|nk ot tho d|ttoront systoms |n abstract torms, modorn nourosc|onco str|vos tor an anatom|ca|
ground|ng. And |t happons that tho w|r|ng d|agram ot tho bra|n |onds |tso|t to d|v|s|ons that gonora||y map onto tho dua|-procoss modo|.
12
3omo
aroas ot your bra|n aro |nvo|vod |n h|ghor-ordor oporat|ons rogard|ng ovonts |n tho outs|do wor|d (thoso |nc|udo, tor oxamp|o, tho surtaco ot tho
bra|n just |ns|do your tomp|os, ca||od tho dorso|atora| protronta| cortox). ln contrast, othor aroas aro |nvo|vod w|th mon|tor|ng your |ntorna| stato, such
as your |ovo| ot hungor, sonso ot mot|vat|on, or whothor somoth|ng |s roward|ng to you (thoso aroas |nc|udo, tor oxamp|o, a rog|on just boh|nd your
torohoad ca||od tho mod|a| protronta| cortox, and sovora| aroas doop bo|ow tho surtaco ot tho cortox). 1ho s|tuat|on |s moro comp||catod than th|s
rough d|v|s|on wou|d |mp|y, bocauso bra|ns can s|mu|ato tuturo statos, rom|n|sco about tho past, t|guro out whoro to t|nd th|ngs not |mmod|ato|y
prosont, and so on. 3ut tor tho momont, th|s d|v|s|on |nto systoms that mon|tor tho oxtorna| and |ntorna| w||| sorvo as a rough gu|do, and a ||tt|o |ator
wo w||| rot|no tho p|cturo.
ln tho ottort to uso |abo|s t|od no|thor to b|ack boxos nor to nouroanatomy, l'vo choson two that w||| bo tam|||ar to ovoryono: tho rotlooo| and
omotlooo| systoms. 1hoso torms aro undorspoc|t|od and |mportoct, but thoy w||| nonotho|oss carry tho contra| po|nt about r|va|r|os |n tho bra|n.
18
1ho rat|ona| systom |s tho ono that caros about ana|ys|s ot th|ngs |n tho outs|do wor|d, wh||o tho omot|ona| systom mon|tors |ntorna| stato and
worr|os whothor th|ngs w||| bo good or bad. ln othor words, as a rough gu|do, rat|ona| cogn|t|on |nvo|vos oxtorna| ovonts, wh||o omot|on |nvo|vos your
|ntorna| stato. You can do a math prob|om w|thout consu|t|ng your |ntorna| stato, but you can't ordor a dossort ott a monu or pr|or|t|zo what you too|
||ko do|ng noxt.
14
1ho omot|ona| notworks aro abso|uto|y roqu|rod to rank your poss|b|o noxt act|ons |n tho wor|d: |t you woro an omot|on|oss robot
who ro||od |nto a room, you m|ght bo ab|o to mako ana|ysos about tho objocts around you, but you wou|d bo trozon w|th |ndoc|s|on about what to do
noxt. Cho|cos about tho pr|or|ty ot act|ons aro dotorm|nod by our |ntorna| statos: whothor you hoad stra|ght to tho rotr|gorator, bathroom, or
bodroom upon roturn|ng homo doponds not on tho oxtorna| st|mu|| |n your homo (thoso havo not changod), but |nstoad on your body's |ntorna|
statos.
A 1|NE FOR NA1E, A 1|NE 1O K|LL

1ho batt|o botwoon tho rat|ona| and omot|ona| systoms |s brought to ||ght by what ph||osophors ca|| tho tro||oy d||omma. Cons|dor th|s sconar|o: A
tro||oy |s barro||ng down tho tra|n tracks, out ot contro|. ||vo workors aro mak|ng ropa|rs way down tho track, and you, a bystandor, qu|ck|y roa||zo
that thoy w||| a|| bo k|||od by tho tro||oy. 3ut you a|so not|co that thoro |s a sw|tch noarby that you can throw, and that w||| d|vort tho tro||oy down a
d|ttoront track, whoro on|y a s|ng|o workor w||| bo k|||od. What do you do? (Assumo thoro aro no tr|ck so|ut|ons or h|ddon |ntormat|on.)
lt you aro ||ko most poop|o, you w||| havo no hos|tat|on about throw|ng tho sw|tch: |t's tar bottor to havo ono porson k|||od than t|vo, r|ght? Good
cho|co.
low horo's an |ntorost|ng tw|st to tho d||omma: |mag|no that tho samo tro||oy |s barro||ng down tho tracks, and tho samo t|vo workors aro |n
harm's way-but th|s t|mo you aro a bystandor on a tootbr|dgo that goos ovor tho tracks. You not|co that thoro |s an oboso man stand|ng on tho
tootbr|dgo, and you roa||zo that |t you woro to push h|m ott tho br|dgo, h|s bu|k wou|d bo sutt|c|ont to stop tho tra|n and savo tho t|vo workors. 0o you
push h|m ott?
lt you'ro ||ko most poop|o, you br|st|o at th|s suggost|on ot murdor|ng an |nnocont porson. 3ut wa|t a m|nuto. What d|ttoront|atos th|s trom your
prov|ous cho|co? Aron't you trad|ng ono ||to tor t|vo ||vos? 0oosn't tho math work out tho samo way?
What oxact|y |s tho d|ttoronco |n thoso two casos? lh||osophors work|ng |n tho trad|t|on ot lmmanuo| Kant havo proposod that tho d|ttoronco ||os
|n how poop|o aro bo|ng usod. ln tho t|rst sconar|o, you aro s|mp|y roduc|ng a bad s|tuat|on (tho doaths ot t|vo poop|o) to a |oss bad s|tuat|on (tho
doath ot ono). ln tho caso ot tho man on tho br|dgo, ho |s bo|ng oxp|o|tod as a moans to an ond. 1h|s |s a popu|ar oxp|anat|on |n tho ph||osophy
||toraturo. lntorost|ng|y, thoro may bo a moro bra|n-basod approach to undorstand tho rovorsa| |n poop|o's cho|cos.
ln tho a|tornat|vo |ntorprotat|on, suggostod by tho nourosc|ont|sts 1oshua Groono and 1onathan Cohon, tho d|ttoronco |n tho two sconar|os p|vots
on tho omot|ona| componont ot actua||y touch|ng somoono-that |s, |ntoract|ng w|th h|m at a c|oso d|stanco.
1b
lt tho prob|om |s constructod so that
tho man on tho tootbr|dgo can bo droppod, w|th tho t||p ot sw|tch, through a trapdoor, many poop|o w||| voto to |ot h|m drop. 3omoth|ng about
|ntoract|ng w|th tho porson up c|oso stops most poop|o trom push|ng tho man to h|s doath. Why? 3ocauso that sort ot porsona| |ntoract|on act|vatos
tho omot|ona| notworks. lt changos tho prob|om trom an abstract, |mporsona| math prob|om |nto a porsona|, omot|ona| doc|s|on.
Whon poop|o cons|dor tho tro||oy prob|om, horo's what bra|n |mag|ng rovoa|s: ln tho tootbr|dgo sconar|o, aroas |nvo|vod |n motor p|ann|ng and
omot|on bocomo act|vo. ln contrast, |n tho track-sw|tch sconar|o, on|y |atora| aroas |nvo|vod |n rat|ona| th|nk|ng bocomo act|vo. loop|o rog|stor
omot|ona||y whon thoy havo to push somoono, whon thoy on|y havo to t|p a |ovor, tho|r bra|n bohavos ||ko 5tor 7rok's Vr. 3pock.
¯ ¯ ¯

1ho batt|o botwoon omot|ona| and rat|ona| notworks |n tho bra|n |s n|co|y |||ustratod by an o|d op|sodo ot 7bo 7wl|lgbt Zooo. l am paraphras|ng trom
momory, but tho p|ot goos somoth|ng ||ko th|s: A strangor |n an ovorcoat shows up at a man's door and proposos a doa|. °|oro |s a box w|th a
s|ng|o button on |t. A|| you havo to do |s pross tho button and l w||| pay you a thousand do||ars.'
°What happons whon l pross tho button?' tho man asks.
1ho strangor to||s h|m, °Whon you pross tho button, somoono tar away, somoono you don't ovon know, w||| d|o.'
1ho man suttors ovor tho mora| d||omma through tho n|ght. 1ho button box rosts on h|s k|tchon tab|o. |o staros at |t. |o pacos around |t. 3woat
c||ngs to h|s brow.
||na||y, attor an assossmont ot h|s dosporato t|nanc|a| s|tuat|on, ho |ungos to tho box and punchos tho button. loth|ng happons. lt |s qu|ot and
ant|c||mact|c.
1hon thoro |s a knock at tho door. 1ho strangor |n tho ovorcoat |s thoro, and ho hands tho man tho monoy and takos tho box. °Wa|t,' tho man
shouts attor h|m. °What happons now?'
1ho strangor says, °low l tako tho box and g|vo |t to tho noxt porson. 3omoono tar away, somoono you don't ovon know.'
1ho story h|gh||ghts tho oaso ot |mporsona||y pross|ng a button: |t tho man had boon askod to attack somoono w|th h|s hands, ho prosumab|y
wou|d havo doc||nod tho barga|n.
ln oar||or t|mos |n our ovo|ut|on, thoro was no roa| way to |ntoract w|th othors at a d|stanco any tarthor than that a||owod by hands, toot, or poss|b|y
a st|ck. 1hat d|stanco ot |ntoract|on was sa||ont and consoquont|a|, and th|s |s what our omot|ona| roact|on rot|octs. ln modorn t|mos, tho s|tuat|on
d|ttors: gonora|s and ovon so|d|ors common|y t|nd thomso|vos tar romovod trom tho poop|o thoy k|||. ln 3hakospoaro's loory Vl, Port 2, tho robo|
1ack Cado cha||ongos lord 3ay, mock|ng tho tact that ho has novor known tho t|rsthand dangor ot tho batt|ot|o|d: °Whon struck'st thou ono b|ow |n
tho t|o|d?' lord 3ay rosponds, °Groat mon havo roach|ng hands: ott havo l struck thoso that l novor saw, and struck thom doad.' ln modorn t|mos,
wo can |aunch torty 1omahawk surtaco-to-surtaco m|ss||os trom tho dock ot navy sh|ps |n tho lors|an Gu|t and lod 3oa w|th tho touch ot a button.
1ho rosu|t ot push|ng that button may bo watchod by tho m|ss||o oporators ||vo on Cll, m|nutos |ator, whon 3aghdad's bu||d|ngs d|sappoar |n
p|umos. 1ho prox|m|ty |s |ost, and so |s tho omot|ona| |nt|uonco. 1h|s |mporsona| naturo ot wag|ng war makos |t d|sconcort|ng|y oasy. ln tho 1000s,
ono po||t|ca| th|nkor suggostod that tho button to |aunch a nuc|oar war shou|d bo |mp|antod |n tho chost ot tho lros|dont's c|osost tr|ond. 1hat way,
shou|d tho lros|dont want to mako tho doc|s|on to ann|h||ato m||||ons ot poop|o on tho othor s|do ot tho g|obo, ho wou|d t|rst havo to phys|ca||y harm
h|s tr|ond, r|pp|ng opon h|s chost to got to tho button. 1hat wou|d at |oast ongago h|s omot|ona| systom |n tho doc|s|on mak|ng, so as to guard
aga|nst |ott|ng tho cho|co bo |mporsona|.
3ocauso both ot tho noura| systoms batt|o to contro| tho s|ng|o output channo| ot bohav|or, omot|ons can t|p tho ba|anco ot doc|s|on mak|ng. 1h|s
anc|ont batt|o has turnod |nto a d|roct|vo ot sorts tor many poop|o: lí lt íoo|s boo, lt ls probob|y wroog.
10
1horo aro many countor oxamp|os to th|s
(tor oxamp|o, ono may t|nd onoso|t put ott by anothor's soxua| protoronco but st||| doom noth|ng mora||y wrong w|th that cho|co), but omot|on
nonotho|oss sorvos as a gonora||y usotu| stoor|ng mochan|sm tor doc|s|on mak|ng.
1ho omot|ona| systoms aro ovo|ut|onar||y o|d, and thorotoro sharod w|th many othor spoc|os, wh||o tho dovo|opmont ot tho rat|ona| systom |s
moro rocont. 3ut as wo havo soon, tho novo|ty ot tho rat|ona| systom doos not nocossar||y |nd|cato that |t |s, by |tso|t, supor|or. 3oc|ot|os wou|d oot
bo bottor ott |t ovoryono woro ||ko Vr. 3pock, a|| rat|ona||ty and no omot|on. lnstoad, a ba|anco-a toam|ng up ot tho |ntorna| r|va|s-|s opt|ma| tor
bra|ns. 1h|s |s bocauso tho d|sgust wo too| at push|ng tho man ott tho tootbr|dgo |s cr|t|ca| to soc|a| |ntoract|on, tho |mpass|v|ty ono too|s at pross|ng
a button to |aunch a 1omahawk m|ss||o |s dotr|monta| to c|v|||zat|on. 3omo ba|anco ot tho omot|ona| and rat|ona| systoms |s noodod, and that
ba|anco may a|roady bo opt|m|zod by natura| so|oct|on |n human bra|ns. 1o put |t anothor way, a domocracy sp||t across tho a|s|o may bo just what
you want-a takoovor |n o|thor d|roct|on wou|d a|most corta|n|y provo |oss opt|ma|. 1ho anc|ont Grooks had an ana|ogy tor ||to that capturod th|s
w|sdom: you aro a char|otoor, and your char|ot |s pu||od by two thundorous horsos, tho wh|to horso ot roason and tho b|ack horso ot pass|on. 1ho
wh|to horso |s a|ways try|ng to tug you ott ono s|do ot tho road, and tho b|ack horso tr|os to pu|| you ott tho othor s|do. Your job |s to ho|d on to thom
t|ght|y, koop|ng thom |n chock so you can cont|nuo down tho m|dd|o ot tho road.
1ho omot|ona| and rat|ona| notworks batt|o not on|y ovor |mmod|ato mora| doc|s|ons, but |n anothor tam|||ar s|tuat|on as wo||: how wo bohavo |n
t|mo.
WEY 1EE DEV|L CAN 5ELL YOu FANE NOW FOR YOuR 5OuL LA1ER

3omo yoars ago, tho psycho|og|sts 0an|o| Kahnoman and Amos 1vorsky posod a docopt|vo|y s|mp|o quost|on: lt l woro to ottor you $100 r|ght now
or $110 a wook trom now, wh|ch wou|d you chooso? Vost subjocts choso to tako $100 r|ght thon. lt just d|dn't soom worthwh||o to wa|t an ont|ro
wook tor anothor $10.
1hon tho rosoarchors changod tho quost|on s||ght|y: lt l woro to ottor you $100 t|tty-two wooks trom now, or $110 t|tty-throo wooks trom now, wh|ch
wou|d you chooso? |oro poop|o tondod to sw|tch tho|r protoronco, choos|ng to wa|t tho t|tty-throo wooks. loto that tho two sconar|os aro |dont|ca|
|n that wa|t|ng ono oxtra wook oarns you an oxtra $10. 3o why |s thoro a protoronco rovorsa| botwoon tho two?
17
lt's bocauso poop|o °d|scount' tho tuturo, an oconom|c torm moan|ng that rowards c|osor to now aro va|uod moro h|gh|y than rowards |n tho
d|stant tuturo. 0o|ay|ng grat|t|cat|on |s d|tt|cu|t. And thoro |s somoth|ng vory spoc|a| about rlgbt oow-wh|ch a|ways ho|ds tho h|ghost va|uo.
Kahnoman and 1vorsky's protoronco rovorsa| comos about bocauso tho d|scount|ng has a part|cu|ar shapo: |t drops ott vory qu|ck|y |nto tho noar
tuturo, and thon t|attons out a b|t, as though moro d|stant t|mos aro a|| about tho samo. 1hat shapo happons to |ook ||ko tho shapo you wou|d got |t
you comb|nod two s|mp|or procossos: ono that caros about short-torm roward and ono that ho|ds concorns moro d|stant|y |nto tho tuturo.
1hat gavo an |doa to nourosc|ont|sts 3am VcC|uro, 1onathan Cohon, and tho|r co||oaguos. 1hoy rocons|dorod tho protoronco-rovorsa| prob|om
|n ||ght ot tho tramowork ot mu|t|p|o compot|ng systoms |n tho bra|n. 1hoy askod vo|untoors to mako thoso somoth|ng-now-or-moro-|ator oconom|c
doc|s|ons wh||o |n a bra|n scannor. 1ho sc|ont|sts soarchod tor a systom that carod about |mmod|ato grat|t|cat|on, and anothor that |nvo|vod |ongor-
torm rat|ona||ty. lt tho two oporato |ndopondont|y, and t|ght aga|nst oach othor, that just m|ght oxp|a|n tho data. And |ndood, thoy tound that somo
omot|ona||y |nvo|vod bra|n structuros woro h|gh|y act|vatod by tho cho|co ot |mmod|ato or noar-torm rowards. 1hoso aroas woro assoc|atod w|th
|mpu|s|vo bohav|or, |nc|ud|ng drug add|ct|on. ln contrast, whon part|c|pants optod tor |ongor-torm rowards w|th h|ghor roturn, |atora| aroas ot tho
cortox |nvo|vod |n h|ghor cogn|t|on and do||borat|on woro moro act|vo.
18
And tho h|ghor tho act|v|ty |n thoso |atora| aroas, tho moro tho part|c|pant
was w||||ng to dotor grat|t|cat|on.
3omot|mo botwoon 200b and 2000, tho Un|tod 3tatos hous|ng bubb|o burst. 1ho prob|om was that 80 porcont ot rocont|y |ssuod mortgagos
woro adjustab|o-rato. 1ho subpr|mo borrowors who had s|gnod up tor thoso |oans suddon|y tound thomso|vos stuck w|th h|ghor paymont ratos and
no way to rot|nanco. 0o||nquonc|os soarod. 3otwoon |ato 2007 and 2008, a|most ono m||||on U.3. homos woro toroc|osod on. Vortgago-backod
socur|t|os rap|d|y |ost most ot tho|r va|uo. Crod|t around tho wor|d t|ghtonod. 1ho oconomy mo|tod.
What d|d th|s havo to do w|th compot|ng systoms |n tho bra|n? 3ubpr|mo mortgago ottors woro portoct|y opt|m|zod to tako advantago ot tho l-
want-|t-now systom: buy th|s boaut|tu| houso now w|th vory |ow paymonts, |mpross your tr|onds and paronts, ||vo moro comtortab|y than you thought
you cou|d. At somo po|nt tho |ntorost rato on your adjustab|o-rato mortgago w||| go up, but that's a |ong way away, h|ddon |n tho m|sts ot tho tuturo.
3y p|ugg|ng d|roct|y |nto thoso |nstant-grat|t|cat|on c|rcu|ts, tho |ondors woro ab|o to a|most tank tho Amor|can oconomy. As tho oconom|st lobort
3h|||or notod |n tho wako ot tho subpr|mo mortgago cr|s|s, spocu|at|vo bubb|os aro causod by °contag|ous opt|m|sm, soom|ng|y |mporv|ous to tacts,
that otton takos ho|d whon pr|cos aro r|s|ng. 3ubb|os aro pr|mar||y soc|a| phonomona, unt|| wo undorstand and addross tho psycho|ogy that tuo|s
thom, thoy'ro go|ng to koop torm|ng.'
10
Whon you bog|n to |ook tor oxamp|os ot l-want-|t-now doa|s, you'|| soo thom ovorywhoro. l rocont|y mot a man who accoptod $b00 wh||o ho was a
co||ogo studont |n oxchango tor s|gn|ng h|s body away to a un|vors|ty mod|ca| schoo| attor ho d|os. 1ho studonts who accoptod tho doa| a|| roco|vod
ank|o tattoos that to|| tho hosp|ta|, docados trom now, whoro tho|r bod|os shou|d bo do||vorod. lt's an oasy so|| tor tho schoo|: $b00 now too|s good,
wh||o doath |s |nconco|vab|y d|stant. 1horo |s noth|ng wrong w|th donat|ng ono's body, but th|s sorvos to |||ustrato tho archotyp|ca| dua|-procoss
cont||ct, tho provorb|a| doa| w|th tho 0ov||: your w|shos grantod now tor your sou| |n tho d|stant tuturo.
1hoso sorts ot noura| batt|os otton ||o boh|nd mar|ta| |nt|do||ty. 3pousos mako prom|sos |n a momont ot hoartto|t |ovo, but |ator can t|nd
thomso|vos |n a s|tuat|on |n wh|ch prosont tomptat|ons t|p tho|r doc|s|on mak|ng tho othor way. ln lovombor 100b, 3||| C||nton's bra|n doc|dod that
r|sk|ng tho tuturo |oadorsh|p ot tho troo wor|d was countorba|ancod by tho p|oasuro ho had tho opportun|ty to oxpor|onco w|th tho w|nsomo Von|ca
|n tho prosont momont.
3o whon wo ta|k about a v|rtuous porson, wo do not nocossar||y moan somoono who |s not tomptod but, |nstoad, somoono who |s ab|o to roslst
that tomptat|on. Wo moan somoono who doos not |ot that batt|o t|p to tho s|do ot |nstant grat|t|cat|on. Wo va|uo such poop|o bocauso |t |s oasy to
y|o|d to |mpu|sos, and |nord|nato|y d|tt|cu|t to |gnoro thom. 3|gmund |roud notod that argumonts stomm|ng trom tho |nto||oct or trom mora||ty aro
woak whon p|ttod aga|nst human pass|ons and dos|ros,
20
wh|ch |s why campa|gns to °just say no' or pract|co abst|nonco w||| novor work. lt has a|so
boon proposod that th|s |mba|anco ot roason and omot|on may oxp|a|n tho tonac|ty ot ro||g|on |n soc|ot|os: wor|d ro||g|ons aro opt|m|zod to tap |nto
tho omot|ona| notworks, and groat argumonts ot roason amount to ||tt|o aga|nst such magnot|c pu||. lndood, tho 3ov|ot attompts to squo|ch ro||g|on
woro on|y part|a||y succosstu|, and no soonor had tho govornmont co||apsod than tho ro||g|ous coromon|os sprang r|ch|y back to ||to.
1ho obsorvat|on that poop|o aro mado ot cont||ct|ng short- and |ong-torm dos|ros |s not a now ono. Anc|ont 1ow|sh wr|t|ngs proposod that tho
body |s composod ot two |ntoract|ng parts: a body (goí), wh|ch a|ways wants th|ngs now, and a sou| (ooíosb), wh|ch ma|nta|ns a |ongor-torm v|ow.
3|m||ar|y, Gormans uso a tanc|tu| oxpross|on tor a porson try|ng to do|ay grat|t|cat|on: ho must ovorcomo h|s loooror scbwoloobooo-wh|ch
trans|atos, somot|mos to tho puzz|omont ot Eng||sh spoakors, as °|nnor p|gdog.'
Your bohav|or-what you do |n tho wor|d-|s s|mp|y tho ond rosu|t ot tho batt|os. 3ut tho story gots bottor, bocauso tho d|ttoront part|os |n tho
bra|n can |oarn about tho|r |ntoract|ons w|th ono anothor. As a rosu|t, tho s|tuat|on qu|ck|y surpassos s|mp|o arm wrost||ng botwoon short- and |ong-
torm dos|ros and ontors tho roa|m ot a surpr|s|ng|y soph|st|catod procoss ot nogot|at|on.
1EE PRE5EN1 AND Fu1uRE uLY55E5

ln 1000, Vorko| land|s, troasuror ot tho Car||s|o 1rust Company |n lonnsy|van|a, wont on a |ong wa|k and was struck w|th a now t|nanc|a| |doa. |o
wou|d start somoth|ng ca||od a Chr|stmas c|ub. Customors wou|d dopos|t monoy w|th tho bank throughout tho yoar, and thoro wou|d bo a too |t thoy
w|thdrow tho|r monoy oar|y. 1hon, at tho ond ot tho yoar, poop|o cou|d accoss tho|r monoy just |n t|mo tor ho||day shopp|ng. lt tho |doa workod, tho
bank wou|d havo p|onty ot cap|ta| to ro|nvost and prot|t trom a|| yoar. 3ut wou|d |t work? Wou|d poop|o w||||ng|y g|vo up tho|r cap|ta| a|| yoar tor ||tt|o
or no |ntorost?
land|s tr|od |t, and tho concopt |mmod|ato|y caught t|ro. 1hat yoar, a|most tour hundrod patrons ot tho bank sockod away an avorago ot $28 oach
-qu|to a b|t ot monoy |n tho oar|y 1000s. land|s and tho othor bankors cou|dn't bo||ovo tho|r |uck. latrons wootoo thom to ho|d on to tho|r monoy.
1ho popu|ar|ty ot Chr|stmas bank|ng c|ubs grow qu|ck|y, and banks soon tound thomso|vos batt||ng oach othor tor tho ho||day nost ogg bus|noss.
lowspapors oxhortod paronts to onro|| tho|r ch||dron |n Chr|stmas c|ubs °to dovo|op so|t-ro||anco and tho sav|ng hab|t.'
21
3y tho 1020s, sovora|
banks, |nc|ud|ng tho 0|mo 3av|ng 3ank ot 1o|odo, Oh|o, and tho At|ant|c Country 1rust Co. |n At|ant|c C|ty, low 1orsoy, bogan manutactur|ng
attract|vo brass Chr|stmas c|ub tokons to ont|co now customors.
22
(1ho At|ant|c C|ty tokons road, °1o|n our Chr|stmas C|ub and |avo Vonoy Whon
You lood lt Vost.')
3ut why d|d Chr|stmas c|ubs catch on? lt tho dopos|tors contro||od tho|r own monoy throughout tho yoar, thoy cou|d oarn bottor |ntorost or |nvost |n
omorg|ng opportun|t|os. Any oconom|st wou|d adv|so thom to ho|d on to tho|r own cap|ta|. 3o why wou|d poop|o w||||ng|y ask a bank to tako away
tho|r monoy, ospoc|a||y |n tho taco ot rostr|ct|ons and oar|y w|thdrawa| toos? 1ho answor |s obv|ous: poop|o wantod somoono to stop thom trom
spond|ng tho|r monoy. 1hoy know that |t thoy ho|d on to tho|r own monoy, thoy woro ||ko|y to b|ow |t.
28
|or th|s samo roason, poop|o common|y uso tho lntorna| lovonuo 3orv|co as an orsatz Chr|stmas c|ub: by c|a|m|ng towor doduct|ons on tho|r
paychocks, thoy a||ow tho ll3 to koop moro ot tho|r monoy dur|ng tho yoar. 1hon, como noxt Apr||, thoy roco|vo tho joy ot a chock |n tho ma||box. lt
too|s ||ko troo monoy-but ot courso |t's on|y your own. And tho govornmont got to oarn |ntorost on |t |nstoad ot you. lonotho|oss, poop|o chooso
th|s routo whon thoy |ntu|t that tho oxtra monoy w||| burn a ho|o |n tho|r pockot dur|ng tho yoar. 1hoy'd rathor grant somoono o|so tho rospons|b|||ty to
protoct thom trom |mpu|s|vo doc|s|ons.
Why don't poop|o tako contro| ot tho|r own bohav|or and onjoy tho opportun|t|os ot command|ng tho|r own cap|ta|? 1o undorstand tho popu|ar|ty ot
tho Chr|stmas c|ub and ll3 phonomona, wo nood to stop back throo m|||onn|a to tho k|ng ot lthaca and a horo ot tho 1rojan War, U|yssos.
Attor tho war, U|yssos was on a protractod soa voyago back to h|s homo |s|and ot lthaca whon ho roa||zod ho had a raro opportun|ty |n tront ot
h|m. ||s sh|p wou|d bo pass|ng tho |s|and ot 3|ronum scopu||, whoro tho boaut|tu| 3|rons sang mo|od|os so a||ur|ng thoy boggarod tho human m|nd.
1ho prob|om was that sa||ors who hoard th|s mus|c stoorod toward tho tr|cky ma|dons, and tho|r sh|ps woro dashod |nto tho untorg|v|ng rocks,
drown|ng a|| aboard.
3o U|yssos hatchod a p|an. |o know that whon ho hoard tho mus|c, ho wou|d bo as unab|o to ros|st as any othor morta| man, so ho camo up w|th
an |doa to doa| w|th h|s íotoro so|í. lot tho prosont, rat|ona| U|yssos, but tho tuturo, crazod U|yssos. |o ordorod h|s mon to |ash h|m to tho mast ot
tho sh|p and t|o h|m thoro socuro|y. 1h|s way ho wou|d bo unab|o to movo whon tho mus|c wattod ovor tho bow ot tho sh|p. 1hon ho had thom t||| tho|r
oars w|th booswax so thoy cou|d not bo soducod by tho vo|cos ot tho 3|rons-or hoar h|s crazod commands. |o mado |t c|oar to thom that thoy
shou|d not rospond to h|s ontroat|os and shou|d not ro|oaso h|m unt|| tho sh|p was wo|| past tho 3|rons. |o surm|sod that ho wou|d bo scroam|ng,
yo|||ng, curs|ng, try|ng to torco tho mon to stoor toward tho mo|||t|uous womon-ho know that th|s tuturo U|yssos wou|d bo |n no pos|t|on to mako
good doc|s|ons. 1horotoro, tho U|yssos ot sound m|nd structurod th|ngs |n such a way as to provont h|mso|t trom do|ng somoth|ng too||sh whon thoy
passod tho upcom|ng |s|and. lt was a doa| struck botwoon tho prosont U|yssos and tho tuturo ono.
1h|s myth h|gh||ghts tho way |n wh|ch m|nds can dovo|op a mota-know|odgo about how tho short- and |ong-torm part|os |ntoract. 1ho amaz|ng
consoquonco |s that m|nds can nogot|ato w|th d|ttoront t|mo po|nts ot thomso|vos.
24
3o |mag|no tho hostoss pross|ng tho choco|ato cako upon you. 3omo parts ot your bra|n want that g|ucoso, wh||o othors parts caro about your
d|ot, somo parts |ook at tho short-torm ga|n, othor parts at |ong-torm stratogy. 1ho batt|o t|ps toward your omot|ons and you doc|do to d|g |n. 3ut not
w|thout a contract: you'|| oat |t on|y |t you prom|so to go to tho gym tomorrow. Who's nogot|at|ng w|th whom? Aron't both part|os |n tho nogot|at|on
yoo?
|roo|y mado doc|s|ons that b|nd you |n tho tuturo aro what ph||osophors ca|| a U|yssos contract.
2b
As a concroto oxamp|o, ono ot tho t|rst stops |n
broak|ng an a|coho| add|ct|on |s to onsuro, dur|ng sobor rot|oct|on, that thoro |s no a|coho| |n tho houso. 1ho tomptat|on w||| s|mp|y bo too groat attor
a strosstu| workday or on a tost|vo 3aturday or a |ono|y 3unday.
loop|o mako U|yssos contracts a|| tho t|mo, and th|s oxp|a|ns tho |mmod|ato and |ast|ng succoss ot Vorko| land|s's Chr|stmas c|ub. Whon
poop|o handod ovor tho|r cap|ta| |n Apr||, thoy woro act|ng w|th a wary oyo toward tho|r Octobor so|vos, who thoy know wou|d bo tomptod to b|ow
tho monoy on somoth|ng so|t|sh |nstoad ot dotorr|ng to tho|r gonorous, g|tt-g|v|ng 0ocombor so|vos.
Vany arrangomonts havo ovo|vod to a||ow poop|o to proact|vo|y b|nd tho opt|ons ot tho|r tuturo so|vos. Cons|dor tho ox|stonco ot wobs|tos that
ho|p you |oso wo|ght by nogot|at|ng a bus|noss doa| w|th your tuturo so|t. |oro's how |t works: you pay a dopos|t ot $100 w|th tho prom|so that you
w||| |oso ton pounds. lt you succood by tho prom|sod t|mo, you got a|| tho monoy back. lt you don't |oso tho wo|ght by that t|mo, tho company koops
tho monoy. 1hoso arrangomonts work on tho honor systom and cou|d oas||y bo choatod, but nonotho|oss thoso compan|os aro prot|t|ng. Why?
3ocauso poop|o undorstand that as thoy como c|osor to tho dato whon thoy can w|n back tho|r monoy, tho|r omot|ona| systoms w||| caro moro and
moro about |t. 1hoy aro p|tt|ng short- and |ong-torm systoms aga|nst oach othor.
¯
U|yssos contracts otton ar|so |n tho contoxt ot mod|ca| doc|s|on mak|ng. Whon a porson |n good hoa|th s|gns an advanco mod|ca| d|roct|vo to pu||
tho p|ug |n tho ovont ot a coma, ho |s b|nd|ng h|mso|t |n a contract w|th a poss|b|o tuturo so|t-ovon though |t |s arguab|o that tho two so|vos (|n
hoa|th and |n s|cknoss) aro qu|to d|ttoront.
An |ntorost|ng tw|st on tho U|yssos contract comos about whon somoono o|so stops |n to mako a doc|s|on tor you-and b|nds your prosont so|t |n
dotoronco to your tuturo so|t. 1hoso s|tuat|ons ar|so common|y |n hosp|ta|s, whon a pat|ont, hav|ng just oxpor|oncod a traumat|c ||to chango, such as
|os|ng a ||mb or a spouso, doc|aros that sho wants to d|o. 3ho may domand, tor oxamp|o, that hor doctors stop hor d|a|ys|s or g|vo hor an ovordoso
ot morph|no. 3uch casos typ|ca||y go botoro oth|cs boards, and tho boards usua||y doc|do tho samo th|ng: don't |ot tho pat|ont d|o, bocauso tho
tuturo pat|ont w||| ovontua||y t|nd a way to roga|n hor omot|ona| toot|ng and roc|a|m happ|noss. 1ho oth|cs board horo acts s|mp|y as an advocato tor
tho rat|ona|, |ong-torm systom, rocogn|z|ng that tho prosont contoxt a||ows tho |nto||oct ||tt|o vo|co aga|nst tho omot|ons.
20
1ho board ossont|a||y
doc|dos that tho noura| congross |s unta|r|y t||tod at tho momont, and that an |ntorvont|on |s noodod to provont a ono-party takoovor. 1hank
goodnoss that wo can somot|mos ro|y on tho d|spass|on ot somoono o|so, just as U|yssos ro||od on h|s sa||ors to |gnoro h|s p|oas. 1ho ru|o ot
thumb |s th|s: whon you cannot ro|y on your own rat|ona| systoms, borrow somoono o|so's.
27
ln th|s caso, pat|onts borrow tho rat|ona| systoms ot tho
board mombors. 1ho board can moro oas||y tako rospons|b|||ty tor protoct|ng tho tuturo pat|ont, as |ts mombors do not hoar tho omot|ona| 3|ron
songs |n wh|ch tho pat|ont |s onsnarod.
OF NANY N|ND5

|or tho purposo ot |||ustrat|ng tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork, l havo mado tho ovors|mp||t|cat|on ot subd|v|d|ng tho nouroanatomy |nto tho rat|ona| and
omot|ona| systoms. 3ut l do not want to g|vo tho |mpross|on that thoso aro tho on|y compot|ng tact|ons. lnstoad, thoy aro on|y tho bog|nn|ng ot tho
toam-ot-r|va|s story. Evorywhoro wo |ook wo t|nd ovor|app|ng systoms that compoto.
Ono ot tho most tasc|nat|ng oxamp|os ot compot|ng systoms can bo soon w|th tho two hom|sphoros ot tho bra|n, |ott and r|ght. 1ho hom|sphoros
|ook rough|y a||ko and aro connoctod by a donso h|ghway ot t|bors ca||od tho corpus ca||osum. lo ono wou|d havo guossod that tho |ott and r|ght
hom|sphoros tormod two ha|vos ot a toam ot r|va|s unt|| tho 10b0s, whon an unusua| sot ot surgor|os woro undortakon. lourob|o|og|sts logor
3porry and lona|d Voyors, |n somo oxpor|monta| surgor|os, cut tho corpus ca||osum ot cats and monkoys. What happonod? lot much. 1ho
an|ma|s actod norma|, as though tho mass|vo band ot t|bors connoct|ng tho two ha|vos was not roa||y nocossary.
As a rosu|t ot th|s succoss, sp||t-bra|n surgory was t|rst portormod on human op||opsy pat|onts |n 1001. |or thom, an oporat|on that provontod tho
sproad ot so|zuros trom ono hom|sphoro to tho othor was tho |ast hopo. And tho surgor|os workod boaut|tu||y. A porson who had suttorod torr|b|y
w|th dob|||tat|ng so|zuros cou|d now ||vo a norma| ||to. Evon w|th tho two ha|vos ot h|s bra|n soparatod, tho pat|ont d|d not soom to act d|ttoront|y. |o
cou|d romombor ovonts norma||y and |oarn now tacts w|thout troub|o. |o cou|d |ovo and |augh and danco and havo tun.
3ut somoth|ng strango was go|ng on. lt c|ovor stratog|os woro usod to do||vor |ntormat|on on|y to ono hom|sphoro and not tho othor, thon ono
hom|sphoro cou|d |oarn somoth|ng wh||o tho othor wou|d not. lt was as though tho porson had two |ndopondont bra|ns.
28
And tho pat|onts cou|d do
d|ttoront tasks at tho samo t|mo, somoth|ng that norma| bra|ns cannot do. |or oxamp|o, w|th a ponc|| |n oach hand, sp||t bra|n pat|onts cou|d
s|mu|tanoous|y draw |ncompat|b|o t|guros, such as a c|rc|o and a tr|ang|o.
1horo was moro. 1ho ma|n motor w|r|ng ot tho bra|n crossos s|dos, such that tho r|ght hom|sphoro contro|s tho |ott hand and tho |ott hom|sphoro
contro|s tho r|ght hand. And that tact a||ows a romarkab|o domonstrat|on. lmag|no that tho word opp|o |s t|ashod to tho |ott hom|sphoro, wh||o tho
word poocl| |s s|mu|tanoous|y t|ashod to tho r|ght hom|sphoro. Whon a sp||t-bra|n pat|ont |s askod to grab tho |tom ho just saw, tho r|ght hand w|||
p|ck up tho app|o wh||o tho |ott hand w||| s|mu|tanoous|y p|ck up tho ponc||. 1ho two ha|vos aro now ||v|ng tho|r own ||vos, d|sconnoctod.
losoarchors camo to roa||zo, ovor t|mo, that tho two hom|sphoros havo somowhat d|ttoront porsona||t|os and sk|||s-th|s |nc|udos tho|r ab|||t|os
to th|nk abstract|y, croato stor|os, draw |ntoroncos, dotorm|no tho sourco ot a momory, and mako good cho|cos |n a gamb||ng gamo. logor 3porry,
ono ot tho nourob|o|og|sts who p|onoorod tho sp||t-bra|n stud|os (and garnorod a lobo| lr|zo tor |t), camo to undorstand tho bra|n as °two soparato
roa|ms ot consc|ous awaronoss, two sons|ng, porco|v|ng, th|nk|ng and romombor|ng systoms.' 1ho two ha|vos const|tuto a toam ot r|va|s: agonts
w|th tho samo goa|s but s||ght|y d|ttoront ways ot go|ng about |t.
ln 1070, tho Amor|can psycho|og|st 1u||an 1aynos proposod that unt|| |ato |n tho socond m|||onn|um 3.C.E., humans had no |ntrospoct|vo
consc|ousnoss, and that |nstoad tho|r m|nds woro ossont|a||y d|v|dod |nto two, w|th tho|r |ott hom|sphoros to||ow|ng tho commands trom tho|r r|ght
hom|sphoros.
20
1hoso commands, |n tho torm ot aud|tory ha||uc|nat|ons, woro |ntorprotod as vo|cos trom tho gods. About throo thousand yoars
ago, 1aynos suggosts, th|s d|v|s|on ot |abor botwoon tho |ott and r|ght hom|sphoros bogan to broak down. As tho hom|sphoros bogan to
commun|cato moro smooth|y, cogn|t|vo procossos such as |ntrospoct|on woro ab|o to dovo|op. 1ho or|g|n ot consc|ousnoss, ho arguos, rosu|tod
trom tho ab|||ty ot tho two hom|sphoros to s|t down at tho tab|o togothor and work out tho|r d|ttoroncos. lo ono yot knows whothor 1aynos's thoory
has |ogs, but tho proposa| |s too |ntorost|ng to |gnoro.
1ho two hom|sphoros |ook a|most |dont|ca| anatom|ca||y. lt's as though you como oqu|ppod w|th tho samo bas|c modo| ot bra|n hom|sphoro |n
tho two s|dos ot your sku||, both absorb|ng data trom tho wor|d |n s||ght|y d|ttoront ways. lt's ossont|a||y ono b|uopr|nt stampod out tw|co. And noth|ng
cou|d bo bottor su|tod tor a toam ot r|va|s. 1ho tact that tho two ha|vos aro doub|os ot tho samo bas|c p|an |s ov|doncod by a typo ot surgory ca||od a
hom|sphoroctomy, |n wh|ch ono ont|ro ha|t ot tho bra|n |s romovod (th|s |s dono to troat |ntractab|o op||opsy causod by lasmusson's oncopha||t|s).
Amaz|ng|y, as |ong as tho surgory |s portormod on a ch||d botoro ho |s about o|ght yoars o|d, tho ch||d |s t|no. lot mo ropoat that: tho ch||d, w|th on|y
ha|t h|s bra|n roma|n|ng, |s t|no. |o can oat, road, spoak, do math, mako tr|onds, p|ay choss, |ovo h|s paronts, and ovoryth|ng o|so that a ch||d w|th
two hom|sphoros can do. loto that |t |s not poss|b|o to romovo ooy ha|t ot tho bra|n: you cannot romovo tho tront ha|t or tho back ha|t and oxpoct
surv|va|. 3ut tho r|ght and |ott ha|vos rovoa| thomso|vos as somoth|ng ||ko cop|os ot oach othor. 1ako ono away and you st||| havo anothor, w|th
rough|y rodundant tunct|on. 1ust ||ko a pa|r ot po||t|ca| part|os. lt tho lopub||cans or 0omocrats d|sappoarod, tho othor wou|d st||| bo ab|o to run tho
country. 1ho approach wou|d bo s||ght|y d|ttoront, but th|ngs wou|d st||| work.
CEA5ELE55 RE|NVEN1|ON

l'vo bogun w|th oxamp|os ot rat|ona| systoms vorsus omot|ona| systoms, and tho two-tact|ons-|n-ono-bra|n phonomonon unmaskod by sp||t-bra|n
surgor|os. 3ut tho r|va|r|os |n tho bra|n aro tar moro numorous, and tar moro subt|o, than tho broad-stroko onos l havo |ntroducod so tar. 1ho bra|n |s
tu|| ot sma||or subsystoms that havo ovor|app|ng doma|ns and tako caro ot co|nc|d|ng tasks.
Cons|dor momory. laturo sooms to havo |nvontod mochan|sms tor stor|ng momory moro than onco. |or |nstanco, undor norma| c|rcumstancos,
your momor|os ot da||y ovonts aro conso||datod (that |s, °comontod |n') by an aroa ot tho bra|n ca||od tho h|ppocampus. 3ut dur|ng tr|ghton|ng
s|tuat|ons-such as a car acc|dont or a robbory-anothor aroa, tho amygda|a, a|so |ays down momor|os a|ong an |ndopondont, socondary momory
track.
80
Amygda|a momor|os havo a d|ttoront qua||ty to thom: thoy aro d|tt|cu|t to oraso and thoy can pop back up |n °t|ashbu|b' tash|on-as
common|y doscr|bod by rapo v|ct|ms and war votorans. ln othor words, thoro |s moro than ono way to |ay down momory. Wo'ro not ta|k|ng about a
momory ot d|ttoront ovonts, but mu|t|p|o momor|os ot tho somo ovont-as though two journa||sts w|th d|ttoront porsona||t|os woro jott|ng down notos
about a s|ng|o unto|d|ng story.
3o wo soo that d|ttoront tact|ons |n tho bra|n can got |nvo|vod |n tho samo task. ln tho ond, |t |s ||ko|y that thoro aro ovon moro than two tact|ons
|nvo|vod, a|| wr|t|ng down |ntormat|on and |ator compot|ng to to|| tho story.
81
1ho conv|ct|on that momory |s ono th|ng |s an |||us|on.
|oro's anothor oxamp|o ot ovor|app|ng doma|ns. 3c|ont|sts havo |ong dobatod how tho bra|n dotocts mot|on. 1horo aro many thoorot|ca| ways to
bu||d mot|on dotoctors out ot nourons, and tho sc|ont|t|c ||toraturo has proposod w||d|y d|ttoront modo|s that |nvo|vo connoct|ons botwoon nourons,
or tho oxtondod procossos ot nourons (ca||od dondr|tos), or |argo popu|at|ons ot nourons.
82
1ho dota||s aron't |mportant horo, what's |mportant |s
that thoso d|ttoront thoor|os havo k|nd|od docados ot dobatos among acadom|cs. 3ocauso tho proposod modo|s aro too sma|| to moasuro d|roct|y,
rosoarchors dos|gn c|ovor oxpor|monts to support or contrad|ct var|ous thoor|os. 1ho |ntorost|ng outcomo has boon that most ot tho oxpor|monts
aro |nconc|us|vo, support|ng ono modo| ovor anothor |n somo |aboratory cond|t|ons but not |n othors. 1h|s has |od to a grow|ng rocogn|t|on
(ro|uctant|y, tor somo) that thoro aro mooy ways tho v|sua| systom dotocts mot|on. 0|ttoront stratog|os aro |mp|omontod |n d|ttoront p|acos |n tho
bra|n. As w|th momory, tho |osson horo |s that tho bra|n has ovo|vod mu|t|p|o, rodundant ways ot so|v|ng prob|oms.
88
1ho noura| tact|ons otton agroo
about what |s out thoro |n tho wor|d, but not a|ways. And th|s prov|dos tho portoct substrato tor a noura| domocracy.
1ho po|nt l want to omphas|zo |s that b|o|ogy raro|y rosts w|th a s|ng|o so|ut|on. lnstoad, |t tonds to coaso|oss|y ro|nvont so|ut|ons. 3ut why
ond|oss|y |nnovato-why not t|nd a good so|ut|on and movo on? Un||ko tho art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco |aboratory, tho |aboratory ot naturo has no mastor
programmor who chocks ott a subrout|no onco |t |s |nvontod. Onco tho stock b|ock program |s codod and po||shod, human programmors movo on
to tho noxt |mportant stop. l proposo that th|s mov|ng on |s a major roason art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco has bocomo stuck. 3|o|ogy, |n contrast to art|t|c|a|
|nto|||gonco, takos a d|ttoront approach: whon a b|o|og|ca| c|rcu|t tor ootoct motloo has boon stumb|od upon, thoro |s no mastor programmor to
roport th|s to, and so random mutat|on cont|nuos to coaso|oss|y |nvont now var|at|ons |n c|rcu|try, so|v|ng ootoct motloo |n unoxpoctod and croat|vo
now ways.
1h|s v|owpo|nt suggosts a now approach to th|nk|ng about tho bra|n. Vost ot tho nourosc|onco ||toraturo sooks tbo so|ut|on to whatovor bra|n
tunct|on |s bo|ng stud|od. 3ut that approach may bo m|sgu|dod. lt a spaco a||on |andod on Earth and d|scovorod an an|ma| that cou|d c||mb a troo
(say, a monkoy), |t wou|d bo rash tor tho a||on to conc|udo that tho monkoy |s tho on|y an|ma| w|th thoso sk|||s. lt tho a||on koops |ook|ng, |t w||| qu|ck|y
d|scovor that ants, squ|rro|s, and jaguars a|so c||mb troos. And th|s |s how |t goos w|th c|ovor mochan|sms |n b|o|ogy: whon wo koop |ook|ng, wo
t|nd moro. 3|o|ogy novor chocks ott a prob|om and ca||s |t qu|ts. lt ro|nvonts so|ut|ons cont|nua||y. 1ho ond product ot that approach |s a h|gh|y
ovor|app|ng systom ot so|ut|ons-tho nocossary cond|t|on tor a toam-ot-r|va|s arch|tocturo.
84
1EE ROBu51NE55 OF A NuL1|PLE-PAR1Y 5Y51EN

1ho mombors ot a toam can otton d|sagroo, but thoy do not havo to. ln tact, much ot tho t|mo r|va|s onjoy a natura| concordanco. And that s|mp|o
tact a||ows a toam ot r|va|s to bo robust |n tho taco ot |os|ng parts ot tho systom. lot's roturn to tho thought oxpor|mont ot a d|sappoar|ng po||t|ca|
party. lmag|no that a|| tho koy doc|s|on makors ot a part|cu|ar party woro to d|o |n an a|rp|ano crash, and |ot's cons|dor th|s rough|y ana|ogous to
bra|n damago. ln many casos tho |oss ot ono party wou|d oxposo tho po|ar|zod, oppos|ng op|n|ons ot a r|va| group-as |n tho caso whon tho tronta|
|obos aro damagod, a||ow|ng tor bad bohav|or such as shop||tt|ng or ur|nat|ng |n pub||c. 3ut thoro aro othor casos, porhaps much moro common, |n
wh|ch tho d|sappoaranco ot a po||t|ca| party goos unnot|cod, bocauso a|| tho othor part|os ho|d rough|y tho samo op|n|on on somo mattor (tor
oxamp|o, tho |mportanco ot tund|ng ros|dont|a| trash co||oct|on). 1h|s |s tho ha||mark ot a robust b|o|og|ca| systom: po||t|ca| part|os can por|sh |n a
trag|c acc|dont and tho soc|oty w||| st||| run, somot|mos w|th ||tt|o moro than a h|ccup to tho systom. lt may bo that tor ovory strango c||n|ca| caso |n
wh|ch bra|n damago |oads to a b|zarro chango |n bohav|or or porcopt|on, thoro aro hundrods ot casos |n wh|ch parts ot tho bra|n aro damagod w|th
no dotoctab|o c||n|ca| s|gn.
An advantago ot ovor|app|ng doma|ns can bo soon |n tho now|y d|scovorod phonomonon ot cogoltlvo rosorvo. Vany poop|o aro tound to havo
tho noura| ravagos ot A|zho|mor's d|soaso upon autopsy-but thoy novor showod tho symptoms wh||o thoy woro a||vo. |ow can th|s bo? lt turns out
that thoso poop|o cont|nuod to cha||ongo tho|r bra|ns |nto o|d ago by stay|ng act|vo |n tho|r caroors, do|ng crossword puzz|os, or carry|ng out any
othor act|v|t|os that kopt tho|r noura| popu|at|ons wo|| oxorc|sod. As a rosu|t ot stay|ng monta||y v|gorous, thoy bu||t what nouropsycho|og|sts ca||
cogn|t|vo rosorvo. lt's not that cogn|t|vo|y t|t poop|o don't got A|zho|mor's, |t's that tho|r bra|ns havo protoct|on aga|nst tho symptoms. Evon wh||o
parts ot tho|r bra|ns dogrado, thoy havo othor ways ot so|v|ng prob|oms. 1hoy aro not stuck |n tho rut ot hav|ng a s|ng|o so|ut|on, |nstoad, thanks to a
||tot|mo ot sook|ng out and bu||d|ng up rodundant stratog|os, thoy havo a|tornat|vo so|ut|ons. Whon parts ot tho noura| popu|at|on dogradod away,
thoy woro not ovon m|ssod.
Cogn|t|vo rosorvo-and robustnoss |n gonora|-|s ach|ovod by b|ankot|ng a prob|om w|th ovor|app|ng so|ut|ons. As an ana|ogy, cons|dor a
handyman. lt ho has sovora| too|s |n h|s too|box, thon |os|ng h|s hammor doos not ond h|s caroor. |o can uso h|s crowbar or tho t|at s|do ot h|s p|po
wronch. 1ho handyman w|th on|y a coup|o ot too|s |s |n worso troub|o.
1ho socrot ot rodundancy a||ows us to undorstand what was prov|ous|y a b|zarro c||n|ca| mystory. lmag|no that a pat|ont susta|ns damago to a
|argo chunk ot hor pr|mary v|sua| cortox, and an ont|ro ha|t ot hor v|sua| t|o|d |s now b||nd. You, tho oxpor|montor, p|ck up a cardboard shapo, ho|d |t
up to hor b||nd s|do, and ask hor, °What do you soo horo?'
3ho says, °l havo no |doa-l'm b||nd |n that ha|t ot my v|sua| t|o|d.'
°l know,' you say. °3ut tako a guoss. 0o you soo a c|rc|o, squaro, or tr|ang|o?'
3ho says, °l roa||y can't to|| you. l don't soo anyth|ng at a||. l'm b||nd thoro.'
You say, °l know, l know. 3ut gooss.'
||na||y, w|th oxasporat|on, sho guossos that tho shapo |s a tr|ang|o. And sho's corroct, wo|| abovo what random chanco wou|d prod|ct.
8b
Evon
though sho's b||nd, sho can toaso out a hunch-and th|s |nd|catos that somotblog |n hor bra|n |s soo|ng. lt's just not tho consc|ous part that doponds
on tho |ntogr|ty ot hor v|sua| cortox. 1h|s phonomonon |s ca||od b||nds|ght, and |t toachos us that whon consc|ous v|s|on |s |ost, thoro aro st|||
subcort|ca| tactory workors boh|nd tho sconos runn|ng tho|r norma| programs. 3o romova| ot parts ot tho bra|n (|n th|s caso, tho cortox) rovoa|s
undor|y|ng structuros that do tho samo th|ng, just not as wo||. And trom a nouroanatom|ca| po|nt ot v|ow, th|s |s not surpr|s|ng: attor a||, ropt||os can
soo ovon though thoy havo no cortox at a||. 1hoy don't soo as wo|| as wo do, but thoy soo.
80
¯ ¯ ¯

lot's pauso tor a momont to cons|dor how tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork ottors a d|ttoront way ot th|nk|ng about tho bra|n than |s trad|t|ona||y taught.
Vany poop|o tond to assumo that tho bra|n w||| bo d|v|s|b|o |nto noat|y |abo|od rog|ons that oncodo, say, tacos, housos, co|ors, bod|os, too| uso,
ro||g|ous torvor, and so on. 1h|s was tho hopo ot tho oar|y-n|notoonth-contury sc|onco ot phrono|ogy, |n wh|ch bumps on tho sku|| woro assumod to
roprosont somoth|ng about tho s|zo ot tho undor|y|ng aroas. 1ho |doa was that oach spot |n tho bra|n cou|d bo ass|gnod a |abo| on tho map.
3ut b|o|ogy raro|y, |t ovor, pans out that way. 1ho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork prosonts a modo| ot a bra|n that possossos mu|t|p|o ways ot
roprosont|ng tho samo st|mu|us. 1h|s v|ow r|ngs tho doath kno|| tor tho oar|y hopos that oach part ot tho bra|n sorvos an oas||y |abo|od tunct|on.
loto that tho phrono|og|ca| |mpu|so has cropt back |nto tho p|cturo bocauso ot our nowtound powor to v|sua||zo tho bra|n w|th nouro|mag|ng. 3oth
sc|ont|sts and |aypoop|o can t|nd thomso|vos soducod |nto tho oasy trap ot want|ng to ass|gn oach tunct|on ot tho bra|n to a spoc|t|c |ocat|on.
lorhaps bocauso ot prossuro tor s|mp|o sound b|tos, a stoady stroam ot roports |n tho mod|a (and ovon |n tho sc|ont|t|c ||toraturo) has croatod tho
ta|so |mpross|on that tho bra|n aroa tor such-and-such has just boon d|scovorod. 3uch roports tood popu|ar oxpoctat|on and hopo tor oasy |abo||ng,
but tho truo s|tuat|on |s much moro |ntorost|ng: tho cont|nuous notworks ot noura| c|rcu|try accomp||sh tho|r tunct|ons us|ng mu|t|p|o, |ndopondont|y
d|scovorod stratog|os. 1ho bra|n |onds |tso|t wo|| to tho comp|ox|ty ot tho wor|d, but poor|y to c|oar-cut cartography.
KEEP|NC 1EE uN|ON 1OCE1EER: C|V|L WAR5 |N 1EE BRA|N DENOCRACY

ln tho campy cu|t mov|o Evl| Looo 2, tho protagon|st's r|ght hand takos on a m|nd ot |ts own and tr|os to k||| h|m. 1ho scono dogonoratos |nto a
rond|t|on ot what you m|ght t|nd on a s|xth-grado p|ayground: tho horo usos h|s |ott hand to ho|d back h|s r|ght hand, wh|ch |s try|ng to attack h|s taco.
Evontua||y ho cuts ott tho hand w|th a cha|n saw and traps tho st|||-mov|ng hand undor an ups|do-down garbago can. |o stacks books on top ot tho
can to p|n |t down, and tho carotu| obsorvor can soo that tho topmost book |s |om|ngway's A lorowo|| to Arms.
As propostorous as th|s p|ot||no may soom, thoro |s, |n tact, a d|sordor ca||od o|loo booo syooromo. Wh||o |t's not as dramat|c as tho Evl| Looo
vors|on, tho |doa |s rough|y tho samo. ln a||on hand syndromo, wh|ch can rosu|t trom tho sp||t-bra|n surgor|os wo d|scussod a tow pagos ago, tho
two hands oxpross cont||ct|ng dos|ros. A pat|ont's °a||on' hand m|ght p|ck up a cook|o to put |t |n h|s mouth, wh||o tho norma||y bohav|ng hand w|||
grab |t at tho wr|st to stop |t. A strugg|o onsuos. Or ono hand w||| p|ck up a nowspapor, and tho othor w||| s|ap |t back down. Or ono hand w||| z|p up a
jackot, and tho othor w||| unz|p |t. 3omo pat|onts w|th a||on hand syndromo havo tound that yo|||ng °3top!' w||| causo tho othor hom|sphoro (and tho
a||on hand) to back down. 3ut bos|dos that ||tt|o mod|cum ot contro|, tho hand |s runn|ng on |ts own |naccoss|b|o programs, and that |s why |t's
brandod as a||on-bocauso tho consc|ous part ot tho pat|ont sooms to havo no prod|ct|vo powor ovor |t, |t doos not too| as though |t's part ot tho
pat|ont's porsona||ty at a||. A pat|ont |n th|s s|tuat|on otton says, °l swoar l'm not do|ng th|s.' Wh|ch rov|s|ts ono ot tho ma|n po|nts ot th|s book: who |s
tho l? ||s own bra|n |s do|ng |t, not anyono o|so's. lt's s|mp|y that ho doosn't havo consc|ous accoss to thoso programs.
What doos a||on hand syndromo to|| us? lt unmasks tho tact that wo harbor mochan|ca|, °a||on' subrout|nos to wh|ch wo havo no accoss and ot
wh|ch wo havo no acqua|ntanco. A|most a|| ot our act|ons-trom produc|ng spooch to p|ck|ng up a mug ot cottoo-aro run by a||on subrout|nos,
a|so known as zomb|o systoms. (l uso thoso torms |ntorchangoab|y: zomblo omphas|zos tho |ack ot consc|ous accoss, wh||o o|loo omphas|zos tho
toro|gnnoss ot tho programs.)
87
3omo a||on subrout|nos aro |nst|nctua|, wh||o somo aro |oarnod, a|| ot tho h|gh|y automatod a|gor|thms that wo saw
|n Chaptor 8 (sorv|ng tho tonn|s ba||, sox|ng tho ch|cks) bocomo |naccoss|b|o zomb|o programs whon thoy aro burnod down |nto tho c|rcu|try. Whon
a protoss|ona| basoba|| p|ayor connocts h|s bat w|th a p|tch that |s travo||ng too tast tor h|s consc|ous m|nd to track, ho |s |ovorag|ng a wo||-honod
a||on subrout|no.
A||on hand syndromo a|so to||s us that undor norma| c|rcumstancos, a|| tho automatod programs aro t|ght|y contro||od such that on|y ono
bohav|ora| output can happon at a t|mo. 1ho a||on hand h|gh||ghts tho norma||y soam|oss way |n wh|ch tho bra|n koops a ||d on |ts |ntorna| cont||cts. lt
roqu|ros on|y a ||tt|o structura| damago to uncovor what |s happon|ng bonoath. ln othor words, koop|ng tho un|on ot subsystoms togothor |s not
somoth|ng tho bra|n doos w|thout ottort-|nstoad, |t |s an act|vo procoss. lt |s on|y whon tact|ons bog|n to socodo trom tho un|on that tho a||onnoss
ot tho parts bocomos obv|ous.
A good |||ustrat|on ot cont||ct|ng rout|nos |s tound |n tho 3troop tost, a task that cou|d hard|y havo s|mp|or |nstruct|ons: namo tho co|or ot tho lok |n
wh|ch a word |s pr|ntod. lot's say l prosont tho word 1U31lCE wr|tton |n b|uo |ottors. You say, °3|uo.' low l show you llll1El wr|tton |n yo||ow.
°Yo||ow.' Cou|dn't bo oas|or. 3ut tho tr|ck comos whon l prosont a word that |s |tso|t tho namo ot a co|or. l prosont tho word 3lUE |n tho co|or groon.
low tho roact|on |s not so oasy. You m|ght b|urt out, °3|uo!', or you m|ght stop yourso|t and sputtor out, °Groon!' E|thor way, you havo a much s|owor
roact|on t|mo-and th|s bo||os tho cont||ct go|ng on undor tho hood. 1h|s 5troop lotoríorooco unmasks tho c|ash botwoon tho strong, |nvo|untary and
automat|c |mpu|so to road tho word and tho unusua|, do||borato, and ottorttu| task domand to stato tho co|or ot tho pr|nt.
88
lomombor tho |mp||c|t assoc|at|on task trom Chaptor 8, tho ono that sooks to toaso out unconsc|ous rac|sm? lt p|vots on tho s|owor-than-norma|
roact|on t|mo whon you'ro askod to ||nk somoth|ng you d|s||ko w|th a pos|t|vo word (such as bopplooss). 1ust as w|th tho 3troop task, thoro's an
undor|y|ng cont||ct botwoon doop|y omboddod systoms.
E PLuR|Bu5 uNuN

lot on|y do wo run a||on subrout|nos, wo a|so just|ty thom. Wo havo ways ot rotrospoct|vo|y to|||ng stor|os about our act|ons as though tho act|ons
woro a|ways our |doa. As an oxamp|o at tho bog|nn|ng ot tho book, l mont|onod that thoughts como to us and wo tako crod|t tor thom (°l just had a
groat |doa!'), ovon though our bra|ns havo boon chow|ng on a g|von prob|om tor a |ong t|mo and ovontua||y sorvod up tho t|na| product. Wo aro
constant|y tabr|cat|ng and to|||ng stor|os about tho a||on procossos runn|ng undor tho hood.
1o br|ng th|s sort ot tabr|cat|on to ||ght, wo nood on|y |ook at anothor oxpor|mont w|th sp||t-bra|n pat|onts. As wo saw oar||or, tho r|ght and |ott
ha|vos aro s|m||ar to oach othor but not |dont|ca|. ln humans, tho |ott hom|sphoro (wh|ch conta|ns most ot tho capac|ty to spoak |anguago) can spoak
about what |t |s too||ng, whoroas tho muto r|ght hom|sphoro can commun|cato |ts thoughts on|y by command|ng tho |ott hand to po|nt, roach, or wr|to.
And th|s tact opons tho door to an oxpor|mont rogard|ng tho rotrospoct|vo tabr|cat|on ot stor|os. ln 1078, rosoarchors V|chao| Gazzan|ga and
1osoph lo0oux t|ashod a p|cturo ot a ch|ckon c|aw to tho |ott hom|sphoro ot a sp||t-bra|n pat|ont and a p|cturo ot a snowy w|ntor scono to h|s r|ght
hom|sphoro. 1ho pat|ont was thon askod to po|nt at cards that roprosontod what ho had just soon. ||s r|ght hand po|ntod to a card w|th a ch|ckon,
and h|s |ott hand po|ntod to a card w|th a snow shovo|. 1ho oxpor|montors askod h|m why ho was po|nt|ng to tho shovo|. loca|| that h|s |ott
hom|sphoro (tho ono w|th tho capac|ty tor |anguago), had |ntormat|on on|y about a ch|ckon, and noth|ng o|so. 3ut tho |ott hom|sphoro, w|thout
m|ss|ng a boat, tabr|catod a story: °Oh, that's s|mp|o. 1ho ch|ckon c|aw goos w|th tho ch|ckon, and you nood a shovo| to c|oan out tho ch|ckon
shod.' Whon ono part ot tho bra|n makos a cho|co, othor parts can qu|ck|y |nvont a story to oxp|a|n why. lt you show tho command °Wa|k' to tho r|ght
hom|sphoro (tho ono w|thout |anguago), tho pat|ont w||| got up and start wa|k|ng. lt you stop h|m and ask why ho's |oav|ng, h|s |ott hom|sphoro,
cook|ng up an answor, w||| say somoth|ng ||ko °l was go|ng to got a dr|nk ot wator.'
1ho ch|ckon/shovo| oxpor|mont |od Gazzan|ga and lo0oux to conc|udo that tho |ott hom|sphoro acts as an °|ntorprotor,' watch|ng tho act|ons and
bohav|ors ot tho body and ass|gn|ng a cohoront narrat|vo to thoso ovonts. And tho |ott hom|sphoro works th|s way ovon |n norma|, |ntact bra|ns.
||ddon programs dr|vo act|ons, and tho |ott hom|sphoro makos just|t|cat|ons. 1h|s |doa ot rotrospoct|vo storyto|||ng suggosts that wo como to know
our own att|tudos and omot|ons, at |oast part|a||y, by |ntorr|ng thom trom obsorvat|ons ot our own bohav|or.
80
As Gazzan|ga put |t, °1hoso t|nd|ngs a||
suggost that tho |ntorprot|vo mochan|sm ot tho |ott hom|sphoro |s a|ways hard at work, sook|ng tho moan|ng ot ovonts. lt |s constant|y |ook|ng tor
ordor and roason, ovon whon thoro |s nono-wh|ch |oads |t cont|nua||y to mako m|stakos.'
40
1h|s tabr|cat|on |s not ||m|tod to sp||t-bra|n pat|onts. Your bra|n, as wo||, |ntorprots your body's act|ons and bu||ds a story around thom.
lsycho|og|sts havo tound that |t you ho|d a ponc|| botwoon your tooth wh||o you road somoth|ng, you'|| th|nk tho mator|a| |s tunn|or, that's bocauso
tho |ntorprotat|on |s |nt|uoncod by tho sm||o on your taco. lt you s|t up stra|ght |nstoad ot s|ouch|ng, you'|| too| happ|or. 1ho bra|n assumos that |t tho
mouth and sp|no aro do|ng that, |t must bo bocauso ot choortu|noss.


On 0ocombor 81, 1074, 3upromo Court 1ust|co W||||am O. 0oug|as was dob|||tatod by a stroko that para|yzod h|s |ott s|do and cont|nod h|m to a
whoo|cha|r. 3ut 1ust|co 0oug|as domandod to bo chockod out ot tho hosp|ta| on tho grounds that ho was t|no. |o doc|arod that roports ot h|s
para|ys|s woro °a myth.' Whon roportors oxprossod skopt|c|sm, ho pub||c|y |nv|tod thom to jo|n h|m tor a h|ko, a movo |ntorprotod as absurd. |o
ovon c|a|mod to bo k|ck|ng tootba|| t|o|d goa|s w|th h|s para|yzod s|do. As a rosu|t ot th|s apparont|y do|us|ona| bohav|or, 0oug|as was d|sm|ssod
trom h|s bonch on tho 3upromo Court.
What 0oug|as oxpor|oncod |s ca||od ooosogooslo. 1h|s torm doscr|bos a tota| |ack ot awaronoss about an |mpa|rmont, and a typ|ca| oxamp|o |s
a pat|ont who comp|oto|y don|os tho|r vory obv|ous para|ys|s. lt's not that 1ust|co 0oug|as was |ylog-h|s bra|n actua||y bo||ovod that ho cou|d movo
just t|no. 1hoso tabr|cat|ons |||ustrato tho |ongths to wh|ch tho bra|n w||| go to put togothor a cohoront narrat|vo. Whon askod to p|aco both hands on
an |mag|nary stoor|ng whoo|, a part|a||y para|yzod and anosognos|c pat|ont w||| put ono hand up, but not tho othor. Whon askod |t both hands aro on
tho whoo|, ho w||| say yos. Whon tho pat|ont |s askod to c|ap h|s hands, ho may movo on|y a s|ng|o hand. lt askod, °0|d you c|ap?', ho'|| say yos. lt
you po|nt out that you d|dn't hoar any sound and ask h|m to do |t aga|n, ho m|ght not do |t at a||, whon askod why, ho'|| say ho °doosn't too| ||ko |t.'
3|m||ar|y, as mont|onod |n Chaptor 2, ono can |oso v|s|on and c|a|m to st||| bo ab|o to soo just t|no, ovon wh||o bo|ng unab|o to nav|gato a room
w|thout crash|ng |nto tho turn|turo. Excusos aro mado about poor ba|anco, roarrangod cha|rs, and so on-a|| tho wh||o dony|ng tho b||ndnoss. 1ho
po|nt about anosognos|a |s that tho pat|onts aro not |y|ng, and aro mot|vatod no|thor by m|sch|ovousnoss nor by ombarrassmont, |nstoad, tho|r
bra|ns aro tabr|cat|ng oxp|anat|ons that prov|do a cohoront narrat|vo about what |s go|ng on w|th tho|r damagod bod|os.
3ut shou|dn't tho contrad|ct|ng ov|donco a|ort thoso poop|o to a prob|om? Attor a||, tho pat|ont wants to movo h|s hand, but |t |s not mov|ng. |o
wants to c|ap, but ho hoars no sound. lt turns out that a|ort|ng tho systom to contrad|ct|ons ro||os cr|t|ca||y on part|cu|ar bra|n rog|ons-and ono |n
part|cu|ar, ca||od tho antor|or c|ngu|ato cortox. 3ocauso ot thoso cont||ct-mon|tor|ng rog|ons, |ncompat|b|o |doas w||| rosu|t |n ono s|do or anothor
w|nn|ng out: a story w||| bo constructod that o|thor makos thom compat|b|o or |gnoros ono s|do ot tho dobato. ln spoc|a| c|rcumstancos ot bra|n
damago, th|s arb|trat|on systom can bo damagod-and thon cont||ct can causo no troub|o to tho consc|ous m|nd. 1h|s s|tuat|on |s |||ustratod by a
woman l'|| ca|| Vrs. G., who had suttorod qu|to a b|t ot damago to hor bra|n t|ssuo trom a rocont stroko. At tho t|mo l mot hor, sho was rocovor|ng |n
tho hosp|ta| w|th hor husband by hor bods|do, and soomod gonora||y |n good hoa|th and sp|r|ts. Vy co||oaguo 0r. Karth|k 3arma had not|cod tho
n|ght botoro that whon ho askod hor to c|oso hor oyos, sho wou|d c|oso on|y ono and not tho othor. 3o ho and l wont to oxam|no th|s moro carotu||y.
Whon l askod hor to c|oso hor oyos, sho sa|d °Okay,' and c|osod ono oyo, as |n a pormanont w|nk.
°Aro your oyos c|osod?' l askod.
°Yos,' sho sa|d.
°3oth oyos?'
°Yos.'
l ho|d up throo t|ngors. °|ow many t|ngors am l ho|d|ng up, Vrs. G.?'
°1hroo,' sho sa|d.
°And your oyos aro c|osod?'
°Yos.'
ln a noncha||ong|ng way l sa|d, °1hon how d|d you know how many t|ngors l was ho|d|ng up?'
An |ntorost|ng s||onco to||owod. lt bra|n act|v|ty woro aud|b|o, th|s |s whon wo wou|d havo hoard d|ttoront rog|ons ot hor bra|n batt||ng |t out.
lo||t|ca| part|os that wantod to bo||ovo hor oyos woro c|osod woro |ockod |n a t|||bustor w|th part|os that wantod tho |og|c to work out: Loo`t yoo soo
tbot wo coo`t bovo oor oyos c|osoo and bo ob|o to soo oot tboroº Otton thoso batt|os aro qu|ck|y won by tho party w|th tho most roasonab|o
pos|t|on, but th|s doos not a|ways happon w|th anosognos|a. 1ho pat|ont w||| say noth|ng and w||| conc|udo noth|ng-not bocauso sho |s
ombarrassod, but bocauso sho |s s|mp|y |ockod up on tho |ssuo. 3oth part|os tat|guo to tho po|nt ot attr|t|on, and tho or|g|na| |ssuo bo|ng tought
ovor |s t|na||y dumpod. 1ho pat|ont w||| conc|udo noth|ng about tho s|tuat|on. lt |s amaz|ng and d|sconcort|ng to w|tnoss.
l was struck w|th an |doa. l whoo|od Vrs. G. to a pos|t|on just |n tront ot tho room's on|y m|rror and askod |t sho cou|d soo hor own taco. 3ho sa|d
yos. l thon askod hor to c|oso both hor oyos. Aga|n sho c|osod ono oyo and not tho othor.
°Aro botb your oyos c|osod?'
°Yos.'
°Can you soo yourso|t?'
°Yos.'
Gont|y l sa|d, °0oos |t soom poss|b|o to soo yourso|t |n tho m|rror |t both your oyos aro c|osod?'
lauso. No cooc|osloo.
°0oos |t |ook to you ||ko ono oyo |s c|osod or that both aro c|osod?'
lauso. No cooc|osloo.
3ho was not d|strossod by tho quost|ons, nor d|d thoy chango hor op|n|on. What wou|d havo boon a chockmato |n a norma| bra|n provod to bo a
qu|ck|y torgotton gamo |n hors.
Casos ||ko Vrs. G.'s a||ow us to approc|ato tho amount ot work that noods to happon boh|nd tho sconos tor our zomb|o systoms to work togothor
smooth|y and como to an agroomont. Koop|ng tho un|on togothor and mak|ng a good narrat|vo doos not happon tor troo-tho bra|n works around
tho c|ock to st|tch togothor a pattorn ot |og|c to our da||y ||vos: what just happonod and what was my ro|o |n |t? |abr|cat|on ot stor|os |s ono ot tho
koy bus|nossos |n wh|ch our bra|ns ongago. 3ra|ns do th|s w|th tho s|ng|o-m|ndod goa| ot gott|ng tho mu|t|tacotod act|ons ot tho domocracy to
mako sonso. As tho co|n puts |t, E p|orlbos ooom: out ot many, ono.
¯ ¯ ¯

Onco you havo |oarnod how to r|do a b|cyc|o, tho bra|n doos not nood to cook up a narrat|vo about what your musc|os aro do|ng, |nstoad, |t doosn't
bothor tho consc|ous CEO at a||. 3ocauso ovoryth|ng |s prod|ctab|o, no story |s to|d, you aro troo to th|nk ot othor |ssuos as you poda| a|ong. 1ho
bra|n's storyto|||ng powors k|ck |nto goar on|y whon th|ngs aro cont||ct|ng or d|tt|cu|t to undorstand, as tor tho sp||t-bra|n pat|onts or anosognos|cs
||ko 1ust|co 0oug|as.
ln tho m|d-1000s my co||oaguo load Vontaguo and l ran an oxpor|mont to bottor undorstand how humans mako s|mp|o cho|cos. Wo askod
part|c|pants to chooso botwoon two cards on a computor scroon, ono |abo|od A and tho othor |abo|od 3. 1ho part|c|pants had no way ot know|ng
wh|ch was tho bottor cho|co, so thoy p|ckod arb|trar||y at t|rst. 1ho|r card cho|co gavo thom a roward somowhoro botwoon a ponny and a do||ar.
1hon tho cards woro rosot and thoy woro askod to chooso aga|n. l|ck|ng tho samo card producod a d|ttoront roward th|s t|mo. 1horo soomod to
bo a pattorn to |t, but |t was vory d|tt|cu|t to dotoct. What tho part|c|pants d|dn't know was that tho roward |n oach round was basod on a tormu|a that
|ncorporatod tho h|story ot tho|r prov|ous torty cho|cos-tar too d|tt|cu|t tor tho bra|n to dotoct and ana|yzo.
1ho |ntorost|ng part camo whon l |ntorv|owod tho p|ayors attorward. l askod thom what thoy'd dono |n tho gamb||ng gamo and why thoy'd dono |t. l
was surpr|sod to hoar a|| typos ot baroquo oxp|anat|ons, such as °1ho computor ||kod |t whon l sw|tchod back and torth' and °1ho computor was
try|ng pun|sh mo, so l sw|tchod my gamo p|an.' ln roa||ty, tho p|ayors' doscr|pt|ons ot tho|r own stratog|os d|d not match what thoy had actua||y dono,
wh|ch turnod out to bo h|gh|y prod|ctab|o.
41
lor d|d tho|r doscr|pt|ons match tho computor's bohav|or, wh|ch was puro|y tormu|a|c. lnstoad, tho|r
consc|ous m|nds, unab|o to ass|gn tho task to a wo||-o||od zomb|o systom, dosporato|y sought a narrat|vo. 1ho part|c|pants woron't |ylog, thoy woro
g|v|ng tho bost oxp|anat|on thoy cou|d-just ||ko tho sp||t-bra|n pat|onts or tho anosognos|cs.
V|nds sook pattorns. ln a torm |ntroducod by sc|onco wr|tor V|chao| 3hormor, thoy aro dr|von toward °pattorn|c|ty'-tho attompt to t|nd structuro
|n moan|ng|oss data.
42
Evo|ut|on tavors pattorn sook|ng, bocauso |t a||ows tho poss|b|||ty ot roduc|ng mystor|os to tast and ott|c|ont programs |n tho
noura| c|rcu|try.
1o domonstrato pattorn|c|ty, rosoarchors |n Canada showod subjocts a ||ght that t|ashod on and ott random|y and askod thom to chooso wh|ch ot
two buttons to pross, and whon, |n ordor to mako tho b||nk|ng moro rogu|ar. 1ho subjocts tr|od out d|ttoront pattorns ot button pross|ng, and
ovontua||y tho ||ght bogan to b||nk rogu|ar|y. 1hoy had succoodod! low tho rosoarchors askod thom how thoy'd dono |t. 1ho subjocts ovor|a|d a
narrat|vo |ntorprotat|on about what thoy'd dono, but tho tact |s that tho|r button pross|ng was who||y unro|atod to tho bohav|or ot tho ||ght: tho b||nk|ng
wou|d havo dr|ttod toward rogu|ar|ty |rrospoct|vo ot what thoy woro do|ng.
|or anothor oxamp|o ot storyto|||ng |n tho taco ot contus|ng data, cons|dor droams, wh|ch appoar to bo an |ntorprotat|vo ovor|ay to n|ghtt|mo
storms ot o|octr|ca| act|v|ty |n tho bra|n. A popu|ar modo| |n tho nourosc|onco ||toraturo suggosts that droam p|ots aro st|tchod togothor trom
ossont|a||y random act|v|ty: d|schargos ot noura| popu|at|ons |n tho m|dbra|n. 1hoso s|gna|s t|ck|o |nto ox|stonco tho s|mu|at|on ot a scono |n a
shopp|ng ma||, or a g||mpso ot rocogn|t|on ot a |ovod ono, or a too||ng ot ta|||ng, or a sonso ot op|phany. A|| thoso momonts aro dynam|ca||y wovon
|nto a story, and th|s |s why attor a n|ght ot random act|v|ty you wako up, ro|| ovor to your partnor, and too| as though you havo a b|zarro p|ot to ro|ato.
Evor s|nco l was a ch||d, l havo boon cons|stont|y amazod at how charactors |n my droams possoss such spoc|t|c and pocu||ar dota||s, how thoy
como up w|th such rap|d answors to my quost|ons, how thoy produco such surpr|s|ng d|a|oguo and such |nvont|vo suggost|ons-a|| mannor ot
th|ngs l wou|d not havo |nvontod °myso|t.' Vany t|mos l'vo hoard a now joko |n a droam, and th|s |mprossod mo groat|y. lot bocauso tho joko was
so tunny |n tho sobor ||ght ot day (|t wasn't) but bocauso tho joko was not ono l cou|d bo||ovo that l wou|d havo thought ot. 3ut, at |oast prosumab|y, |t
was my bra|n and no ono o|so's cook|ng up thoso |ntorost|ng p|ot||nos.
48
l|ko tho sp||t-bra|n pat|onts or 1ust|co 0oug|as, droams |||ustrato our sk|||s
at sp|nn|ng a s|ng|o narrat|vo trom a co||oct|on ot random throads. Your bra|n |s romarkab|y good at ma|nta|n|ng tho g|uo ot tho un|on, ovon |n tho
taco ot thorough|y |ncons|stont data.
WEY DO WE EAVE CON5C|Ou5NE55 A1 ALL?

Vost nourosc|ont|sts study an|ma| modo|s ot bohav|or: how a soa s|ug w|thdraws trom a touch, how a mouso rosponds to rowards, how an ow|
|oca||zos sounds |n tho dark. As thoso c|rcu|ts aro sc|ont|t|ca||y brought to ||ght, thoy a|| rovoa| thomso|vos to bo noth|ng but zomb|o systoms:
b|uopr|nts ot c|rcu|try that rospond to part|cu|ar |nputs w|th appropr|ato outputs. lt our bra|ns woro composod oo|y ot thoso pattorns ot c|rcu|ts, why
wou|d |t too| ||ko anyth|ng to bo a||vo and consc|ous? Why wou|dn't |t too| ||ko noth|ng-||ko a zomb|o?
A docado ago, nourosc|ont|sts |ranc|s Cr|ck and Chr|stot Koch askod, °Why doos not our bra|n cons|st s|mp|y ot a sor|os ot spoc|a||zod zomb|o
systoms?'
44
ln othor words, why aro wo consc|ous ot anyth|ng at a||? Why aron't wo s|mp|y a vast co||oct|on ot thoso automatod, burnod-down
rout|nos that so|vo prob|oms?
Cr|ck and Koch's answor, ||ko m|no |n tho prov|ous chaptors, |s that consc|ousnoss ox|sts to contro|-and to d|str|buto contro| ovor-tho
automatod a||on systoms. A systom ot automatod subrout|nos that roachos a corta|n |ovo| ot comp|ox|ty (and human bra|ns corta|n|y qua||ty)
roqu|ros a h|gh-|ovo| mochan|sm to a||ow tho parts to commun|cato, d|sponso rosourcos, and a||ocato contro|. As wo saw oar||or w|th tho tonn|s
p|ayor try|ng to |oarn how to sorvo, consc|ousnoss |s tho CEO ot tho company: ho sots tho h|ghor-|ovo| d|roct|ons and ass|gns now tasks. Wo havo
|oarnod |n th|s chaptor that ho doosn't nood to undorstand tho sottwaro that oach dopartmont |n tho organ|zat|on usos, nor doos ho nood to soo
tho|r dota||od |ogbooks and sa|os roco|pts. |o moro|y noods to know whom to ca|| on whon.
As |ong as tho zomb|o subrout|nos aro runn|ng smooth|y, tho CEO can s|oop. lt |s on|y whon somoth|ng goos wrong (say, a|| tho dopartmonts
suddon|y t|nd that tho|r bus|noss modo|s havo catastroph|ca||y ta||od) that tho CEO |s rung up. 1h|nk about wboo your consc|ous awaronoss comos
on||no: |n thoso s|tuat|ons whoro ovonts |n tho wor|d vlo|oto yoor oxpoctotloos. Whon ovoryth|ng |s go|ng accord|ng to tho noods and sk|||s ot your
zomb|o systoms, you aro not consc|ous|y awaro ot most ot what's |n tront ot you, whon suddon|y thoy cannot hand|o tho task, you bocomo
consc|ous|y awaro ot tho prob|om. 1ho CEO scramb|os around, |ook|ng tor tast so|ut|ons, d|a||ng up ovoryono to t|nd who can addross tho prob|om
bost.
1ho sc|ont|st 1ott |awk|ns ottors a n|co oxamp|o ot th|s: attor ho ontorod h|s homo ono day, ho roa||zod that ho had oxpor|oncod no consc|ous
awaronoss ot roach|ng tor, grasp|ng, and turn|ng tho doorknob. lt was a comp|oto|y robot|c, unconsc|ous act|on on h|s part-and th|s was bocauso
ovoryth|ng about tho oxpor|onco (tho doorknob's too| and |ocat|on, tho door's s|zo and wo|ght, and so on) was a|roady burnod down |nto
unconsc|ous c|rcu|try |n h|s bra|n. lt was oxpoctod, and thorotoro roqu|rod no consc|ous part|c|pat|on. 3ut ho roa||zod that |t somoono woro to snoak
ovor to h|s houso, dr||| tho doorknob out, and rop|aco |t throo |nchos to tho r|ght, ho wou|d not|co |mmod|ato|y. lnstoad ot h|s zomb|o systoms gott|ng
h|m d|roct|y |nto h|s houso w|th no a|orts or concorns, suddon|y thoro wou|d bo a v|o|at|on ot oxpoctat|ons-and consc|ousnoss wou|d como on||no.
1ho CEO wou|d rouso, turn on tho a|arms, and try to t|guro out what m|ght havo happonod and what shou|d bo dono noxt.
lt you th|nk you'ro consc|ous|y awaro ot most ot what surrounds you, th|nk aga|n. 1ho t|rst t|mo you mako tho dr|vo to your now workp|aco, you
attond to ovoryth|ng a|ong tho way. 1ho dr|vo sooms to tako a |ong t|mo. 3y tho t|mo you'vo mado tho dr|vo many t|mos, you can got yourso|t thoro
w|thout much |n tho way ot consc|ous do||borat|on. You aro now troo to th|nk about othor th|ngs, you too| as though you'vo |ott homo and arr|vod at
work |n tho b||nk ot an oyo. Your zomb|o systoms aro oxports at tak|ng caro ot bus|noss as usua|. lt |s on|y whon you soo a squ|rro| |n tho road, or a
m|ss|ng stop s|gn, or an ovorturnod voh|c|o on tho shou|dor that you bocomo consc|ous|y awaro ot your surround|ngs.
A|| ot th|s |s cons|stont w|th a t|nd|ng wo |oarnod two chaptors ago: whon poop|o p|ay a now v|doo gamo tor tho t|rst t|mo, tho|r bra|ns aro a||vo
w|th act|v|ty. 1hoy aro burn|ng onorgy ||ko crazy. As thoy got bottor at tho gamo, |oss and |oss bra|n act|v|ty |s |nvo|vod. 1hoy havo bocomo moro
onorgy ott|c|ont. lt you moasuro somoono's bra|n and soo vory ||tt|o act|v|ty dur|ng a task, |t doos not nocossar||y |nd|cato that thoy'ro not try|ng-|t
moro ||ko|y s|gn|t|os that thoy havo workod hard |n tho past to burn tho programs |nto tho c|rcu|try. Consc|ousnoss |s ca||od |n dur|ng tho t|rst phaso
ot |oarn|ng and |s oxc|udod trom tho gamo p|ay|ng attor |t |s doop |n tho systom. l|ay|ng a s|mp|o v|doo gamo bocomos as unconsc|ous a procoss
as dr|v|ng a car, produc|ng spooch, or portorm|ng tho comp|ox t|ngor movomonts roqu|rod tor ty|ng a shoo|aco. 1hoso bocomo h|ddon subrout|nos,
wr|tton |n an undoc|phorod programm|ng |anguago ot proto|ns and nourochom|ca|s, and thoro thoy |urk-tor docados somot|mos-unt|| thoy aro
noxt ca||od upon.
|rom an ovo|ut|onary po|nt ot v|ow, tho purposo ot consc|ousnoss sooms to bo th|s: an an|ma| composod ot a g|ant co||oct|on ot zomb|o systoms
wou|d bo onorgy ott|c|ont but cogoltlvo|y loí|oxlb|o. lt wou|d havo oconom|ca| programs tor do|ng part|cu|ar, s|mp|o tasks, but |t wou|dn't havo rap|d
ways ot sw|tch|ng botwoon programs or sott|ng goa|s to bocomo oxport |n novo| and unoxpoctod tasks. ln tho an|ma| k|ngdom, most an|ma|s do
corta|n th|ngs vory wo|| (say, pry|ng soods trom tho |ns|do ot a p|no cono), wh||o on|y a tow spoc|os (such as humans) havo tho t|ox|b|||ty to
dynam|ca||y dovo|op now sottwaro.
A|though tho ab|||ty to bo t|ox|b|o sounds bottor, |t doos not como tor troo-tho trado-ott |s a burdon ot |ongthy ch||droar|ng. 1o bo t|ox|b|o ||ko an
adu|t human roqu|ros yoars ot ho|p|ossnoss as an |ntant. |uman mothors typ|ca||y boar on|y ono ch||d at a t|mo and havo to prov|do a por|od ot caro
that |s unhoard-ot (and |mpract|cab|o) |n tho rost ot tho an|ma| k|ngdom. ln contrast, an|ma|s that run on|y a tow vory s|mp|o subrout|nos (such as
°Eat tood||ko th|ngs and shr|nk away trom |oom|ng objocts') adopt a d|ttoront roar|ng stratogy, usua||y somoth|ng ||ko °lay |ots ot oggs and hopo tor
tho bost.' W|thout tho ab|||ty to wr|to now programs, tho|r on|y ava||ab|o mantra |s: lt you can't outth|nk your oppononts, outnumbor thom.
3o aro othor an|ma|s consc|ous? 3c|onco curront|y has no moan|ngtu| way to mako a moasuromont to answor that quost|on-but l ottor two
|ntu|t|ons. ||rst, consc|ousnoss |s probab|y not an a||-or-noth|ng qua||ty, but comos |n dogroos. 3ocond, l suggost that an an|ma|'s oogroo oí
cooscloosooss w||| para||o| |ts |nto||octua| t|ox|b|||ty. 1ho moro subrout|nos an an|ma| possossos, tho moro |t w||| roqu|ro a CEO to |oad tho
organ|zat|on. 1ho CEO koops tho subrout|nos un|t|od, |t |s tho wardon ot tho zomb|os. 1o put th|s anothor way, a sma|| corporat|on doos not roqu|ro
a CEO who oarns throo m||||on do||ars a yoar, but a |argo corporat|on doos. 1ho on|y d|ttoronco |s tho numbor ot workors tho CEO has to koop track
ot, a||ocato among, and sot goa|s tor.
¯¯
lt you put a rod ogg |n tho nost ot a horr|ng gu||, |t goos borsork. 1ho co|or rod tr|ggors aggross|on |n tho b|rd, wh||o tho shapo ot tho ogg tr|ggors
brood|ng bohav|or-as a rosu|t, |t tr|os to s|mu|tanoous|y attack tho ogg and |ncubato |t.
4b
lt's runn|ng two programs at onco, w|th an unproduct|vo
ond rosu|t. 1ho rod ogg sots ott sovoro|gn and cont||ct|ng programs, w|rod |nto tho gu||'s bra|n ||ko compot|ng t|otdoms. 1ho r|va|ry |s thoro, but tho
b|rd has no capac|ty to arb|trato |n tho sorv|co ot smooth cooporat|on. 3|m||ar|y, |t a toma|o st|ck|oback trospassos onto a ma|o's torr|tory, tho ma|o
w||| d|sp|ay attack bohav|or and courtsh|p bohav|or s|mu|tanoous|y, wh|ch |s no way to w|n ovor a |ady. 1ho poor ma|o st|ck|oback appoars to bo
s|mp|y a bund|od co||oct|on ot zomb|o programs tr|ggorod by s|mp|o |ock-and-koy |nputs (7rosposs! lomo|o!), and tho subrout|nos havo not tound
any mothod ot arb|trat|on botwoon thom. 1h|s sooms to mo to suggost that tho horr|ng gu|| and tho st|ck|oback aro not part|cu|ar|y consc|ous.
l proposo that a usotu| |ndox ot consc|ousnoss |s tho capac|ty to succosstu||y mod|ato cont||ct|ng zomb|o systoms. 1ho moro an an|ma| |ooks ||ko
a jumb|o ot hardw|rod |nput-output subrout|nos, tho |oss |t g|vos ov|donco ot consc|ousnoss, tho moro |t can coord|nato, do|ay grat|t|cat|on, and
|oarn now programs, tho moro consc|ous |t may bo. lt th|s v|ow |s corroct, |n tho tuturo a battory ot tosts m|ght bo ab|o to y|o|d a rough moasuro ot a
spoc|os' dogroo ot consc|ousnoss. 1h|nk back to tho botudd|od rat wo mot noar tho bog|nn|ng ot tho chaptor, who, trappod botwoon tho dr|vo to go
tor tho tood and tho |mpu|so to run trom tho shock, bocamo stuck |n botwoon and osc|||atod back and torth. Wo a|| know what |t's ||ko to havo
momonts ot |ndoc|s|on, but our human arb|trat|on botwoon tho programs a||ows us to oscapo thoso conundrums and mako a doc|s|on. Wo qu|ck|y
t|nd ways ot cajo||ng or cast|gat|ng ourso|vos toward ono outcomo or tho othor. Our CEO |s soph|st|catod onough to got us out ot tho s|mp|o
|ockups that can thorough|y hamstr|ng tho poor rat. 1h|s may bo tho way |n wh|ch our consc|ous m|nds-wh|ch p|ay on|y a sma|| part |n our tota|
noura| tunct|on-roa||y sh|no.
1EE NuL1|1uDE5

lot's c|rc|o back to how th|s a||ows us to th|nk about our bra|ns |n a now way-that |s, how tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork a||ows us to addross
mystor|os that wou|d bo |noxp||cab|o |t wo took tho po|nt ot v|ow ot trad|t|ona| computor programs or art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco.
Cons|dor tho concopt ot a socrot. 1ho ma|n th|ng known about socrots |s that koop|ng thom |s unhoa|thy tor tho bra|n.
40
lsycho|og|st 1amos
lonnobakor and h|s co||oaguos stud|od what happonod whon rapo and |ncost v|ct|ms, act|ng out ot shamo or gu||t, choso to ho|d socrots |ns|do.
Attor yoars ot study, lonnobakor conc|udod that °tho act ot oot d|scuss|ng or cont|d|ng tho ovont w|th anothor may bo moro damag|ng than hav|ng
oxpor|oncod tho ovont por so.'
47
|o and h|s toam d|scovorod that whon subjocts contossod or wroto about tho|r doop|y ho|d socrots, tho|r hoa|th
|mprovod, tho|r numbor ot doctor v|s|ts wont down, and thoro woro moasurab|o docroasos |n tho|r stross hormono |ovo|s.
48
1ho rosu|ts aro c|oar onough, but somo yoars ago l bogan to ask myso|t how to undorstand thoso t|nd|ngs trom tho po|nt ot v|ow ot bra|n sc|onco.
And that |od to a quost|on that l roa||zod was unaddrossod |n tho sc|ont|t|c ||toraturo: what ls a socrot, nourob|o|og|ca||y? lmag|no construct|ng an
art|t|c|a| noura| notwork ot m||||ons ot |ntorconnoctod nourons-what wou|d a socrot |ook ||ko horo? Cou|d a toastor, w|th |ts |ntorconnoctod parts,
harbor a socrot? Wo havo usotu| sc|ont|t|c tramoworks tor undorstand|ng lark|nson's d|soaso, co|or porcopt|on, and tomporaturo sonsat|on-but
nono tor undorstand|ng what |t moans tor tho bra|n to havo and to ho|d a socrot.
W|th|n tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork, a socrot |s oas||y undorstood: |t |s tho rosu|t ot strugg|o botwoon compot|ng part|os |n tho bra|n. Ono part ot
tho bra|n wants to rovoa| somoth|ng, and anothor part doos not want to. Whon thoro aro compot|ng votos |n tho bra|n-ono tor to|||ng, and ono tor
w|thho|d|ng-that dot|nos a socrot. lt no party caros to to||, that's moro|y a bor|ng tact, |t both part|os want to to||, that's just a good story. W|thout tho
tramowork ot r|va|ry, wo wou|d havo no way to undorstand a socrot.
¯¯¯
1ho roason a socrot |s oxpor|oncod consc|ous|y |s bocauso |t rosu|ts trom a
r|va|ry. lt |s not bus|noss as usua|, and thorotoro tho CEO |s ca||od upon to doa| w|th |t.
1ho ma|n roason not to rovoa| a socrot |s avors|on to tho |ong-torm consoquoncos. A tr|ond m|ght th|nk ||| ot you, or a |ovor m|ght bo hurt, or a
commun|ty m|ght ostrac|zo you. 1h|s concorn about tho outcomo |s ov|doncod by tho tact that poop|o aro moro ||ko|y to to|| tho|r socrots to tota|
strangors, w|th somoono you don't know, tho noura| cont||ct can bo d|ss|patod w|th nono ot tho costs. 1h|s |s why strangors can bo so torthcom|ng
on a|rp|anos, to|||ng a|| tho dota||s ot tho|r mar|ta| troub|os, and why contoss|ona| booths havo roma|nod a stap|o |n ono ot tho wor|d's |argost
ro||g|ons. lt may s|m||ar|y oxp|a|n tho appoa| ot prayor, ospoc|a||y |n thoso ro||g|ons that havo vory porsona| gods, do|t|os who |ond tho|r oars w|th
und|v|dod attont|on and |nt|n|to |ovo.
1ho nowost tw|st on th|s anc|ont nood to to|| socrots to a strangor can bo tound |n tho torm ot wobs|tos ||ko postsocrot.com, whoro poop|o go to
anonymous|y d|sc|oso tho|r contoss|ons. |oro aro somo oxamp|os: °Whon my on|y daughtor was st|||born, l not on|y thought about k|dnapp|ng a
baby, l p|annod |t out |n my hoad. l ovon tound myso|t watch|ng now mothors w|th tho|r bab|os try|ng to p|ck tho portoct ono', °l am a|most corta|n that
your son has aut|sm but l havo no |doa how to to|| you', °3omot|mos l wondor why my dad mo|ostod my s|stor but not mo. Was l not good onough?'
As you havo doubt|oss not|cod, vont|ng a socrot |s usua||y dono tor |ts own sako, not as an |nv|tat|on tor adv|co. lt tho ||stonor spots an obv|ous
so|ut|on to somo prob|om rovoa|od by tho socrot and makos tho m|stako ot suggost|ng |t, th|s w||| trustrato tho to||or-a|| sho roo||y wantod was to
to||. 1ho act ot to|||ng a socrot can |tso|t bo tho so|ut|on. An opon quost|on |s why tho roco|vor ot tho socrots has to bo human-or human-||ko, |n tho
caso ot do|t|os. 1o|||ng a wa||, a ||zard, or a goat your socrots |s much |oss sat|sty|ng.
WEERE |5 C8PO?

Whon l was a ch||d, l assumod that wo wou|d havo robots by now-robots that wou|d br|ng us tood and c|oan our c|othos and convorso w|th us. 3ut
somoth|ng wont wrong w|th tho t|o|d ot art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco, and as a rosu|t tho on|y robot |n my homo |s a modorato|y d|m-w|ttod so|t-d|roct|ng
vacuum c|oanor.
Why d|d art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco bocomo stuck? 1ho answor |s c|oar: |nto|||gonco has provon |tso|t a tromondous|y hard prob|om. laturo has had an
opportun|ty to try out tr||||ons ot oxpor|monts ovor b||||ons ot yoars. |umans havo boon scratch|ng at tho prob|om on|y tor docados. |or most ot that
t|mo, our approach has boon to cook up |nto|||gonco trom scratch-but just rocont|y tho t|o|d has takon a turn. 1o mako moan|ngtu| progross |n
bu||d|ng th|nk|ng robots, |t |s now c|oar that wo nood to doc|phor tho tr|cks naturo has t|gurod out.
l suggost that tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork w||| p|ay an |mportant ro|o |n d|s|odg|ng tho jammod t|o|d ot art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco. lrov|ous approachos
havo mado tho usotu| stop ot d|v|d|ng |abor -but tho rosu|t|ng programs aro |mpotont w|thout d|ttor|ng op|n|ons. lt wo hopo to |nvont robots that
th|nk, our cha||ongo |s not s|mp|y to dov|so a subagont to c|ovor|y so|vo oach prob|om but |nstoad to coaso|oss|y ro|nvont subagonts, oach w|th
ovor|app|ng so|ut|ons, and thon to p|t thom aga|nst ono anothor. Ovor|app|ng tact|ons ottor protoct|on aga|nst dogradat|on (th|nk ot cogn|t|vo
rosorvo) as wo|| as c|ovor prob|om so|v|ng by unoxpoctod approachos.
|uman programmors approach a prob|om by assum|ng thoro's a bost way to so|vo |t, or that thoro's a way |t sboo|o bo so|vod by tho robot. 3ut
tho ma|n |osson wo can oxtract trom b|o|ogy |s that |t's bottor to cu|t|vato a toam ot popu|at|ons that attack tho prob|om |n d|ttoront, ovor|app|ng
mannors. 1ho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork suggosts that tho bost approach |s to abandon tho quost|on °What's tho most c|ovor way to so|vo that
prob|om?' |n tavor ot °Aro thoro mu|t|p|o, ovor|app|ng ways to so|vo that prob|om?'
lrobab|y tho bost way to cu|t|vato a toam |s w|th an ovo|ut|onary approach, random|y gonorat|ng ||tt|o programs and a||ow|ng thom to roproduco
w|th sma|| mutat|ons. 1h|s stratogy a||ows us to cont|nuous|y d|scovor so|ut|ons rathor than try|ng to th|nk up a s|ng|o portoct so|ut|on trom scratch.
As tho b|o|og|st los||o Orgo|'s socond |aw statos: °Evo|ut|on |s smartor than you aro.' lt l had a |aw ot b|o|ogy, |t wou|d bo: °Evo|vo so|ut|ons, whon
you t|nd a good ono, ooo`t stop.'
1ochno|ogy has so tar not takon advantago ot tho |doa ot a domocrat|c arch|tocturo-that |s, tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork. A|though your
computor |s bu||t ot thousands ot spoc|a||zod parts, thoy novor co||aborato or arguo. l suggost that cont||ct-basod, domocrat|c organ|zat|on-
summar|zod as tho toam-ot-r|va|s arch|tocturo-w||| ushor |n a tru|ttu| now ago ot b|o|og|ca||y |nsp|rod mach|nory.
40


1ho ma|n |osson ot th|s chaptor |s that you aro mado up ot an ont|ro par||amont ot p|ocos and parts and subsystoms. 3oyond a co||oct|on ot |oca|
oxport systoms, wo aro co||oct|ons ot ovor|app|ng, coaso|oss|y ro|nvontod mochan|sms, a group ot compot|ng tact|ons. 1ho consc|ous m|nd
tabr|catos stor|os to oxp|a|n tho somot|mos |noxp||cab|o dynam|cs ot tho subsystoms |ns|do tho bra|n. lt can bo d|squ|ot|ng to cons|dor tho oxtont to
wh|ch a|| ot our act|ons aro dr|von by hardw|rod systoms, do|ng what thoy do bost, wh||o wo ovor|ay stor|os about our cho|cos.
loto that tho popu|at|on ot tho monta| soc|oty doos not a|ways voto oxact|y tho samo way oach t|mo. 1h|s rocogn|t|on |s otton m|ss|ng trom
d|scuss|ons ot consc|ousnoss, wh|ch typ|ca||y assumo that what |t |s ||ko to bo you |s tho samo trom day to day, momont to momont. 3omot|mos
you'ro ab|o to road wo||, othor t|mos you dr|tt. 3omot|mos you can t|nd a|| tho r|ght words, othor t|mos your tonguo |s tang|od. 3omo days you'ro a
st|ck |n tho mud, othor days you throw caut|on to tho w|nd. 3o who's tho roa| you? As tho |ronch ossay|st V|cho| do Vonta|gno put |t, °1horo |s as
much d|ttoronco botwoon us and ourso|vos as thoro |s botwoon us and othors.'
A nat|on |s at any momont most road||y dot|nod by |ts po||t|ca| part|os |n powor. 3ut |t |s a|so dot|nod by tho po||t|ca| op|n|ons |t harbors |n |ts
stroots and ||v|ng rooms. A comprohons|vo undorstand|ng ot a nat|on must |nc|udo thoso part|os that aro not |n powor but that cou|d r|so |n tho r|ght
c|rcumstancos. ln th|s samo way, you aro composod ot your mu|t|tudos, ovon though at any g|von t|mo your consc|ous hoad||no may |nvo|vo on|y a
subsot ot a|| tho po||t|ca| part|os.
loturn|ng to Vo| G|bson and h|s drunkon t|rado, wo can ask whothor thoro |s such a th|ng as °truo' co|ors. Wo havo soon that bohav|or |s tho
outcomo ot tho batt|o among |ntorna| systoms. 1o bo c|oar, l'm not dotond|ng G|bson's dosp|cab|o bohav|or, but l am say|ng that a toam-ot-r|va|s
bra|n can natura||y harbor both rac|st and nonrac|st too||ngs. A|coho| |s not a truth sorum. lnstoad, |t tonds to t|p tho batt|o toward tho short-torm,
unrot|oct|vo tact|on-wh|ch has no moro or |oss c|a|m than any othor tact|on to bo tho °truo' ono. low, wo may coro about tho unrot|oct|vo tact|on |n
somoono, bocauso |t dot|nos tho dogroo to wh|ch thoy'ro copob|o ot ant|soc|a| or dangorous bohav|or. lt |s corta|n|y rat|ona| to worry about th|s
aspoct ot a porson, and |t makos sonso to say, °G|bson |s capab|o ot ant|-3om|t|sm.' ln tho ond, wo can roasonab|y spoak ot somoono's °most
dangorous' co|ors, but °truo' co|ors may bo a subt|y dangorous m|snomor.
W|th th|s |n m|nd, wo can now roturn to an acc|donta| ovors|ght |n G|bson's apo|ogy: °1horo |s no oxcuso, nor shou|d thoro bo any to|oranco, tor
anyono who th|nks or oxprossos any k|nd ot ant|-3om|t|c romark.' 0o you soo tho orror horo? Anyono who tbloks |t? l wou|d |ovo |t |t no ono ovor
thought an ant|-3om|t|c romark, but tor bottor or worso wo havo ||tt|o hopo ot contro|||ng tho patho|og|os ot xonophob|a that somot|mos |ntoct tho
a||on systoms. Vost ot what wo ca|| th|nk|ng happons wo|| undor tho surtaco ot cogn|t|vo contro|. 1h|s ana|ys|s |s not moant to oxcu|pato Vo| G|bson
tor h|s rotton bohav|or, but |t ls moant to spot||ght a quost|on ra|sod by ovoryth|ng wo'vo |oarnod so tar: |t tho consc|ous you has |oss contro| ovor tho
monta| mach|nory than wo prov|ous|y |ntu|tod, what doos a|| th|s moan tor rospons|b|||ty? lt |s to th|s quost|on that wo turn now.
¯
A|though th|s systom works, |t str|kos mo that thoro |s a way to bottor match th|s bus|noss modo| to tho nourob|o|ogy. 1ho prob|om |s that wo|ght |oss domands a susta|nod ottort,
wh||o tho approach|ng doad||no tor tho |oss ot monoy |s a|ways d|stant|y |n tho tuturo unt|| tho day ot rockon|ng |s suddon|y upon you. ln a noura||y opt|m|zod modo|, you wou|d |oso a ||tt|o
monoy oach day unt|| you havo shod tho ton pounds. Each day, tho amount you'd |oso wou|d |ncroaso by t|ttoon porcont. 3o ovory day br|ngs tho |mmod|ato omot|ona| st|ng ot monotary
|oss, and tho st|ng constant|y grows worso. Whon you'vo |ost tho ton pounds, thon you stop |os|ng monoy. 1h|s oncouragos a susta|nod d|ot oth|c ovor tho ont|ro t|mo w|ndow.
¯¯
1horo may bo othor advantagos to hav|ng a |argo co||oct|on ot a||on systoms w|th t|ox|b|o a||ocat|on. |or oxamp|o, |t may roduco our prod|ctab|||ty to prodators. lt you had on|y ono
subrout|no and ran |t ovory t|mo, a prodator wou|d know oxact|y how to p|ck you ott (th|nk ot tho crocod||os graz|ng on tho w||doboost that sw|m across Atr|can r|vors tho samo way, at tho
samo t|mo, ovory yoar). Voro comp|ox co||oct|ons ot a||on systoms onjoy not on|y t|ox|b|||ty but a bottor shot at unprod|ctab|||ty.
¯¯¯
3omo poop|o aro const|tut|ona||y |ncapab|o ot koop|ng a socrot, and th|s ba|anco may to|| us somoth|ng about tho batt|os go|ng on |ns|do thom and wh|ch way thoy t|p. Good
sp|os and socrot agonts aro thoso poop|o whoso batt|o a|ways t|ps toward |ong-torm doc|s|on mak|ng rathor than tho thr||| ot to|||ng.
Why BIamoworthinoaa |a tho Wrong Ouoation

1EE OuE51|ON5 RA|5ED BY 1EE NAN ON 1EE 1OWER

On tho stoamy t|rst day ot August 1000, Char|os Wh|tman took an o|ovator to tho top t|oor ot tho Un|vors|ty ot 1oxas 1owor |n Aust|n.
1
1ho twonty-
t|vo-yoar-o|d c||mbod throo t||ghts ot sta|rs to tho obsorvat|on dock, |ugg|ng w|th h|m a trunk tu|| ot guns and ammun|t|on. At tho top ho k|||od a
rocopt|on|st w|th tho butt ot h|s r|t|o. |o thon shot at two tam|||os ot tour|sts com|ng up tho sta|rwo|| botoro bog|nn|ng to t|ro |nd|scr|m|nato|y trom tho
dock at poop|o bo|ow. 1ho t|rst woman ho shot was prognant. As othors ran to ho|p hor, ho shot thom as wo||. |o shot podostr|ans |n tho stroot and
tho ambu|anco dr|vors that camo to roscuo thom.
1ho n|ght botoro Wh|tman had sat at h|s typowr|tor and composod a su|c|do noto:
l do not roa||y undorstand myso|t thoso days. l am supposod to bo an avorago roasonab|o and |nto|||gont young man. |owovor, |ato|y (l
cannot roca|| whon |t startod) l havo boon a v|ct|m ot many unusua| and |rrat|ona| thoughts.

As nows ot tho shoot|ng sproad, a|| Aust|n po||co ott|cors woro ordorod to tho campus. Attor sovora| hours, throo ott|cors and a qu|ck|y doput|zod
c|t|zon workod tho|r way up tho sta|rs and managod to k||| Wh|tman on tho dock. lot |nc|ud|ng Wh|tman, th|rtoon poop|o woro k|||od and th|rty-throo
woundod.
1ho story ot Wh|tman's rampago dom|natod nat|ona| hoad||nos tho noxt day. And whon po||co wont to |nvost|gato h|s homo tor c|uos, tho story
bocamo ovon moro gr|m: |n tho oar|y hours ot tho morn|ng botoro tho shoot|ng, ho had murdorod h|s mothor and stabbod h|s w|to to doath |n hor
s|oop. Attor thoso t|rst k||||ngs, ho had roturnod to h|s su|c|do noto, now wr|t|ng by hand.
lt was attor much thought that l doc|dod to k||| my w|to, Kathy, ton|ght.. l |ovo hor doar|y, and sho has boon a t|no w|to to mo as any man
cou|d ovor hopo to havo. l cannot rat|ona||y p|npo|nt any spoc|t|c roason tor do|ng th|s..

A|ong w|th tho shock ot tho murdors |ay anothor, moro h|ddon surpr|so: tho juxtapos|t|on ot h|s aborrant act|ons and h|s unromarkab|o porsona| ||to.
Wh|tman was a tormor Eag|o 3cout and mar|no, workod as a to||or |n a bank, and vo|untoorod as a scoutmastor tor Aust|n 3cout 1roop b. As a
ch||d ho'd scorod 188 on tho 3tantord 3|not lO tost, p|ac|ng h|m |n tho top 0.1 porcont||o. 3o attor ho |aunchod h|s b|oody, |nd|scr|m|nato shoot|ng
trom tho Un|vors|ty ot 1oxas 1owor, ovoryono wantod answors.
|or that mattor, so d|d Wh|tman. |o roquostod |n h|s su|c|do noto that an autopsy bo portormod to dotorm|no |t somoth|ng had changod |n h|s
bra|n-bocauso ho suspoctod |t had. A tow months botoro tho shoot|ng, Wh|tman had wr|tton |n h|s d|ary:
l ta|kod to a doctor onco tor about two hours and tr|od to convoy to h|m my toars that l to|t ovorcomo by ovorwho|m|ng v|o|ont |mpu|sos. Attor
ono soss|on l novor saw tho 0octor aga|n, and s|nco thon l havo boon t|ght|ng my monta| turmo|| a|ono, and soom|ng|y to no ava||.

Wh|tman's body was takon to tho morguo, h|s sku|| was put undor tho bono saw, and tho mod|ca| oxam|nor ||ttod tho bra|n trom |ts vau|t. |o
d|scovorod that Wh|tman's bra|n harborod a tumor about tho d|amotor ot a n|cko|. 1h|s tumor, ca||od a g||ob|astoma, had b|ossomod trom bonoath
a structuro ca||od tho tha|amus, |mp|ngod on tho hypotha|amus, and comprossod a th|rd rog|on, ca||od tho amygda|a.
2
1ho amygda|a |s |nvo|vod |n
omot|ona| rogu|at|on, ospoc|a||y as rogards toar and aggross|on. 3y tho |ato 1800s, rosoarchors had d|scovorod that damago to tho amygda|a
causod omot|ona| and soc|a| d|sturbancos.
8
ln tho 1080s, b|o|og|sts |o|nr|ch K|üvor and lau| 3ucy domonstratod that damago to tho amygda|a |n
monkoys |od to a consto||at|on ot symptoms |nc|ud|ng |ack ot toar, b|unt|ng ot omot|on, and ovorroact|on.
4
|oma|o monkoys w|th amygda|a damago
showod |nappropr|ato matorna| bohav|or, otton nog|oct|ng or phys|ca||y abus|ng tho|r |ntants.
b
ln norma| humans, act|v|ty |n tho amygda|a |ncroasos
whon poop|o aro shown throaton|ng tacos, aro put |nto tr|ghton|ng s|tuat|ons, or oxpor|onco soc|a| phob|as.
Wh|tman's |ntu|t|on about h|mso|t-that somoth|ng |n h|s bra|n was chang|ng h|s bohav|or-was spot-on.
l |mag|no |t appoars that l bruta||y k|||od both ot my |ovod onos. l was on|y try|ng to do a qu|ck thorough job.. lt my ||to |nsuranco po||cy |s
va||d p|oaso pay ott my dobts . donato tho rost anonymous|y to a monta| hoa|th toundat|on. Vaybo rosoarch can provont turthor tragod|os ot
th|s typo.

Othors had not|cod tho changos as wo||. E|a|no |uoss, a c|oso tr|ond ot Wh|tman's, obsorvod, °Evon whon ho |ookod portoct|y norma|, ho gavo you
tho too||ng ot try|ng to contro| somoth|ng |n h|mso|t.' lrosumab|y, that °somoth|ng' was h|s co||oct|on ot angry, aggross|vo zomb|o programs. ||s
coo|or, rat|ona| part|os woro batt||ng h|s roact|vo, v|o|ont part|os, but damago trom tho tumor t|ppod tho voto so |t was no |ongor a ta|r t|ght.
0oos tho d|scovory ot Wh|tman's bra|n tumor mod|ty your too||ngs about h|s sonso|oss murdor|ng? lt Wh|tman had surv|vod that day, wou|d |t
adjust tho sontonc|ng you wou|d cons|dor appropr|ato tor h|m? 0oos tho tumor chango tho dogroo to wh|ch you cons|dor |t °h|s tau|t'? Cou|dn't you
just as oas||y bo un|ucky onough to dovo|op a tumor and |oso contro| ot your bohav|or?
On tho othor hand, wou|dn't |t bo dangorous to conc|udo that poop|o w|th a tumor aro somohow troo ot gu||t, or that thoy shou|d bo |ot ott tho hook
tor tho|r cr|mos?
1ho man on tho towor w|th tho mass |n h|s bra|n gots us r|ght |nto tho hoart ot tho quost|on ot b|amoworth|noss. 1o put |t |n tho |oga| argot: was ho
co|pob|o? 1o what oxtont |s somoono at tau|t |t h|s bra|n |s damagod |n ways about wh|ch ho has no cho|co? Attor a||, wo aro not |ndopondont ot
our b|o|ogy, r|ght?
CEANCE 1EE BRA|N, CEANCE 1EE PER5ON: 1EE uNEXPEC1ED PEDOPE|LE5, 5EOPL|F1ER5 AND CANBLER5

Wh|tman's caso |s not |so|atod. At tho |ntortaco botwoon nourosc|onco and |aw, casos |nvo|v|ng bra|n damago crop up |ncroas|ng|y otton. As wo
dovo|op bottor tochno|og|os tor prob|ng tho bra|n, wo dotoct moro prob|oms.
1ako tho caso ot a torty-yoar-o|d man wo'|| ca|| A|ox. A|ox's w|to, 1u||a, bogan to not|co a chango |n h|s soxua| protoroncos. |or tho t|rst t|mo |n tho
two docados sho had known h|m, ho bogan to show an |ntorost |n ch||d pornography. And not just a ||tt|o |ntorost, an ovorwho|m|ng ono. |o pourod
h|s t|mo and onorgy |nto v|s|t|ng ch||d pornography wobs|tos and co||oct|ng magaz|nos. |o a|so so||c|tod prost|tut|on trom a young woman at a
massago par|or, somoth|ng ho had novor prov|ous|y dono. 1h|s was no |ongor tho man 1u||a had marr|od, and sho was a|armod by tho chango |n
h|s bohav|or. At tho samo t|mo, A|ox was comp|a|n|ng ot worson|ng hoadachos. And so 1u||a took h|m to tho tam||y doctor, who rotorrod thom on to
a nouro|og|st. A|ox undorwont a bra|n scan, wh|ch rovoa|od a mass|vo bra|n tumor |n h|s orb|totronta| cortox.
0
1ho nourosurgoons romovod tho
tumor. A|ox's soxua| appot|to roturnod to norma|.
A|ox's story h|gh||ghts a doop contra| po|nt: whon your b|o|ogy changos, so can your doc|s|on mak|ng, your appot|tos, and your dos|ros. 1ho
dr|vos you tako tor grantod (°l'm a hotoro/homosoxua|,' °l'm attractod to ch||dron/adu|ts,' °l'm aggross|vo/not aggross|vo,' and so on) dopond on tho
|ntr|cato dota||s ot your noura| mach|nory. A|though act|ng on such dr|vos |s popu|ar|y thought to bo a troo cho|co, tho most cursory oxam|nat|on ot
tho ov|donco domonstratos tho ||m|ts ot that assumpt|on, wo w||| soo turthor oxamp|os |n a momont.
1ho |osson ot A|ox's story |s ro|ntorcod by |ts unoxpoctod to||ow-up. About s|x months attor tho bra|n surgory, h|s podoph|||c bohav|or bogan to
roturn. ||s w|to took h|m back to tho doctors. 1ho nourorad|o|og|st d|scovorod that a port|on ot tho tumor had boon m|ssod |n tho surgory and was
rogrow|ng-and A|ox wont back undor tho kn|to. Attor tho romova| ot tho roma|n|ng tumor, h|s bohav|or roturnod to norma|.
A|ox's suddon podoph|||a |||ustratos that h|ddon dr|vos and dos|ros can |urk undotoctod boh|nd tho noura| mach|nory ot soc|a||zat|on. Whon tho
tronta| |obo |s comprom|sod, poop|o bocomo °d|s|nh|b|tod,' unmask|ng tho prosonco ot tho sood|or o|omonts |n tho noura| domocracy. Wou|d |t bo
corroct to say that A|ox was °tundamonta||y' a podoph||o, moro|y soc|a||zod to ros|st h|s |mpu|sos? lorhaps, but botoro wo ass|gn |abo|s, cons|dor
that you probab|y wou|d not want to d|scovor tho a||on subrout|nos that |urk undor your own tronta| cortox.
A common oxamp|o ot th|s d|s|nh|b|tod bohav|or |s soon |n pat|onts w|th trontotompora| domont|a, a trag|c d|soaso |n wh|ch tho tronta| and
tompora| |obos dogonorato. W|th tho |oss ot tho bra|n t|ssuo, pat|onts |oso tho ab|||ty to contro| tho h|ddon |mpu|sos. 1o tho trustrat|on ot tho|r |ovod
onos, thoso pat|onts unoarth an ond|oss var|oty ot ways to v|o|ato soc|a| norms: shop||tt|ng |n tront ot storo managors, romov|ng tho|r c|othos |n
pub||c, runn|ng stop s|gns, broak|ng out |n song at |nappropr|ato t|mos, oat|ng tood scraps tound |n pub||c trash cans, or bo|ng phys|ca||y
aggross|vo or soxua||y transgross|vo. lat|onts w|th trontotompora| domont|a common|y ond up |n courtrooms, whoro tho|r |awyors, doctors, and
ombarrassod adu|t ch||dron must oxp|a|n to tho judgo that tho v|o|at|on was not tho porpotrator's íoo|t, oxact|y: much ot tho|r bra|ns had
dogonoratod, and thoro |s curront|y no mod|cat|on to stop |t. ||tty-sovon porcont ot trontotompora| domont|a pat|onts d|sp|ay soc|a||y v|o|at|ng
bohav|or that sots thom up tor troub|o w|th tho |aw, as comparod to on|y 7 porcont ot A|zho|mor's pat|onts.
7
|or anothor oxamp|o ot changos |n tho bra|n |oad|ng to changos |n bohav|or, cons|dor what has happonod |n tho troatmont ot lark|nson's
d|soaso. ln 2001, tam|||os and carotakors ot lark|nson's pat|onts bogan to not|co somoth|ng strango. Whon pat|onts woro g|von a drug ca||od
pram|poxo|o, somo ot thom turnod |nto gamb|ors.
8
And not just casua| gamb|ors-patho|og|ca| gamb|ors. 1hoso woro pat|onts who had novor
botoro d|sp|ayod gamb||ng bohav|or, and now thoy woro t|y|ng ott to vogas. Ono s|xty-o|ght-yoar-o|d man amassod |ossos ot ovor $200,000 |n s|x
months at a sor|os ot cas|nos. 3omo pat|onts bocamo consumod w|th |ntornot pokor, rack|ng up unpayab|o crod|t card b|||s. Vany d|d what thoy
cou|d to h|do tho |ossos trom tho|r tam|||os. |or somo, tho now add|ct|on roachod boyond gamb||ng to compu|s|vo oat|ng, a|coho| consumpt|on, and
hyporsoxua||ty.
What was go|ng on? You may havo soon tho awtu| p|undor ot lark|nson's, a dogonorat|vo d|sordor |n wh|ch tho hands tromb|o, tho ||mbs bocomo
st|tt, tac|a| oxpross|ons turn b|ank, and tho pat|ont's ba|anco progross|vo|y worsons. lark|nson's rosu|ts trom tho |oss ot co||s |n tho bra|n that
produco a nourotransm|ttor known as dopam|no. 1ho troatmont tor lark|nson's |s to |ncroaso tho pat|onts' dopam|no |ovo|s-usua||y by |ncroas|ng
tho body's product|on ot tho chom|ca|, and somot|mos by us|ng mod|cat|ons that d|roct|y b|nd to dopam|no rocoptors. 3ut |t turns out that dopam|no
|s a chom|ca| on doub|o duty |n tho bra|n. A|ong w|th |ts ro|o |n motor commands, |t a|so sorvos as tho ma|n mossongor |n tho roward systoms,
gu|d|ng a porson toward tood, dr|nk, matos, and a|| th|ngs usotu| tor surv|va|. 3ocauso ot |ts ro|o |n tho roward systom, |mba|ancos |n dopam|no can
tr|ggor gamb||ng, ovoroat|ng, and drug add|ct|on-bohav|ors that rosu|t trom a roward systom gono awry.
0
lhys|c|ans now watch out tor thoso bohav|ora| changos as a poss|b|o s|do ottoct ot dopam|no drugs ||ko pram|poxo|o, and a warn|ng |s c|oar|y
||stod on tho |abo|. Whon a gamb||ng s|tuat|on crops up, tam|||os and carotakors aro |nstructod to socuro tho crod|t cards ot tho pat|ont and carotu||y
mon|tor tho|r on||no act|v|t|os and |oca| tr|ps. luck||y, tho ottocts ot tho drug aro rovors|b|o-tho phys|c|an s|mp|y |owors tho dosago ot tho drug and
tho compu|s|vo gamb||ng goos away.
1ho |osson |s c|oar: a s||ght chango |n tho ba|anco ot bra|n chom|stry can causo |argo changos |n bohav|or. 1ho bohav|or ot tho pat|ont cannot bo
soparatod trom h|s b|o|ogy. lt wo ||ko to bo||ovo that poop|o mako troo cho|cos about tho|r bohav|or (as |n, °l don't gamb|o bocauso l'm strong-
w|||od'), casos ||ko A|ox tho podoph||o, tho trontotompora| shop||ttors, and tho gamb||ng lark|nson's pat|onts may oncourago us to oxam|no our
v|ows moro carotu||y. lorhaps not ovoryono |s oqua||y °troo' to mako soc|a||y appropr|ato cho|cos.
WEERE YOu'RE CO|NC, WEERE YOu'VE BEEN

Vany ot us ||ko to bo||ovo that a|| adu|ts possoss tho samo capac|ty to mako sound cho|cos. lt's a n|co |doa, but |t's wrong. loop|o's bra|ns can bo
vast|y d|ttoront-|nt|uoncod not on|y by gonot|cs but by tho onv|ronmonts |n wh|ch thoy grow up. Vany °pathogons' (both chom|ca| and bohav|ora|)
can |nt|uonco how you turn out, thoso |nc|udo substanco abuso by a mothor dur|ng prognancy, matorna| stross, and |ow b|rth wo|ght. As a ch||d
grows, nog|oct, phys|ca| abuso, and hoad |njury can causo prob|oms |n monta| dovo|opmont. Onco tho ch||d |s grown, substanco abuso and
oxposuro to a var|oty ot tox|ns can damago tho bra|n, mod|ty|ng |nto|||gonco, aggross|on, and doc|s|on-mak|ng ab|||t|os.
10
1ho major pub||c hoa|th
movomont to romovo |oad-basod pa|nt grow out ot an undorstand|ng that ovon |ow |ovo|s ot |oad can causo bra|n damago that makos ch||dron |oss
|nto|||gont and, |n somo casos, moro |mpu|s|vo and aggross|vo. |ow you turn out doponds on whoro you'vo boon. 3o whon |t comos to th|nk|ng
about b|amoworth|noss, tho t|rst d|tt|cu|ty to cons|dor |s that poop|o do not chooso tho|r own dovo|opmonta| path.
As wo'|| soo, th|s undorstand|ng doos not got cr|m|na|s ott tho hook, but |t's |mportant to |oad ott th|s d|scuss|on w|th a c|oar undorstand|ng that
poop|o havo vory d|ttoront start|ng po|nts. lt |s prob|omat|c to |mag|no yourso|t |n tho shoos ot a cr|m|na| and conc|udo, °Wo||, l wou|dn't havo dono
that'-bocauso |t you woron't oxposod to lo otoro coca|no, |oad po|son|ng, or phys|ca| abuso, and ho was, thon you and ho aro not d|roct|y
comparab|o. Your bra|ns aro d|ttoront, you don't t|t |n h|s shoos. Evon |t you wou|d ||ko to |mag|no what |t's ||ko to bo h|m, you won't bo vory good at
|t.
Who you ovon havo tho poss|b|||ty to bo starts wo|| botoro your ch||dhood-|t starts at concopt|on. lt you th|nk gonos don't mattor tor how poop|o
bohavo, cons|dor th|s amaz|ng tact: |t you aro a carr|or ot a part|cu|ar sot ot gonos, your probab|||ty ot comm|tt|ng a v|o|ont cr|mo goos up by o|ght
hundrod and o|ghty-two porcoot. |oro aro stat|st|cs trom tho U.3. 0opartmont ot 1ust|co, wh|ch l'vo brokon down |nto two groups: cr|mos
comm|ttod by tho popu|at|on that carr|os th|s spoc|t|c sot ot gonos and by tho popu|at|on that doos not:
Avorago Numbor ot VioIont Crimoa Committod AnnuaIIy in tho unitod 5tatoa
Oííooso
Aggravatod Assau|t
|om|c|do
Armod robbory
3oxua| assau|t
Corrylog tbo gooos
8,410,000
14,100
2,0b1,000
442,000
Not corrylog tbo gooos
48b,000
1,408
1b7,000
10,000
ln othor words, |t you carry thoso gonos, you'ro o|ght t|mos moro ||ko|y to comm|t aggravatod assau|t, ton t|mos moro ||ko|y to comm|t murdor,
th|rtoon t|mos moro ||ko|y to comm|t armod robbory, and torty-tour t|mos moro ||ko|y to comm|t soxua| assau|t.
About ono-ha|t ot tho human popu|at|on carr|os thoso gonos, wh||o tho othor ha|t doos not, mak|ng tho t|rst ha|t much moro dangorous |ndood. lt's
not ovon a contost. 1ho ovorwho|m|ng major|ty ot pr|sonors carry thoso gonos, as do 08.4 porcont ot thoso on doath row. lt sooms c|oar onough that
tho carr|ors aro strong|y prod|sposod toward a d|ttoront typo ot bohav|or-and thoso stat|st|cs a|ono |nd|cato that wo cannot prosumo that ovoryono
|s com|ng to tho tab|o oqua||y oqu|ppod |n torms ot dr|vos and bohav|ors.
Wo'|| roturn to thoso gonos |n a momont, but t|rst l want to t|o tho |ssuo back to tho ma|n po|nt wo'vo soon throughout tho book: wo aro not tho
onos dr|v|ng tho boat ot our bohav|or, at |oast not noar|y as much as wo bo||ovo. ¼bo wo oro runs wo|| bo|ow tho surtaco ot our consc|ous accoss,
and tho dota||s roach back |n t|mo botoro our b|rth, whon tho moot|ng ot a sporm and ogg grantod us w|th corta|n attr|butos and not othors. ¼bo wo
coo bo bog|ns w|th our mo|ocu|ar b|uopr|nts-a sor|os ot a||on codos ponnod |n |nv|s|b|y sma|| str|ngs ot ac|ds-wo|| botoro wo havo anyth|ng to do
w|th |t. Wo aro a product ot our |naccoss|b|o, m|croscop|c h|story.
3y tho way, as rogards that dangorous sot ot gonos, you'vo probab|y hoard ot thom. 1hoy aro summar|zod as tho Y chromosomo. lt you'ro a
carr|or, wo ca|| you a ma|o.
¯ ¯ ¯

Whon |t comos to naturo and nurturo, tho |mportant po|nt |s that yoo cbooso ooltbor ooo. Wo aro oach constructod trom a gonot|c b|uopr|nt and
born |nto a wor|d ot c|rcumstancos about wh|ch wo havo no cho|co |n our most tormat|vo yoars. 1ho comp|ox |ntoract|ons ot gonos and onv|ronmont
moans that tho c|t|zons ot our soc|oty possoss d|ttoront porspoct|vos, d|ss|m||ar porsona||t|os, and var|od capac|t|os tor doc|s|on mak|ng. 1hoso
aro not troo-w||| cbolcos ot tho c|t|zons, thoso aro tho hands ot cards wo'ro doa|t.
3ocauso wo d|d not chooso tho tactors that attoctod tho tormat|on and structuro ot our bra|n, tho concopts ot troo w||| and porsona| rospons|b|||ty
bog|n to sprout w|th quost|on marks. ls |t moan|ngtu| to say that A|ox mado bad cbolcos, ovon though h|s bra|n tumor was not h|s tau|t? ls |t
just|t|ab|o to say that tho pat|onts w|th trontotompora| domont|a or lark|nson's shou|d bo poolsboo tor tho|r bad bohav|or?
lt |t sooms wo'ro hoad|ng |n an uncomtortab|o d|roct|on-ono that |ots cr|m|na|s ott tho hook-p|oaso road on, bocauso l'm go|ng to show tho
|og|c ot a now argumont p|oco by p|oco. 1ho upshot w||| bo that wo can havo an ov|donco-basod |oga| systom |n wh|ch wo w||| cont|nuo to tako
cr|m|na|s ott tho stroots, but wo w||| chango our roasons tor pun|shmont and our opportun|t|os tor rohab|||tat|on. Whon modorn bra|n sc|onco |s |a|d
out c|oar|y, |t |s d|tt|cu|t to just|ty how our |oga| systom can cont|nuo to tunct|on w|thout |t.
1EE OuE51|ON OF FREE W|LL, AND WEY 1EE AN5WER NAY NO1 NA11ER

°Van |s a mastorp|oco ot croat|on, |t on|y bocauso no amount ot dotorm|n|sm can provont h|m trom bo||ov|ng that ho acts as a troo bo|ng.'
-Goorg C. l|chtonborg, Apborlsms

On August 20, 1004, |n |ono|u|u, |awa||, a toma|o c|rcus o|ophant namod 1yko was portorm|ng |n tront ot a crowd ot hundrods. At somo po|nt, tor
roasons maskod |n o|ophant nouroc|rcu|try, sho snappod. 3ho gorod hor groomor, 0a||as 3ockw|th, and thon tramp|od hor tra|nor, A||on 3ockw|th.
ln tront ot tho torr|t|od crowd, 1yko burst through tho barr|ors ot tho arona, onco outs|do, sho attackod a pub||c|st namod 3tovo ||rano. 1ho ont|ro
sor|os ot b|oody ovonts was capturod on tho v|doo camoras ot tho c|rcusgoors. 1yko |opod away down tho stroots ot tho Kakaako d|str|ct. Ovor tho
noxt th|rty m|nutos, |awa||an po||co ott|cors gavo chaso, t|r|ng a tota| ot o|ghty-s|x shots at tho o|ophant. Evontua||y, tho damago addod up and 1yko
co||apsod, doad.
E|ophant gor|ngs ||ko th|s aro not raro, and tho most b|zarro parts ot tho|r stor|os aro tho ond|ngs. ln 1008, 1opsy tho o|ophant k|||od throo ot h|s
hand|ors on Conoy ls|and and, |n a d|sp|ay ot now tochno|ogy, was o|octrocutod by 1homas Ed|son. ln 1010, Vary tho o|ophant, a portormor w|th tho
3parks Wor|d |amous 3hows, k|||od hor koopor |n tront ot a crowd |n 1onnossoo. lospond|ng to tho b|oodth|rsty domands ot tho commun|ty, tho
c|rcus ownor had Vary hung on a mass|vo nooso trom a ra||road dorr|ck car, tho on|y known o|ophant-hang|ng |n h|story.
Wo do not ovon bothor to ask tho quost|on ot b|amo |n rogards to an ott-k||tor c|rcus o|ophant. 1horo aro no |awyors who spoc|a||zo |n dotond|ng
o|ophants, no drawn-out tr|a|s, no argumonts tor b|o|og|ca| m|t|gat|on. Wo s|mp|y doa| w|th tho o|ophant |n tho most stra|ghttorward mannor to
ma|nta|n pub||c satoty. Attor a||, 1yko and 1opsy and Vary aro undorstood s|mp|y to bo an|ma|s, noth|ng but a wo|ghty co||oct|on ot o|ophant|no
zomb|o systoms.
ln contrast, whon |t comos to humans tho |oga| systom rosts on tho assumpt|on that wo oo havo troo w|||-and wo aro judgod basod on th|s
porco|vod troodom. |owovor, g|von that our noura| c|rcu|try runs tundamonta||y tho samo a|gor|thms as thoso ot our pachydorm cous|ns, doos th|s
d|st|nct|on botwoon humans and an|ma|s mako sonso? Anatom|ca||y, our bra|ns aro mado ot a|| tho samo p|ocos and parts, w|th namos ||ko cortox,
bypotbo|omos, rotlco|or íormotloo, íorolx, sopto| ooc|oos, and so on. 0|ttoroncos |n body p|ans and oco|og|ca| n|chos s||ght|y mod|ty tho
connoct|v|ty pattorns-but othorw|so wo t|nd |n our bra|ns tho samo b|uopr|nts tound |n o|ophant bra|ns. |rom an ovo|ut|onary po|nt ot v|ow, tho
d|ttoroncos botwoon mamma||an bra|ns ox|st on|y |n tho m|nuto dota||s. 3o whoro doos th|s troodom ot cho|co supposod|y s||p |nto tho c|rcu|try ot
humans?


As tar as tho |oga| systom soos |t, humans aro proctlco| roosooors. Wo uso consc|ous do||borat|on whon doc|d|ng how to act. Wo mako our own
doc|s|ons. 1hus, |n tho |oga| systom, a prosocutor must not moro|y show a gu||ty act, but a gu||ty m|nd as wo||.
11
And as |ong as thoro |s noth|ng
h|ndor|ng tho m|nd |n |ts contro| ot tho body, |t |s assumod that tho actor |s tu||y rospons|b|o tor h|s act|ons. 1h|s v|ow ot tho pract|ca| roasonor |s
both |ntu|t|vo and-as shou|d bo c|oar by th|s po|nt |n tho book-doop|y prob|omat|c. 1horo |s a tons|on botwoon b|o|ogy and |aw on th|s |ntu|t|on.
Attor a||, wo aro dr|von to bo who wo aro by vast and comp|ox b|o|og|ca| notworks. Wo do not como to tho tab|o as b|ank s|atos, troo to tako |n tho
wor|d and como to opon-ondod doc|s|ons. ln tact, |t |s not c|oar how much tho consc|ous yoo-as opposod to tho gonot|c and noura| you-gots to
do any doc|d|ng at a||.
Wo'vo roachod tho crux ot tho |ssuo. |ow oxact|y shou|d wo ass|gn cu|pab|||ty to poop|o tor tho|r var|od bohav|or, whon |t |s d|tt|cu|t to arguo that
tho cho|co was ovor roa||y ava||ab|o?
Or oo poop|o havo a cho|co about how thoy act, dosp|to |t a||? Evon |n tho taco ot a|| tho mach|nory that const|tutos you, |s thoro somo sma||
|ntorna| vo|co that |s |ndopondont ot tho b|o|ogy, that d|rocts doc|s|ons, that |ncossant|y wh|spors tho r|ght th|ng to do? lsn't th|s what wo ca|| troo
w|||?


1ho ox|stonco ot troo w||| |n human bohav|or |s tho subjoct ot an anc|ont and hoatod dobato. 1hoso who support troo w||| typ|ca||y baso tho|r
argumont on d|roct subjoct|vo oxpor|onco (l íoo| ||ko l mado tho doc|s|on to ||tt my t|ngor just now), wh|ch, as wo aro about to soo, can bo
m|s|oad|ng. A|though our doc|s|ons may soom ||ko troo cho|cos, no good ov|donco ox|sts that thoy actua||y aro.
Cons|dor a doc|s|on to movo. lt too|s as though troo w||| |oads you to st|ck out your tonguo, or scrunch up your taco, or ca|| somoono a namo. 3ut
troo w||| |s not roqolroo to p|ay any ro|o |n thoso acts. 1ako 1ourotto's syndromo, |n wh|ch a porson suttors trom |nvo|untary movomonts and
voca||zat|ons. A typ|ca| 1ourottor may st|ck out h|s tonguo, scrunch up h|s taco, ca|| somoono a namo-a|| w|thout cbooslog to do so. A common
symptom ot 1ourotto's |s ca||od copro|a||a, an untortunato bohav|or |n wh|ch tho porson bursts out w|th soc|a||y unaccoptab|o words or phrasos,
such as curso words or rac|a| op|thots. Untortunato|y tor tho 1ourotto's pat|ont, tho words com|ng out ot tho|r mouths aro usua||y tho |ast th|ngs thoy
wou|d want to say |n that s|tuat|on: tho copro|a||a |s tr|ggorod by soo|ng somoono or somoth|ng that makos tho oxc|amat|on torb|ddon. |or oxamp|o,
upon soo|ng an oboso porson thoy may bo compo||od to shout °|atso!' 1ho torb|ddon qua||ty ot tho thought dr|vos tho compu|s|on to shout |t out.
1ho motor t|cs and |nappropr|ato oxc|amat|ons ot 1ourotto's aro not gonoratod w|th what wo wou|d ca|| troo w|||. 3o wo |mmod|ato|y |oarn two
th|ngs trom tho 1ourotto's pat|ont. ||rst, soph|st|catod act|on can occur |n tho absonco ot troo w|||. 1h|s moans that w|tnoss|ng a comp||catod act |n
ourso|vos or somoono o|so shou|d not conv|nco us that thoro was troo w||| boh|nd |t. 3ocond, tho 1ourotto's pat|ont cannot oot do |t: thoy cannot uso
troo w||| to ovorr|do or contro| what othor parts ot tho|r bra|n havo doc|dod to do. 1hoy havo no íroo woo`t. What tho |ack ot troo w||| and tho |ack ot
troo won't havo |n common |s tho |ack ot °troo.' 1ourotto's syndromo prov|dos a caso |n wh|ch tho zomb|o systoms mako doc|s|ons and wo a||
agroo that tho porson |s not rospons|b|o.
3uch a |ack ot troo doc|s|ons |s not rostr|ctod to 1ourotto's. Wo soo th|s a|so w|th so-ca||od psychogon|c d|sordors |n wh|ch movomonts ot tho
hands, arms, |ogs, and taco aro |nvo|untary, ovon though thoy corta|n|y |ook vo|untary: ask such a pat|ont why sho |s mov|ng hor t|ngors up and
down, and sho w||| oxp|a|n that sho has no contro| ovor hor hand. 3ho cannot not do |t. 3|m||ar|y, as wo saw |n tho prov|ous chaptor, sp||t-bra|n
pat|onts can otton dovo|op a||on hand syndromo: wh||o ono hand buttons up a sh|rt, tho othor hand works to unbutton |t. Whon ono hand roachos tor
a ponc||, tho othor bats |t away. lo mattor how hard tho pat|ont tr|os, ho cannot mako h|s a||on hand oot do what |t's do|ng. 1ho doc|s|ons aro not
°h|s' to troo|y start or stop.
Unconsc|ous acts aro not ||m|tod to un|ntondod shouts or wayward hands, thoy can bo surpr|s|ng|y soph|st|catod. Cons|dor Konnoth larks, a
twonty-throo-yoar-o|d 1oronto man w|th a w|to, a t|vo-month-o|d daughtor, and a c|oso ro|at|onsh|p w|th h|s |n-|aws. 3uttor|ng trom t|nanc|a|
d|tt|cu|t|os, mar|ta| prob|oms, and a gamb||ng add|ct|on, ho mado p|ans to go soo h|s |n-|aws to ta|k about h|s troub|os. ||s mothor-|n-|aw, who
doscr|bod h|m as a °gont|o g|ant,' was |ook|ng torward to d|scuss|ng h|s |ssuos w|th h|m. 3ut a day botoro tho|r moot|ng, |n tho woo hours ot tho
morn|ng ot Vay 28, 1087, Konnoth got out ot bod, but d|d not awakon. 3|oopwa|k|ng, ho c||mbod |nto h|s car and drovo tourtoon m||os to h|s |n-
|aws' homo. |o broko |n and stabbod h|s mothor-|n-|aw to doath, and thon assau|tod h|s tathor-|n-|aw, who surv|vod. Attorward, ho drovo h|mso|t to
tho po||co stat|on. Onco thoro, ho sa|d, °l th|nk l havo k|||od somo poop|o . my hands,' roa||z|ng tor tho t|rst t|mo that h|s own hands woro sovoro|y
cut. |o was takon to tho hosp|ta|, whoro tho tondons ot h|s hands woro oporatod upon.
Ovor tho noxt yoar, Konnoth's tost|mony was romarkab|y cons|stont ovon |n tho taco ot attompts to |oad h|m astray: ho romomborod noth|ng ot tho
|nc|dont. Voroovor, wh||o a|| part|os agrood that Konnoth had undoubtod|y comm|ttod tho murdor, thoy a|so agrood that ho had no mot|vo tor tho
cr|mo. ||s dotonso attornoys arguod that th|s was a caso ot k||||ng wh||o s|oopwa|k|ng, known as hom|c|da| somnambu||sm.
12
At tho court hoar|ng |n 1088, psych|atr|st lona|d 3||||ngs gavo tho to||ow|ng oxport tost|mony:
O. ls thoro any ov|donco that a porson cou|d tormu|ato a p|an wh||o thoy woro awako and thon |n somo way onsuro that thoy carry |t out |n
tho|r s|oop?
A. lo, abso|uto|y not. lrobab|y tho most str|k|ng toaturo ot what wo know ot what goos on |n tho m|nd dur|ng s|oop |s that |t's vory
|ndopondont ot wak|ng montat|on |n torms ot |ts objoct|vos and so torth. 1horo |s a |ack ot contro| ot d|roct|ng our m|nds |n s|oop comparod to
wakotu|noss. ln tho wak|ng stato, ot courso, wo otton vo|untar||y p|an th|ngs, what wo ca|| vo||t|on-that |s, wo doc|do to do th|s as opposod to
that-and thoro |s no ov|donco that th|s occurs dur|ng tho s|oopwa|k|ng op|sodo..
O. And assum|ng ho was s|oopwa|k|ng at tho t|mo, wou|d ho havo tho capac|ty to |ntond?
A. lo.
O. Wou|d ho havo approc|atod what ho was do|ng?
A. lo, ho wou|d not.
O. Wou|d ho havo undorstood tho consoquoncos ot what ho was do|ng?
A. lo, l do not bo||ovo that ho wou|d. l th|nk |t wou|d a|| havo boon an unconsc|ous act|v|ty, uncontro||od and unmod|tatod.

|om|c|da| s|oopwa|k|ng has provon a d|tt|cu|t cha||ongo tor tho courts, bocauso wh||o tho pub||c roact|on |s to cry °|akor!', tho bra|n doos |n tact
oporato |n a d|ttoront stato dur|ng s|oop, and s|oopwa|k|ng |s a vor|t|ab|o phonomonon. ln d|sordors ot s|oop, known as parasomn|as, tho onormous
notworks ot tho bra|n do not a|ways trans|t|on soam|oss|y botwoon tho s|oop|ng and wak|ng statos-thoy can bocomo stuck |n botwoon. G|von tho
co|ossa| amount ot noura| coord|nat|on roqu|rod tor tho trans|t|on (|nc|ud|ng tho chang|ng pattorns ot nourotransm|ttor systoms, hormonos, and
o|octr|ca| act|v|ty), |t |s porhaps surpr|s|ng that parasomn|as aro not moro common than thoy aro.
Wh||o tho bra|n norma||y omorgos trom s|ow-wavo s|oop |nto ||ghtor stagos, and t|na||y to wakotu|noss, Konnoth's o|octrooncopha|ogram (EEG)
showod a prob|om |n wh|ch h|s bra|n tr|od to omorgo stra|ght trom a doop s|oop stago d|roct|y |nto wakotu|noss-and |t attomptod th|s hazardous
trans|t|on ton to twonty t|mos por n|ght. ln a norma| s|oop|ng bra|n, such a trans|t|on |s not attomptod ovon onco |n a n|ght. 3ocauso thoro was no
way tor Konnoth to tako h|s EEG rosu|ts, thoso t|nd|ngs woro tho c||nchor that conv|ncod tho jury that ho |ndood suttorod trom a s|oopwa|k|ng
prob|om-a prob|om sovoro onough to rondor h|s act|ons |nvo|untary. On Vay 2b, 1088, tho jury |n tho Konnoth larks caso doc|arod h|m not gu||ty
ot tho murdor ot h|s mothor-|n-|aw and, subsoquont|y, ot tho attomptod murdor ot h|s tathor-|n-|aw.
18
As w|th 1ourotto's suttorors, thoso subjoct to psychogon|c d|sordors, and tho sp||t-bra|n pat|onts, Konnoth's caso |||ustratos that h|gh-|ovo| bohav|ors
can happon |n tho absonco ot troo w|||. l|ko your hoartboat, broath|ng, b||nk|ng, and swa||ow|ng, ovon your monta| mach|nory can run on autop||ot.
1ho crux ot tho quost|on |s whothor o|| ot your act|ons aro tundamonta||y on autop||ot or whothor thoro |s somo ||tt|o b|t that |s °troo' to chooso,
|ndopondont ot tho ru|os ot b|o|ogy. 1h|s has a|ways boon tho st|ck|ng po|nt tor both ph||osophors and sc|ont|sts. As tar as wo can to||, a|| act|v|ty |n
tho bra|n |s dr|von by othor act|v|ty |n tho bra|n, |n a vast|y comp|ox, |ntorconnoctod notwork. |or bottor or worso, th|s sooms to |oavo no room tor
anyth|ng otbor tboo noura| act|v|ty-that |s, no room tor a ghost |n tho mach|no. 1o cons|dor th|s trom tho othor d|roct|on, |t troo w||| |s to havo any
ottoct on tho act|ons ot tho body, |t noods to |nt|uonco tho ongo|ng bra|n act|v|ty. And to do that, |t noods to bo phys|ca||y connoctod to at |oast somo
ot tho nourons. 3ut wo don't t|nd any spot |n tho bra|n that |s not |tso|t dr|von by othor parts ot tho notwork. lnstoad, ovory part ot tho bra|n |s donso|y
|ntorconnoctod w|th-and dr|von by-othor bra|n parts. And that suggosts that no part |s |ndopondont and thorotoro °troo.'
3o |n our curront undorstand|ng ot sc|onco, wo can't t|nd tho phys|ca| gap |n wh|ch to s||p troo w|||-tho uncausod causor-bocauso thoro sooms
to bo no part ot tho mach|nory that doos not to||ow |n a causa| ro|at|onsh|p trom tho othor parts. Evoryth|ng statod horo |s prod|catod on what wo
know at th|s momont |n h|story, wh|ch w||| corta|n|y |ook crudo a m|||onn|um trom now, howovor, at th|s po|nt, no ono can soo a c|oar way around tho
prob|om ot a nonphys|ca| ont|ty (troo w|||) |ntoract|ng w|th a phys|ca| ont|ty (tho stutt ot tho bra|n).
3ut |ot's say that you st||| |ntu|t vory strong|y that you havo troo w|||, dosp|to tho b|o|og|ca| concorns. ls thoro any way nourosc|onco can try to
d|roct|y tost tor troo w|||?
ln tho 1000s, a sc|ont|st namod 3onjam|n l|bot p|acod o|octrodos on tho hoads ot subjocts and askod thom to do a vory s|mp|o task: ||tt tho|r
t|ngor at a t|mo ot tho|r own choos|ng. 1hoy watchod a h|gh-roso|ut|on t|mor and woro askod to noto tho oxact momont at wh|ch thoy °to|t tho urgo' to
mako tho movo.
l|bot d|scovorod that poop|o bocamo awaro ot an urgo to movo about a quartor ot a socond botoro thoy actua||y mado tho movo. 3ut that wasn't
tho surpr|s|ng part. |o oxam|nod tho|r EEG rocord|ngs-tho bra|n wavos-and tound somoth|ng moro surpr|s|ng: tho act|v|ty |n tho|r bra|ns bogan
to r|so boíoro thoy to|t tho urgo to movo. And not just by a ||tt|o b|t. 3y ovor a socond. (3oo t|guro on tho to||ow|ng pago.) ln othor words, parts ot tho
bra|n woro mak|ng doc|s|ons wo|| botoro tho porson consc|ous|y oxpor|oncod tho urgo.
14
loturn|ng to tho nowspapor ana|ogy ot consc|ousnoss, |t
sooms that our bra|ns crank away boh|nd tho sconos-dovo|op|ng noura| coa||t|ons, p|ann|ng act|ons, vot|ng on p|ans-botoro wo roco|vo tho nows
that wo'vo just had tho groat |doa to ||tt a t|ngor.
l|bot's oxpor|monts causod a commot|on.
1b
Cou|d |t bo truo that tho consc|ous m|nd |s tho |ast ono |n tho cha|n ot command to roco|vo any
|ntormat|on? 0|d h|s oxpor|mont dr|vo tho na|| |nto tho cott|n ot troo w|||? l|bot h|mso|t trottod ovor th|s poss|b|||ty ra|sod by h|s own oxpor|monts,
and t|na||y suggostod that wo m|ght rota|n troodom |n tho torm ot voto powor. ln othor words, wh||o wo can't contro| tho tact that wo got tho urgo to
movo our t|ngor, porhaps wo rota|n a t|ny w|ndow ot t|mo to stop tho ||tt|ng ot our t|ngor. 0oos th|s savo troo w|||? lt's d|tt|cu|t to say. 0osp|to tho
|mpross|on that a voto m|ght bo troo|y choson, thoro |s no ov|donco to suggost that |t, too, wou|dn't bo tho rosu|t ot noura| act|v|ty that bu||ds up
boh|nd tho sconos, h|ddon trom consc|ous v|ow.

°Vovo your t|ngor whon tho |mpu|so grabs you.' long botoro a vo|untary movomont |s onactod, a bu||dup ot noura| act|v|ty can bo moasurod. 1ho °road|noss potont|a|' |s |argor whon
subjocts judgo tho t|mo ot tho|r urgo to movo (groy traco), rathor than tho movomont |tso|t (b|ack traco). |rom Eag|oman, 5clooco, 2004, adaptod trom 3|r|gu ot a|, Notoro Noorosclooco,
2004.

loop|o havo proposod sovora| othor argumonts to try to savo tho concopt ot troo w|||. |or oxamp|o, wh||o c|ass|ca| phys|cs doscr|bos a un|vorso
that |s str|ct|y dotorm|n|st|c (oach th|ng to||ows trom tho |ast |n a prod|ctab|o way), tho quantum phys|cs ot tho atom|c sca|o |ntroducos
unprod|ctab|||ty and uncorta|nty as an |nhoront part ot tho cosmos. 1ho tathors ot quantum phys|cs wondorod whothor th|s now sc|onco m|ght savo
troo w|||. Untortunato|y, |t doosn't. A systom that |s probab|||st|c and unprod|ctab|o |s ovory b|t as unsat|sty|ng as a systom that |s dotorm|n|st|c,
bocauso |n both casos thoro's no cho|co. lt's o|thor co|n t||ps or b||||ard ba||s, but no|thor caso oquatos to troodom |n tho sonso that wo'd dos|ro to
havo |t.
Othor th|nkors try|ng to savo troo w||| havo |ookod to chaos thoory, po|nt|ng out that tho bra|n |s so vast|y comp|ox that thoro |s no way, |n pract|co,
to dotorm|no |ts noxt movos. Wh||o th|s |s corta|n|y truo, |t doosn't moan|ngtu||y addross tho troo-w||| prob|om, bocauso tho systoms stud|od |n chaos
thoory aro st||| dotorm|n|st|c: ono stop |oads |nov|tab|y to tho noxt. lt |s vory d|tt|cu|t to prod|ct whoro chaot|c systoms aro go|ng, but oach stato ot tho
systom |s causa||y ro|atod to tho prov|ous stato. lt |s |mportant to stross tho d|ttoronco botwoon a systom bo|ng unprod|ctab|o and |t bo|ng troo. ln
tho co||apso ot a pyram|d ot p|ng-pong ba||s, tho comp|ox|ty ot tho systom makos |t |mposs|b|o to prod|ct tho trajoctor|os and t|na| pos|t|ons ot tho
ba||s-but oach ba|| nonotho|oss to||ows tho dotorm|n|st|c ru|os ot mot|on. 1ust bocauso wo can't say whoro |t's a|| go|ng doos not moan that tho
co||oct|on ot ba||s |s °troo.'
3o dosp|to a|| our hopos and |ntu|t|ons about troo w|||, thoro |s curront|y no argumont that conv|nc|ng|y na||s down |ts ox|stonco.
¯ ¯ ¯

1ho quost|on ot troo w||| mattors qu|to a b|t whon wo turn to cu|pab|||ty. Whon a cr|m|na| stands |n tront ot tho judgo's bonch hav|ng rocont|y
comm|ttod a cr|mo, tho |oga| systom wants to know whothor ho |s b|omowortby. Attor a||, whothor ho |s tundamonta||y rospons|b|o tor h|s act|ons
nav|gatos tho way wo pun|sh. You m|ght pun|sh your ch||d |t sho wr|tos w|th a crayon on tho wa||, but you wou|dn't pun|sh hor |t sho d|d tho samo
th|ng wh||o s|oopwa|k|ng. 3ut why not? 3ho's tho samo ch||d w|th tho samo bra|n |n both casos, |sn't sho? 1ho d|ttoronco ||os |n your |ntu|t|ons about
troo w|||: |n ono caso sho has |t, |n tho othor sho doosn't. ln ono sho's choos|ng to act m|sch|ovous|y, |n tho othor sho's an unconsc|ous automaton.
You ass|gn cu|pab|||ty |n tho t|rst caso and not |n tho socond.
1ho |oga| systom sharos your |ntu|t|on: rospons|b|||ty tor your act|ons para||o|s vo||t|ona| contro|. lt Konnoth larks was awako whon ho k|||od h|s |n-
|aws, ho hangs. lt as|oop, ho's acqu|ttod. 3|m||ar|y, |t you h|t somoono |n tho taco, tho |aw caros whothor you woro bo|ng aggross|vo or |t you havo
hom|ba|||smus, a d|sordor |n wh|ch your ||mbs can t|a|| w||d|y w|thout warn|ng. lt you crash your truck |nto a roads|do tru|t stand, tho |aw caros
whothor you woro dr|v|ng ||ko a man|ac or |nstoad woro tho v|ct|m ot a hoart attack. A|| thoso d|st|nct|ons p|vot on tho assumpt|on that wo possoss
troo w|||.
3ut do wo? 0on't wo? 3c|onco can't yot t|guro out a way to say yos, but our |ntu|t|on has a hard t|mo say|ng no. Attor contur|os ot dobato, troo w|||
roma|ns an opon, va||d, and ro|ovant sc|ont|t|c prob|om.
l proposo that tbo ooswor to tbo qoostloo oí íroo wl|| oooso`t mottor-at |oast not tor tho purposos ot soc|a| po||cy-and horo's why. ln tho |oga|
systom, thoro |s a dotonso known as an ootomotlsm. 1h|s |s p|od whon tho porson portorms an automatod act-say, |t an op||opt|c so|zuro causos
a dr|vor to stoor |nto a crowd. 1ho automat|sm dotonso |s usod whon a |awyor c|a|ms that an act was duo to a b|o|og|ca| procoss ovor wh|ch tho
dotondant had ||tt|o or no contro|. ln othor words, thoro was a gu||ty act, but thoro was not a cbolco boh|nd |t.
3ut wa|t a momont. 3asod on what wo'vo boon |oarn|ng, don't such b|o|og|ca| procossos doscr|bo most or, somo wou|d arguo, a|| ot what |s
go|ng on |n our bra|ns? G|von tho stoor|ng powor ot our gonot|cs, ch||dhood oxpor|oncos, onv|ronmonta| tox|ns, hormonos, nourotransm|ttors, and
noura| c|rcu|try, onough ot our doc|s|ons aro boyond our oxp||c|t contro| that wo aro arguab|y not tho onos |n chargo. ln othor words, troo w||| moy
ox|st-but |t |t doos, |t has vory ||tt|o room |n wh|ch to oporato. 3o l'm go|ng to proposo what l ca|| tho prloclp|o oí soíílcloot ootomotlsm. 1ho
pr|nc|p|o ar|sos natura||y trom tho undorstand|ng that troo w|||, |t |t ox|sts, |s on|y a sma|| tactor r|d|ng on top ot onormous automatod mach|nory. 3o
sma|| that wo may bo ab|o to th|nk about bad doc|s|on mak|ng |n tho samo way wo th|nk about any othor phys|ca| procoss, such as d|abotos or |ung
d|soaso.
10
1ho pr|nc|p|o statos that tho answor to tho troo-w||| quost|on s|mp|y doos not mattor. Evon |t troo w||| |s conc|us|vo|y provon to ox|st ono
hundrod yoars trom now, |t w||| not chango tho tact that human bohav|or |argo|y oporatos a|most w|thout rogard to vo||t|on's |nv|s|b|o hand.
1o put th|s anothor way, Char|os Wh|tman, A|ox tho suddon podoph||o, tho trontotompora| shop||ttors, tho gamb||ng lark|nson's pat|onts, and
Konnoth larks a|| sharo tho common upshot that acts cannot bo cons|dorod soparato|y trom tho b|o|ogy ot tho actors. |roo w||| |s not as s|mp|o as
wo |ntu|t-and our contus|on about |t suggosts that wo cannot moan|ngtu||y uso |t as tho bas|s ot pun|shmont doc|s|ons.
ln cons|dor|ng th|s prob|om, lord 3|ngham, 3r|ta|n's son|or |aw |ord, rocont|y put |t th|s way:
ln tho past, tho |aw has tondod to baso |ts approach . on a sor|os ot rathor crudo work|ng assumpt|ons: adu|ts ot compotont monta|
capac|ty aro troo to chooso whothor thoy w||| act |n ono way or anothor, thoy aro prosumod to act rat|ona||y, and |n what thoy conco|vo to bo
tho|r own bost |ntorosts, thoy aro crod|tod w|th such toros|ght ot tho consoquoncos ot tho|r act|ons as roasonab|o poop|o |n tho|r pos|t|on cou|d
ord|nar||y bo oxpoctod to havo, thoy aro gonora||y takon to moan what thoy say. Whatovor tho mor|ts or domor|ts ot work|ng assumpt|ons such
as thoso |n tho ord|nary rango ot casos, |t |s ov|dont that thoy do not prov|do a un|torm|y accurato gu|do to human bohav|our.
17

3otoro mov|ng |nto tho hoart ot tho argumont, |ot's put to rost tho concorn that b|o|og|ca| oxp|anat|ons w||| |oad to troo|ng cr|m|na|s on tho grounds
that noth|ng |s tho|r tau|t. W||| wo st||| pun|sh cr|m|na|s? Yos. Exonorat|ng a|| cr|m|na|s |s no|thor tho tuturo nor tho goa| ot an |mprovod undorstand|ng.
Exp|oootloo ooos oot oqoo| oxco|potloo. 3oc|ot|os w||| a|ways nood to got bad poop|o ott tho stroots. Wo w||| not abandon pun|shmont, but wo w|||
rot|no tho woy wo pun|sh-as wo turn to now.
1EE 5E|F1 FRON BLANE 1O B|OLOCY

1ho study ot bra|ns and bohav|ors t|nds |tso|t |n tho m|dd|o ot a concoptua| sh|tt. ||stor|ca||y, c||n|c|ans and |awyors havo agrood on an |ntu|t|vo
d|st|nct|on botwoon nouro|og|ca| d|sordors (°bra|n prob|oms') and psych|atr|c d|sordors (°m|nd prob|oms').
18
As rocont|y as a contury ago, tho
prova|||ng att|tudo was to got psych|atr|c pat|onts to °toughon up,' o|thor by dopr|vat|on, p|oad|ng, or torturo. 1ho samo att|tudo app||od to many
d|sordors, tor oxamp|o, somo hundrods ot yoars ago, op||opt|cs woro otton abhorrod bocauso tho|r so|zuros woro undorstood as domon|c
possoss|ons-porhaps |n d|roct rotr|but|on tor oar||or bohav|or.
10
lot surpr|s|ng|y, th|s provod an unsuccosstu| approach. Attor a||, wh||o psych|atr|c
d|sordors tond to bo tho product ot moro subt|o torms ot bra|n patho|ogy, thoy aro basod, u|t|mato|y, |n tho b|o|og|ca| dota||s ot tho bra|n. 1ho c||n|ca|
commun|ty has rocogn|zod th|s w|th a sh|tt |n torm|no|ogy, now rotorr|ng to monta| d|sordors undor tho |abo| orgoolc olsoroors. 1h|s torm |nd|catos
that thoro |s |ndood a phys|ca| (organ|c) bas|s to tho monta| prob|om rathor than a puro|y °psych|c' ono, wh|ch wou|d moan that |t has no ro|at|on to
tho bra|n-a concopt that nowadays makos ||tt|o sonso.
What accounts tor tho sh|tt trom b|amo to b|o|ogy? lorhaps tho |argost dr|v|ng torco |s tho ottoct|vonoss ot tho pharmacout|ca| troatmonts. lo
amount ot boat|ng w||| chaso away dopross|on, but a ||tt|o p||| ca||od t|uoxot|no otton doos tho tr|ck. 3ch|zophron|c symptoms cannot bo ovorcomo by
oxorc|sm, but can bo contro||od by r|spor|dono. Van|a rosponds not to ta|k|ng or to ostrac|sm, but to ||th|um. 1hoso succossos, most ot thom
|ntroducod |n tho past s|xty yoars, havo undorscorod tho |doa that |t doos not mako sonso to ca|| somo d|sordors bra|n prob|oms wh||o cons|gn|ng
othors to tho |nottab|o roa|m ot tho psych|c. lnstoad, monta| prob|oms havo bogun to bo approachod |n tho samo way wo m|ght approach a brokon
|og. 1ho nourosc|ont|st lobort 3apo|sky |nv|tos us to cons|dor th|s concoptua| sh|tt w|th a sor|os ot quost|ons:
ls a |ovod ono, sunk |n a dopross|on so sovoro that sho cannot tunct|on, a caso ot a d|soaso whoso b|ochom|ca| bas|s |s as °roa|' as |s tho
b|ochom|stry ot, say, d|abotos, or |s sho moro|y |ndu|g|ng horso|t? ls a ch||d do|ng poor|y at schoo| bocauso ho |s unmot|vatod and s|ow, or
bocauso thoro |s a nourob|o|og|ca||y basod |oarn|ng d|sab|||ty? ls a tr|ond, odg|ng towards a sor|ous prob|om w|th substanco abuso, d|sp|ay|ng
a s|mp|o |ack ot d|sc|p||no, or suttor|ng trom prob|oms w|th tho nourochom|stry ot roward?
20

1ho moro wo d|scovor about tho c|rcu|try ot tho bra|n, tho moro tho answors t|p away trom accusat|ons ot |ndu|gonco, |ack ot mot|vat|on, and poor
d|sc|p||no-and movo toward tho dota||s ot tho b|o|ogy. 1ho sh|tt trom b|amo to sc|onco rot|octs our modorn undorstand|ng that our porcopt|ons and
bohav|ors aro contro||od by |naccoss|b|o subrout|nos that can bo oas||y porturbod, as soon w|th tho sp||t-bra|n pat|onts, tho trontotompora| domont|a
v|ct|ms, and tho lark|nson|an gamb|ors. 3ut thoro's a cr|t|ca| po|nt h|ddon |n horo. 1ust bocauso wo'vo sh|ttod away trom b|amo doos not moan wo
havo a tu|| undorstand|ng ot tho b|o|ogy.
A|though wo know that thoro |s a strong ro|at|onsh|p botwoon bra|n and bohav|or, nouro|mag|ng roma|ns a crudo tochno|ogy, unab|o to
moan|ngtu||y wo|gh |n on assossmonts ot gu||t or |nnoconco, ospoc|a||y on an |nd|v|dua| bas|s. lmag|ng mothods mako uso ot h|gh|y procossod
b|ood-t|ow s|gna|s, wh|ch covor tons ot cub|c m||||motors ot bra|n t|ssuo. ln a s|ng|o cub|c m||||motor ot bra|n t|ssuo, thoro aro somo ono hundrod
m||||on synapt|c connoct|ons botwoon nourons. 3o modorn nouro|mag|ng |s ||ko ask|ng an astronaut |n tho spaco shutt|o to |ook out tho w|ndow and
judgo how Amor|ca |s do|ng. |o can spot g|ant torost t|ros, or a p|umo ot vo|can|c act|v|ty b|||ow|ng trom Vount la|n|or, or tho consoquoncos ot
brokon low Or|oans |ov|os-but trom h|s vantago po|nt ho |s unab|o to dotoct whothor a crash ot tho stock markot has |od to w|dosproad
dopross|on and su|c|do, whothor rac|a| tons|ons havo sparkod r|ot|ng, or whothor tho popu|at|on has boon str|ckon w|th |nt|uonza. 1ho astronaut
doosn't havo tho roso|ut|on to d|scorn thoso dota||s, and no|thor doos tho modorn nourosc|ont|st havo tho roso|ut|on to mako dota||od statomonts
about tho hoa|th ot tho bra|n. |o can say noth|ng about tho m|nut|ao ot tho m|croc|rcu|try, nor tho a|gor|thms that run on tho vast soas ot m||||socond-
sca|o o|octr|ca| and chom|ca| s|gna||ng.
|or oxamp|o, a study by psycho|og|sts Ango|a 3carpa and Adr|an la|no tound that thoro aro moasurab|o d|ttoroncos |n tho bra|n act|v|ty ot
conv|ctod murdorors and contro| subjocts, but thoso d|ttoroncos aro subt|o and rovoa| thomso|vos on|y |n group moasuromont. 1horotoro, thoy havo
ossont|a||y no d|agnost|c powor tor an |nd|v|dua|. 1ho samo goos tor nouro|mag|ng stud|os w|th psychopaths: moasurab|o d|ttoroncos |n bra|n
anatomy app|y on a popu|at|on |ovo| but aro curront|y uso|oss tor |nd|v|dua| d|agnos|s.
21
And th|s puts us |n a strango s|tuat|on.
1EE FAuL1 L|NE: WEY BLANEWOR1E|NE55 |5 1EE WRONC OuE51|ON

Cons|dor a common sconar|o that p|ays out |n courtrooms around tho wor|d: A man comm|ts a cr|m|na| act, h|s |oga| toam dotocts no obv|ous
nouro|og|ca| prob|om, tho man |s ja||od or sontoncod to doath. 3ut somotblog |s d|ttoront about tho man's nourob|o|ogy. 1ho undor|y|ng causo cou|d
bo a gonot|c mutat|on, a b|t ot bra|n damago causo by an undotoctab|y sma|| stroko or tumor, an |mba|anco |n nourotransm|ttor |ovo|s, a hormona|
|mba|anco-or any comb|nat|on. Any or a|| ot thoso prob|oms may bo undotoctab|o w|th our curront tochno|og|os. 3ut thoy can causo d|ttoroncos |n
bra|n tunct|on that |oad to abnorma| bohav|or.
Aga|n, an approach trom tho b|o|og|ca| v|ow po|nt doos not moan that tho cr|m|na| w||| bo oxcu|patod, |t moro|y undorscoros tho |doa that h|s
act|ons aro not d|vorcod trom tho mach|nory ot h|s bra|n, just as wo saw w|th Char|os Wh|tman and Konnoth larks. Wo don't b|amo tho suddon
podoph||o tor h|s tumor, just as wo don't b|amo tho trontotompora| shop||ttor tor tho dogonorat|on ot h|s tronta| cortox.
22
ln othor words, |t thoro |s a
moasurab|o bra|n prob|om, that buys |on|oncy tor tho dotondant. |o's not roa||y to b|amo.
3ut wo oo b|amo somoono |t wo |ack tho tochno|ogy to dotoct a b|o|og|ca| prob|om. And th|s gots us to tho hoart ot our argumont: tbot
b|omowortblooss ls tbo wroog qoostloo to osk.
lmag|no a spoctrum ot cu|pab|||ty. On ono ond, you havo poop|o ||ko A|ox tho podoph||o, or a pat|ont w|th trontotompora| domont|a who oxposos
h|mso|t to schoo|ch||dron. ln tho oyos ot tho judgo and jury, thoso aro poop|o who suttorod bra|n damago at tho hands ot tato and d|d not chooso
tho|r noura| s|tuat|on.

On tho b|amoworthy s|do ot tho tau|t ||no |s tho common cr|m|na|, whoso bra|n roco|vos ||tt|o study, and about whom our curront tochno|ogy m|ght
bo ab|o to say vory ||tt|o anyway. 1ho ovorwho|m|ng major|ty ot cr|m|na|s aro on th|s s|do ot tho ||no, bocauso thoy don't havo any obv|ous b|o|og|ca|
prob|oms. 1hoy aro s|mp|y thought ot as troo|y choos|ng actors.
3omowhoro |n tho m|dd|o ot tho spoctrum you m|ght t|nd somoono ||ko Chr|s 3ono|t, a protoss|ona| wrost|or whoso doctor consp|rod w|th h|m to
prov|do mass|vo amounts ot tostostorono undor tho gu|so ot hormono rop|acomont thorapy. ln |ato 1uno 2007, |n a t|t ot angor known as storo|d
rago, 3ono|t camo homo, murdorod h|s son and w|to, and thon comm|ttod su|c|do by hang|ng h|mso|t w|th tho pu||oy cord ot ono ot h|s wo|ght
mach|nos. |o has tho b|o|og|ca| m|t|gator ot tho hormonos contro|||ng h|s omot|ona| stato, but ho sooms moro b|amoworthy bocauso ho choso to
|ngost thom |n tho t|rst p|aco. 0rug add|cts |n gonora| aro typ|ca||y v|owod noar tho m|dd|o ot tho spoctrum: wh||o thoro |s somo undorstand|ng that
add|ct|on |s a b|o|og|ca| |ssuo and that drugs row|ro tho bra|n, |t |s a|so tho caso that add|cts aro otton |ntorprotod as rospons|b|o tor tak|ng tho t|rst
h|t.
1h|s spoctrum capturos tho common |ntu|t|on that jur|os soom to havo about b|amoworth|noss. 3ut thoro |s a doop prob|om w|th th|s. 1ochno|ogy
w||| cont|nuo to |mprovo, and as wo grow bottor at moasur|ng prob|oms |n tho bra|n, tho tau|t ||no w||| dr|tt toward tho r|ght. lrob|oms that aro now
opaquo w||| opon up to oxam|nat|on by now tochn|quos, and wo may somoday t|nd that corta|n typos ot bad bohav|or w||| havo a moan|ngtu|
b|o|og|ca| oxp|anat|on-as has happonod w|th sch|zophron|a, op||opsy, dopross|on, and man|a. Curront|y wo can dotoct on|y |argo bra|n tumors, but
|n ono hundrod yoars wo w||| bo ab|o to dotoct pattorns at un|mag|nab|y sma|| |ovo|s ot tho m|croc|rcu|try that corro|ato w|th bohav|ora| prob|oms.
lourosc|onco w||| bo bottor ab|o to say why poop|o aro prod|sposod to act tho way thoy do. As wo bocomo moro sk|||od at spoc|ty|ng how bohav|or
rosu|ts trom tho m|croscop|c dota||s ot tho bra|n, moro dotonso |awyors w||| appoa| to b|o|og|ca| m|t|gators, and moro jur|os w||| p|aco dotondants on
tho not-b|amoworthy s|do ot tho ||no.
lt cannot mako sonso tor cu|pab|||ty to bo dotorm|nod by tho ||m|ts ot curront tochno|ogy. A |oga| systom that doc|aros a porson cu|pab|o at tho
bog|nn|ng ot a docado and not cu|pab|o at tho ond |s not ono |n wh|ch cu|pab|||ty carr|os a c|oar moan|ng.
¯ ¯ ¯

1ho hoart ot tho prob|om |s that |t no |ongor makos sonso to ask, °1o what oxtont was |t h|s blo|ogy and to what oxtont was |t blm?' 1ho quost|on no
|ongor makos sonso bocauso wo now undorstand thoso to bo tho samo th|ng. 1horo |s no moan|ngtu| d|st|nct|on botwoon h|s b|o|ogy and h|s
doc|s|on mak|ng. 1hoy aro |nsoparab|o.
As tho nourosc|ont|st Wo|t 3|ngor rocont|y suggostod: ovon whon wo cannot moasuro what |s wrong w|th a cr|m|na|'s bra|n, wo can ta|r|y sato|y
assumo that somotblog |s wrong.
28
||s act|ons aro soíílcloot ovloooco ot a bra|n abnorma||ty, ovon |t wo don't know (and maybo w||| novor know)
tho dota||s.
24
As 3|ngor puts |t: °As |ong as wo can't |dont|ty a|| tho causos, wh|ch wo cannot and w||| probab|y novor bo ab|o to do, wo shou|d grant
that tor ovorybody thoro |s a nourob|o|og|ca| roason tor bo|ng abnorma|.' loto that most ot tho t|mo wo cannot moasuro an abnorma||ty |n cr|m|na|s.
1ako Er|c |arr|s and 0y|an K|obo|d, tho shootors at Co|umb|no ||gh 3choo| |n Co|orado, or 3oung-|u| Cho, tho shootor at v|rg|n|a 1och. Was
somoth|ng wrong w|th tho|r bra|ns? Wo'|| novor know, bocauso thoy-||ko most schoo| shootors-woro k|||od at tho scono. 3ut wo can sato|y
assumo thoro was somotblog abnorma| |n tho|r bra|ns. lt's a raro bohav|or, most studonts don't do that.
1ho bottom ||no ot tho argumont |s that cr|m|na|s shou|d a|ways bo troatod as |ncapab|o ot hav|ng actod othorw|so. 1ho cr|m|na| act|v|ty |tso|t
shou|d bo takon as ov|donco ot bra|n abnorma||ty, rogard|oss whothor curront|y moasurab|o prob|oms can bo p|npo|ntod. 1h|s moans that tho
burdon on nourosc|ont|t|c oxport w|tnossos shou|d bo |ott out ot tho |oop: tho|r tost|mony rot|octs on|y whothor wo curront|y havo namos and
moasuromonts tor prob|oms, not whothor tho prob|om ox|sts.
3o cu|pab|||ty appoars to bo tho wroog qoostloo to osk.
|oro's tho r|ght quost|on: What do wo do, movlog íorworo, w|th an accusod cr|m|na|?
1ho h|story ot a bra|n |n tront ot tho judgo's bonch can bo vory comp|ox-a|| wo u|t|mato|y want to know |s how a porson |s ||ko|y to bohavo |n tho
tuturo.
WEA1 DO WE DO FRON EERE? A FORWARD-LOOK|NC, BRA|N-CONPA1|BLE LECAL 5Y51EN

Wh||o our curront sty|o ot pun|shmont rosts on a bodrock ot porsona| vo||t|on and b|amo, tho prosont ||no ot argumont suggosts an a|tornat|vo.
A|though soc|ot|os possoss doop|y |ngra|nod |mpu|sos tor pun|shmont, a torward-|ook|ng |oga| systom wou|d bo moro concornod w|th how to bost
sorvo tho soc|oty trom th|s day torward. 1hoso who broak tho soc|a| contracts nood to bo warohousod, but |n th|s caso tho tuturo |s ot moro
|mportanco than tho past.
2b
lr|son torms do not havo to bo basod on a dos|ro tor b|ood|ust, but |nstoad can bo ca||bratod to tho r|sk ot roottond|ng.
0oopor b|o|og|ca| |ns|ght |nto bohav|or w||| a||ow a bottor undorstand|ng ot roc|d|v|sm-that |s, who w||| go out and comm|t moro cr|mos. And th|s
ottors a bas|s tor rat|ona| and ov|donco-basod sontonc|ng: somo poop|o nood to bo takon ott tho stroots tor a |ongor t|mo, bocauso tho|r ||ko||hood
ot roottonso |s h|gh, othors, duo to a var|oty ot oxtonuat|ng c|rcumstancos, aro |oss ||ko|y to roc|d|vato.
3ut how can wo to|| who prosonts a h|gh r|sk ot roc|d|v|sm? Attor a||, tho dota||s ot a court tr|a| do not a|ways g|vo a c|oar |nd|cat|on ot tho
undor|y|ng troub|os. A bottor stratogy |ncorporatos a moro sc|ont|t|c approach.
Cons|dor tho |mportant changos that havo happonod |n tho sontonc|ng ot sox ottondors. 3ovora| yoars ago, rosoarchors bogan to ask
psych|atr|sts and paro|o board mombors how ||ko|y |t was that |nd|v|dua| sox ottondors wou|d ro|apso whon |ot out ot pr|son. 3oth tho psych|atr|sts
and tho paro|o board mombors had oxpor|onco w|th tho cr|m|na|s |n quost|on, as wo|| as w|th hundrods botoro thom-so prod|ct|ng who was go|ng
to go stra|ght and who wou|d bo com|ng back was not d|tt|cu|t.
Or wasn't |t? 1ho surpr|so outcomo was that tho|r guossos showod a|most no corro|at|on w|th tho actua| outcomos. 1ho psych|atr|sts and paro|o
board mombors had tho prod|ct|vo accuracy ot co|n-t||pp|ng. 1h|s rosu|t astoundod tho rosoarch commun|ty, ospoc|a||y g|von tho oxpoctat|on ot
wo||-rot|nod |ntu|t|ons among thoso who work d|roct|y w|th tho ottondors.
3o rosoarchors, |n dosporat|on, tr|od a moro actuar|a| approach. 1hoy sot about moasur|ng dozons ot tactors trom 22,b00 sox ottondors who
woro about to bo ro|oasod: whothor tho ottondor had ovor boon |n a ro|at|onsh|p tor moro than ono yoar, had boon soxua||y abusod as a ch||d, was
add|ctod to drugs, showod romorso, had dov|ant soxua| |ntorosts, and so on. 1ho rosoarchors thon trackod tho ottondors tor t|vo yoars attor ro|oaso
to soo who ondod up back |n pr|son. At tho ond ot tho study, thoy computod wh|ch tactors bost oxp|a|nod tho roottonso ratos, and trom thoso data
thoy woro ab|o to bu||d actuar|a| tab|os to bo usod |n sontonc|ng. 3omo ottondors, accord|ng to tho stat|st|cs, appoar to bo a roc|po tor d|sastor-
and thoy aro takon away trom soc|oty tor a |ongor t|mo. Othors aro |oss ||ko|y to prosont a tuturo dangor to soc|oty, and thoy roco|vo shortor
sontoncos. Whon you comparo tho prod|ct|vo powor ot tho actuar|a| approach to that ot tho paro|o boards and psych|atr|sts, thoro |s no contost:
numbors w|n ovor |ntu|t|ons. 1hoso actuar|a| tosts aro now usod to dotorm|no tho |ongth ot sontonc|ng |n courtrooms across tho nat|on.
lt w||| a|ways bo |mposs|b|o to know w|th proc|s|on what somoono w||| do upon ro|oaso trom pr|son, bocauso roa| ||to |s comp||catod. 3ut moro
prod|ct|vo powor |s h|ddon |n tho numbors than poop|o customar||y oxpoct. 3omo porpotrators aro moro dangorous than othors, and, dosp|to
suport|c|a| charm or suport|c|a| ropugnanco, dangorous poop|o sharo corta|n pattorns ot bohav|or |n common. 3tat|st|ca||y-basod sontonc|ng has
|ts |mportoct|ons, but |t a||ows ov|donco to trump to|k-|ntu|t|on, and |t ottors sontonc|ng custom|zat|on |n p|aco ot tho b|unt gu|do||nos that tho |oga|
systom typ|ca||y omp|oys. As wo |ntroduco bra|n sc|onco |nto thoso moasuros-tor oxamp|o, w|th nouro|mag|ng stud|os-tho prod|ct|vo powor w|||
on|y |mprovo. 3c|ont|sts w||| novor bo ab|o to toroto|| w|th h|gh corta|nty who w||| roottond, bocauso that doponds on mu|t|p|o tactors, |nc|ud|ng
c|rcumstanco and opportun|ty. lonotho|oss, good guossos aro poss|b|o, and nourosc|onco w||| mako thoso guossos bottor.
20
loto that tho |aw, ovon |n tho absonco ot dota||od nourob|o|og|ca| know|odgo, a|roady ombods a b|t ot torward th|nk|ng: cons|dor tho |on|onco
attordod a cr|mo ot pass|on vorsus a promod|tatod murdor. 1hoso who comm|t tho tormor aro |oss ||ko|y to roc|d|vato than thoso who comm|t tho
|attor, and tho|r sontoncos sons|b|y rot|oct that.
low, thoro's a cr|t|ca| nuanco to approc|ato horo. lot ovoryono w|th a bra|n tumor undortakos a mass shoot|ng, and not a|| ma|os comm|t cr|mos.
Why not? As wo w||| soo |n tho noxt chaptor, |t |s bocauso gonos and onv|ronmont |ntoract |n un|mag|nab|y comp|ox pattorns.
27
As a rosu|t, human
bohav|or w||| a|ways roma|n unprod|ctab|o. 1h|s |rroduc|b|o comp|ox|ty has consoquoncos: whon a bra|n |s stand|ng |n tront ot tho bonch, tho judgo
cannot caro about tho h|story ot tho bra|n. Was thoro tota| ma|dovo|opmont, coca|no uso dur|ng prognancy, ch||d abuso, a h|gh |ovo| ot lo otoro
tostostorono, any sma|| gonot|c chango that ottorod a 2 porcont h|ghor prod|spos|t|on to v|o|onco |t tho ch||d was |ator oxposod to morcury? A|| ot
thoso tactors and hundrods ot othors |ntoract, w|th tho upshot that |t wou|d bo a tru|t|oss ondoavor tor tho judgo to try to d|sontang|o thom to
dotorm|no b|amoworth|noss. 3o tho |oga| systom bos to bocomo torward-|ook|ng, pr|mar||y bocauso |t can no |ongor hopo to do othorw|so.
¯ ¯ ¯

3oyond custom|zod sontonc|ng, a moro bra|n-compat|b|o, torward-|ook|ng |oga| systom w||| a||ow us to transcond tho hab|t ot troat|ng pr|son as a
ono-s|zo-t|ts-a|| so|ut|on. lr|sons havo bocomo our do tacto monta| hoa|th caro |nst|tut|ons. 3ut thoro aro bottor approachos.
1o bog|n, a torward-th|nk|ng |oga| systom w||| par|ay b|o|og|ca| undorstand|ng |nto custom|zod robobl|ltotloo, v|ow|ng cr|m|na| bohav|or tho way
wo undorstand othor such mod|ca| cond|t|ons as op||opsy, sch|zophron|a, and dopross|on-cond|t|ons that now a||ow tho sook|ng and g|v|ng ot
ho|p. 1hoso and othor bra|n d|sordors havo tound thomso|vos on tho othor s|do ot tho tau|t ||no now, whoro thoy rost comtortab|y as b|o|og|ca|, not
domon|c, |ssuos. 3o what about othor torms ot bohav|or, such as cr|m|na| acts? 1ho major|ty ot |awmakors and votors stand |n tavor ot
rohab|||tat|ng cr|m|na|s |nstoad ot pack|ng thom |nto ovorcrowdod pr|sons, but tho cha||ongo has boon tho doarth ot now |doas about bow to
rohab|||tato.
And, ot courso, wo cannot torgot tho scaro that st||| ||vos on |n tho co||oct|vo consc|ousnoss: tronta| |obotom|os. 1ho |obotomy (or|g|na||y ca||od a
|oucotomy) was |nvontod by Egas Von|z, who thought |t m|ght mako sonso to ho|p cr|m|na|s by scramb||ng tho|r tronta| |obos w|th a sca|po|. 1ho
s|mp|o oporat|on cuts tho connoct|ons to and trom tho protronta| cortox, otton rosu|t|ng |n major porsona||ty changos and poss|b|o monta|
rotardat|on.
Von|z tostod th|s out on sovora| cr|m|na|s and tound, to h|s sat|stact|on, that |t ca|mod thom down. ln tact, |t t|attonod tho|r porsona||t|os ont|ro|y.
Von|z's protogo, Wa|tor |rooman, not|c|ng that |nst|tut|ona| caro was hamporod by a |ack ot ottoct|vo troatmonts, saw tho |obotomy as an oxpod|ont
too| to ||borato |argo popu|at|ons trom troatmont and back |nto pr|vato ||to.
Untortunato|y, |t robbod poop|o ot tho|r bas|c noura| r|ghts. 1h|s prob|om was brought to |ts oxtromo |n Kon Kosoy's novo| Ooo l|owOvor tbo
Cockoo`s Nost, |n wh|ch tho robo|||ous |nst|tut|ona||zod pat|ont land|o VcVurphy |s pun|shod tor buck|ng author|ty: ho bocomos tho un|ucky
roc|p|ont ot a |obotomy. VcVurphy's g|ootu| porsona||ty had un|ockod tho ||vos ot tho othor pat|onts |n tho ward, but tho |obotomy turns h|m |nto a
vogotab|o. Upon soo|ng VcVurphy's now cond|t|on, h|s doc||o tr|ond °Ch|ot' 3romdon doos tho tavor ot suttocat|ng h|m w|th a p|||ow botoro tho
othor |nmatos can soo tho |gnom|n|ous tato ot tho|r |oador. |ronta| |obotom|os, tor wh|ch Von|z won tho lobo| lr|zo, aro no |ongor cons|dorod tho
propor approach to cr|m|na| bohav|or.
28
3ut |t tho |obotomy stops tho cr|mos, why not do |t? 1ho oth|ca| prob|om p|vots on how much a stato shou|d bo ab|o to chango |ts c|t|zons.
¯
1o my
m|nd, th|s |s ono ot tho |andmark prob|oms |n modorn nourosc|onco: as wo como to undorstand tho bra|n, how can wo koop govornmonts trom
modd||ng w|th |t? loto that th|s prob|om ra|sos |ts hoad not just |n sonsat|ona| torms, such as tho |obotomy, but |n moro subt|o torms, such as
whothor socond-t|mo sox ottondors shou|d bo torcod to havo chom|ca| castrat|on, as thoy curront|y aro |n Ca||torn|a and ||or|da.
3ut horo wo proposo a now so|ut|on, ono that can rohab|||tato w|thout oth|ca| worr|os. Wo ca|| |t tho protronta| workout.
1EE PREFRON1AL WORKOu1

1o ho|p a c|t|zon ro|ntograto |nto soc|oty, tho oth|ca| goa| |s to chango h|m os |ltt|o os posslb|o to a||ow h|s bohav|or to como |nto ||no w|th soc|oty's
noods. Our proposa| spr|ngboards ott tho know|odgo that tho bra|n |s a toam ot r|va|s, a compot|t|on among d|ttoront noura| popu|at|ons. 3ocauso
|t's a compot|t|on, th|s moans tho outcomo can bo t|ppod.
loor |mpu|so contro| |s a ha||mark charactor|st|c ot tho major|ty ot cr|m|na|s |n tho pr|son systom.
20
1hoy gonora||y know tho d|ttoronco botwoon
r|ght and wrong act|ons, and thoy undorstand tho sor|ousnoss ot tho pun|shmont-but thoy aro hamstrung by an |nab|||ty to contro| tho|r |mpu|sos.
1hoy soo a woman w|th an oxpons|vo purso wa|k|ng a|ono |n an a||oy, and thoy cannot th|nk but to tako advantago ot tho opportun|ty. 1ho tomptat|on
ovorr|dos tho concorn tor tho|r tuturo.
lt |t sooms d|tt|cu|t to ompath|zo w|th poop|o who havo poor |mpu|so contro|, just th|nk ot a|| tho th|ngs you succumb to that you don't want to.
3nacks? A|coho|? Choco|ato cako? 1o|ov|s|on? Ono doosn't havo to |ook tar to t|nd poor |mpu|so contro| porvad|ng our own |andscapo ot doc|s|on
mak|ng. lt's not that wo don't know what's bost tor us, |t's s|mp|y that tho tronta| |obo c|rcu|ts roprosont|ng tho |ong-torm cons|dorat|ons can't w|n tho
o|oct|ons whon tho tomptat|on |s prosont. lt's ||ko try|ng to o|oct a party ot modoratos |n tho m|dd|o ot war and oconom|c mo|tdown.
3o our now rohab|||tat|vo stratogy |s to g|vo tho tronta| |obos pract|co |n squo|ch|ng tho short-torm c|rcu|ts. Vy co||oaguos 3tophon laConto and
loar| Ch|u havo bogun |ovorag|ng roa|-t|mo toodback |n bra|n |mag|ng to a||ow th|s to happon.
80
lmag|no that you'd ||ko to got bottor at ros|st|ng
choco|ato cako. ln th|s oxpor|mont, you |ook at p|cturos ot choco|ato cako dur|ng bra|n scann|ng-and tho oxpor|montors dotorm|no tho rog|ons ot
your bra|n |nvo|vod |n tho crav|ng. 1hon tho act|v|ty |n thoso notworks |s roprosontod by a vort|ca| bar on a computor scroon. Your job |s to mako tho
bar go down. 1ho bar acts as a thormomotor tor your crav|ng: lt your crav|ng notworks aro rovv|ng h|gh, tho bar |s h|gh, |t you'ro suppross|ng your
crav|ng, tho bar |s |ow. You staro at tho bar and try to mako |t go down. lorhaps you havo |ns|ght |nto what you'ro do|ng to ros|st tho cako, porhaps
|t |s |naccoss|b|o. ln any caso, you try out d|ttoront monta| avonuos unt|| tho bar bog|ns to s|ow|y s|nk. Whon |t goos down, |t moans you'vo
succosstu||y rocru|tod tronta| c|rcu|try to squo|ch tho act|v|ty |n tho notworks |nvo|vod |n |mpu|s|vo crav|ng. 1ho |ong torm has won ovor tho short. 3t|||
|ook|ng at p|cturos ot choco|ato cako, you pract|co mak|ng tho bar go down ovor and ovor unt|| you'vo strongthonod thoso tronta| c|rcu|ts. 3y th|s
mothod, you'ro ab|o to v|sua||zo tho act|v|ty |n tho parts ot your bra|n that nood modu|at|on, and you can w|tnoss tho ottocts ot d|ttoront monta|
approachos you m|ght tako.
loturn|ng to tho domocrat|c toam-ot-r|va|s ana|ogy, tho |doa |s to got a good systom ot chocks and ba|ancos |nto p|aco. 1h|s protronta| workout
|s dos|gnod to |ovo| tho p|ay|ng t|o|d tor dobato among tho part|os, cu|t|vat|ng rot|oct|on botoro act|on.
And roa||y, that's a|| maturat|on |s. 1ho ma|n d|ttoronco botwoon toonago and adu|t bra|ns |s tho dovo|opmont ot tho tronta| |obos. 1ho human
protronta| cortox doos not tu||y dovo|op unt|| tho oar|y twont|os, and th|s undor||os tho |mpu|s|vo bohav|or ot toonagors. 1ho tronta| |obos aro
somot|mos ca||od tho organ ot soc|a||zat|on, bocauso bocom|ng soc|a||zod |s noth|ng but dovo|op|ng c|rcu|try to squo|ch our basost |mpu|sos.
1h|s oxp|a|ns why damago to tho tronta| |obos unmasks unsoc|a||zod bohav|or that wo wou|d novor havo thought was toncod |n thoro. loca|| tho
pat|onts w|th trontotompora| domont|a who shop||tt, oxposo thomso|vos, ur|nato |n pub||c, and burst out |nto song at |nappropr|ato t|mos. 1hoso
zomb|o systoms havo boon |urk|ng undor tho surtaco tho who|o t|mo, but thoy'vo boon maskod by a norma||y tunct|on|ng tronta| |obo. 1ho samo sort
ot unmask|ng happons whon a porson goos out and gots r|p-roar|ng drunk on a 3aturday n|ght: thoy'ro d|s|nh|b|t|ng norma| tronta| tunct|on and
|ott|ng tho zomb|os c||mb onto tho ma|n stago.
Attor tra|n|ng at tho protronta| gym, you m|ght st||| cravo tho choco|ato cako, but you'|| know how to w|n ovor tho crav|ng |nstoad ot |ott|ng |t w|n
ovor you. lt's not that wo don't want to onjoy our |mpu|s|vo thoughts (Vmm, coko), |t's moro|y that wo want to ondow tho tronta| cortox w|th somo
contro| ovor whothor wo act upon thom (l`|| poss). 3|m||ar|y, |t a porson cons|dors comm|tt|ng a cr|m|na| act, that's porm|ss|b|o as |ong as ho doosn't
tako act|on. |or tho podoph||o, wo cannot hopo to contro| whothor ho |s attractod to ch||dron. As |ong as ho novor acts on |t, that may bo tho bost wo
can hopo tor as a soc|oty that rospocts |nd|v|dua| r|ghts and troodom ot thought. Wo cannot rostr|ct what poop|o th|nk, nor shou|d a |oga| systom
hopo to sot that as |ts goa|. 3oc|a| po||cy can on|y hopo to provont |mpu|s|vo thoughts trom t|pp|ng |nto bohav|or unt|| thoy aro rot|octod upon by a
hoa|thy nourodomocracy.
A|though roa|-t|mo toodback |nvo|vos cutt|ng-odgo tochno|ogy, that shou|d not d|stract trom tho s|mp||c|ty ot tho goa|: to onhanco a porson's
capac|ty tor |ong-torm doc|s|on mak|ng. 1ho goa| |s to g|vo moro contro| to tho noura| popu|at|ons that caro about |ong-torm consoquoncos. 1o
|nh|b|t |mpu|s|v|ty. 1o oncourago rot|oct|on. lt a c|t|zon th|nks about |ong-torm consoquoncos and st||| doc|dos to movo torward w|th an |||oga| act,
thon wo'|| doa| w|th thoso consoquoncos accord|ng|y. 1h|s approach has oth|ca| |mportanco and ||bortar|an appoa|. Un||ko a |obotomy, wh|ch
somot|mos |oavos tho pat|ont w|th on|y an |ntant||o monta||ty, th|s approach opons an opportun|ty tor a w||||ng porson to ho|p h|mso|t. lnstoad ot a
govornmont mandat|ng a psychosurgory, horo a govornmont can ottor a ho|p|ng hand to bottor so|t-rot|oct|on and soc|a||zat|on. 1h|s approach
|oavos tho bra|n |ntact-no drugs or surgory-and |ovoragos tho natura| mochan|sms ot bra|n p|ast|c|ty to ho|p tho bra|n ho|p |tso|t. lt's a tuno-up
rathor than a product roca||.
lot a|| poop|o who |ncroaso tho|r capac|ty tor so|t-rot|oct|on w||| como to tho samo sound conc|us|ons, but at |oast tho opportun|ty to ||ston to tho
dobato ot tho noura| part|os |s ava||ab|o. loto a|so that th|s approach m|ght rostoro a b|t ot tho hopod-tor powor ot dotorronco, wh|ch can work on|y
tor poop|o who th|nk about and act upon |ong-torm consoquoncos. |or tho |mpu|s|vo, throats ot pun|shmont havo no roa| chanco to wo|gh |n.
1ho sc|onco ot tho protronta| workout |s at |ts vory oar||ost stagos, but wo havo hopo that tho approach roprosonts tho corroct modo|: |t |s
s|mu|tanoous|y wo|| groundod |n b|o|ogy and oth|cs, and |t a||ows a porson to ho|p h|mso|t to bottor |ong-torm doc|s|on mak|ng. l|ko any sc|ont|t|c
attompt, |t cou|d ta|| tor any numbor ot untorosoon roasons. 3ut at |oast wo havo roachod a po|nt whoro wo can dovo|op now |doas rathor than
assum|ng that |ncarcorat|on |s tho on|y pract|ca| so|ut|on.
Ono ot tho cha||ongos to |mp|omont|ng now rohab|||tat|vo approachos |s w|nn|ng popu|ar accoptanco. Vany poop|o (but not a||) havo a strong
rotr|but|vo |mpu|so: thoy want to soo pun|shmont, not rohab|||tat|on.
81
l undorstand that |mpu|so, bocauso l havo |t too. Evory t|mo l hoar about a
cr|m|na| comm|tt|ng an od|ous act, |t makos mo so angry that l want to tako v|g||anto-sty|o rovongo. 3ut just bocauso wo havo tho dr|vo tor
somoth|ng doosn't mako |t tho bost approach.
1ako xonophob|a, tho toar ot toro|gnors. lt's comp|oto|y natura|. loop|o protor poop|o who |ook and sound ||ko thom, a|though contompt|b|o, |t |s
common to d|s||ko outs|dors. Our soc|a| po||c|os work to comont |nto p|aco tho most on||ghtonod |doas ot human|ty to surmount tho basost tacots ot
human naturo. And so tho Un|tod 3tatos passod ant|d|scr|m|nat|on hous|ng |aws |n tho torm ot 1|t|o vlll ot tho C|v|| l|ghts Act ot 1008. lt took a |ong
t|mo to got thoro, but tho tact that wo d|d domonstratos that wo aro a t|ox|b|o soc|oty that can |mprovo our standards basod on bottor undorstand|ng.
And so |t goos w|th v|g||ant|sm: dosp|to our undorstand|ng ot tho rotr|but|vo |mpu|so, wo agroo to ros|st |t as a soc|oty bocauso wo know that
poop|o can got contusod about tho tacts ot a cr|mo, and that ovoryono dosorvos tho prosumpt|on ot |nnoconco unt|| provon gu||ty botoro a jury ot
poors. 3|m||ar|y, as wo como to undorstand moro about tho b|o|og|ca| bas|s ot bohav|or, |t w||| mako sonso to subjugato our |ntu|t|vo not|ons ot
b|amoworth|noss |n dotoronco to a moro construct|vo approach. Wo'ro capab|o ot |oarn|ng bottor |doas, and tho job ot tho |oga| systom |s to tako
tho vory bost |doas and carotu||y mortar thom |nto p|aco to w|thstand tho torcos ot chang|ng op|n|on. Wh||o bra|n-basod soc|a| po||cy sooms d|stant
today, |t may not bo tor |ong. And |t may not a|ways soom countor|ntu|t|vo.
1EE NY1E OF EuNAN EOuAL|1Y

1horo aro moro roasons to undorstand how bra|ns |oad to bohav|or. A|ong any ax|s that wo moasuro human bo|ngs, wo d|scovor a w|do-rang|ng
d|str|but|on, whothor |n ompathy, |nto|||gonco, sw|mm|ng ab|||ty, aggross|vonoss, or |nborn ta|ont at co||o or choss.
82
loop|o aro not croatod oqua|.
A|though th|s var|ab|||ty |s otton |mag|nod to bo an |ssuo bost swopt undor tho rug, |t |s |n tact tho ong|no ot ovo|ut|on. ln oach gonorat|on, naturo
tr|os out as many var|ot|os as |t can gonorato, a|ong a|| ava||ab|o d|mons|ons-and tho products bost su|tod tor tho onv|ronmont got to roproduco
thomso|vos. |or tho past b||||on yoars th|s has boon a tromondous|y succosstu| approach, y|o|d|ng human bo|ngs |n rockot sh|ps trom s|ng|o so|t-
rop||cat|ng mo|ocu|os |n pro-b|ot|c soup.
3ut th|s var|at|on |s a|so a sourco ot troub|o tor tho |oga| systom, wh|ch |s bu||t part|a||y upon tho prom|so that humans aro a|| oqua| botoro tho |aw.
1h|s bu||t-|n myth ot human oqua||ty suggosts that a|| poop|o aro oqua||y capab|o ot doc|s|on mak|ng, |mpu|so contro|, and comprohond|ng
consoquoncos. Wh||o adm|rab|o, tho not|on |s s|mp|y not truo.
3omo arguo that ovon though tho myth may bo bu||ot-r|dd|od, |t may st||| bo usotu| to ho|d on to. 1ho argumont suggosts that whothor or not tho
oqua||ty |s roa||st|c, |t y|o|ds a °part|cu|ar|y adm|rab|o k|nd ot soc|a| ordor, a countortactua| that pays d|v|donds |n ta|rnoss and stab|||ty.'
88
ln othor
words, assumpt|ons can bo provab|y wrong and st||| havo ut|||ty.
l d|sagroo. As wo havo soon throughout tho book, poop|o do not arr|vo at tho scono w|th tho samo capac|t|os. 1ho|r gonot|cs and tho|r porsona|
h|stor|os mo|d tho|r bra|ns to qu|to d|ttoront ond po|nts. ln tact, tho |aw part|a||y acknow|odgos th|s, bocauso tho stra|n |s too groat to protond that o||
bra|ns aro oqua|. Cons|dor ago. Ado|osconts command d|ttoront sk|||s |n doc|s|on mak|ng and |mpu|so contro| than do adu|ts, a ch||d's bra|n |s
s|mp|y not ||ko an adu|t's bra|n.
84
3o Amor|can |aw draws a br|ght ||no botwoon sovontoon yoars and o|ghtoon yoars to ham-handod|y acknow|odgo
th|s. And tho Un|tod 3tatos 3upromo Court ru|od |n Ropor v 5lmmoos that thoso undor tho ago ot o|ghtoon whon thoy comm|ttod a cr|mo cou|d not
bo g|von tho doath pona|ty.
8b
1ho |aw a|so rocogn|zos that lO mattors. 1hus, tho 3upromo Court mado a s|m||ar doc|s|on that tho monta||y rotardod
cannot bo oxocutod tor cap|ta| cr|mos.
3o tho |aw a|roady rocogn|zos that a|| bra|ns aro not croatod oqua|. 1ho prob|om |s that tho curront vors|on ot tho |aw usos crudo d|v|s|ons: lt
you'ro o|ghtoon wo can k||| you, |t you'ro ono day shy ot your o|ghtoonth b|rthday you'ro sato. lt your lO |s 70, you got tho o|octr|c cha|r, |t |t's 00, got
comtortab|o on your pr|son mattross. (3ocauso lO scoros t|uctuato on d|ttoront days and w|th d|ttoront tost|ng cond|t|ons, you'd bottor hopo tor tho
r|ght c|rcumstancos |t you'ro noar tho bordor||no.)
1horo's no po|nt |n protond|ng that a|| non-m|nor, non-monta||y-rotardod c|t|zons aro oqua| to ono anothor, bocauso thoy'ro not. W|th d|ttoront
gonos and oxpor|onco, poop|o can bo as d|ttoront on tho |ns|do as thoy aro on tho outs|do. As nourosc|onco |mprovos, wo w||| havo a bottor ab|||ty
to undorstand poop|o a|ong a spoctrum, rathor than |n crudo, b|nary catogor|os. And th|s w||| a||ow us to ta||or sontonc|ng and rohab|||tat|on tor tho
|nd|v|dua| rathor than ma|nta|n tho protonso that a|| bra|ns rospond to tho samo |ncont|vos and dosorvo tho samo pun|shmonts.
5EN1ENC|NC BA5ED ON NOD|F|AB|L|1Y

lorsona||zat|on ot tho |aw can go |n many d|roct|ons, l'|| suggost ono horo. lot's roturn to tho caso ot your daughtor wr|t|ng w|th a crayon on tho wa||.
ln ono sconar|o, sho's do|ng |t m|sch|ovous|y, |n tho othor, wh||o sho's s|oopwa|k|ng. Your |ntu|t|on to||s you that you wou|d pun|sh on|y tor tho awako
caso and not tor tho as|oop caso. 3ut why? l proposo that your |ntu|t|on may |ncorporato an |mportant |ns|ght about tho purposo ot pun|shmont. ln
th|s caso, what mattors |s not so much your |ntu|t|on about b|amoworth|noss (a|though sho |s c|oar|y not b|amoworthy whon sho's as|oop), but
|nstoad about mod|t|ab|||ty. 1ho |doa wou|d bo to pun|sh on|y whon tho bohav|or |s moolílob|o. 3ho cannot mod|ty hor bohav|or |n tho caso ot
s|oopwa|k|ng, and thorotoro pun|shmont wou|d bo cruo| and tru|t|oss.
l spocu|ato that somoday wo w||| bo ab|o to baso pun|shmont doc|s|ons on nourop|ast|c|ty. 3omo poop|o havo bra|ns that aro bottor ab|o to
rospond to c|ass|ca| cond|t|on|ng (pun|shmont and roward), wh||o othor poop|o-bocauso ot psychos|s, soc|opathy, tronta| ma|dovo|opmont, or
othor prob|oms-aro rotractory to chango. 1ako a pun|shmont such as a harsh sontonco ot broak|ng rocks: |t th|s |s moant to d|s|ncont|v|zo
pr|sonors trom roturn|ng, thoro |s no purposo ot th|s pun|shmont whoro thoro |s not appropr|ato bra|n p|ast|c|ty to roco|vo |t. lt thoro |s hopo ot us|ng
c|ass|ca| cond|t|on|ng to ottoct a chango |n bohav|or that wou|d a||ow soc|a| ro|ntograt|on, thon pun|shmont |s appropr|ato. Whon a conv|ctod
cr|m|na| |s not go|ng to bo usotu||y changod by pun|shmont, ho shou|d s|mp|y bo warohousod.
3omo ph||osophors havo suggostod that pun|shmont cou|d bo basod on tho numbor ot opt|ons that woro ava||ab|o to an actor. A t|y, say, |s
noura||y |ncapab|o ot nav|gat|ng comp|ox cho|cos, whoroas a human (and ospoc|a||y a smart human) has many cho|cos and thorotoro moro contro|.
A systom ot pun|shmont cou|d bo dov|sod, thon, |n wh|ch tho dogroo ot pun|shmont goos w|th tho dogroo ot opt|ons ava||ab|o to tho agont. 3ut l
don't th|nk th|s |s tho bost approach, bocauso somoono m|ght havo tow opt|ons but bo nonotho|oss mod|t|ab|o. 1ako tho non-housotra|nod puppy. lt
doos not ovon cons|dor wh|n|ng and paw|ng at tho door whon |t has to ur|nato, tho cho|co was not |ts to mako, bocauso |t had not dovo|opod tho
not|on ot that opt|on. lonotho|oss, you sco|d tho dog to mod|ty |ts contra| norvous systom tor appropr|ato bohav|or. 1ho samo goos tor a ch||d who
shop||tts. 3ho doos not undorstand tho |ssuos ot ownorsh|p and oconom|cs at t|rst. You pun|sh hor not bocauso you too| sho had p|onty ot opt|ons,
but |nstoad bocauso you undorstand hor to bo mod|t|ab|o. You aro do|ng hor a tavor: you aro soc|a||z|ng hor.
1h|s proposa| sooks to a||gn pun|shmont w|th nourosc|onco. 1ho |doa |s to rop|aco to|k |ntu|t|ons about b|amoworth|noss w|th a ta|ror approach.
A|though |t wou|d bo oxpons|vo now, soc|ot|os |n tho tuturo m|ght oxpor|monta||y dor|vo an |ndox to moasuro nourop|ast|c|ty-that |s, tho capac|ty to
mod|ty tho c|rcu|try. |or thoso who aro mod|t|ab|o, such as a toonagor who st||| noods turthor tronta| dovo|opmont, a harsh pun|shmont (broak|ng
rocks a|| summor) wou|d bo appropr|ato. 3ut somoono w|th tronta| |obo damago, who w||| novor dovo|op tho capac|ty tor soc|a||zat|on, shou|d bo
|ncapac|tatod by tho stato |n a d|ttoront sort ot |nst|tut|on. 1ho samo goos tor tho monta||y rotardod or sch|zophron|c, pun|t|vo act|on may s|ako
b|ood|ust tor somo, but thoro |s no po|nt |n |t tor soc|oty moro broad|y.


Wo'vo spont tho t|rst t|vo chaptors oxp|or|ng tho dogroo to wh|ch wo aro not tho onos dr|v|ng tho boat. Wo saw that poop|o havo ||tt|o capac|ty to
chooso or oxp|a|n tho|r act|ons, mot|vat|ons, and bo||ots, and that tho capta|n's whoo| |s stoorod by tho unconsc|ous bra|n, shapod by |nnumorab|o
gonorat|ons ot ovo|ut|onary so|oct|on and a ||tot|mo ot oxpor|oncos. 1ho prosont chaptor has oxp|orod tho soc|a| consoquoncos ot that: |ow doos
tho |naccoss|b|||ty ot tho bra|n mattor at tho |ovo| ot soc|oty? |ow doos |t nav|gato tho way wo th|nk about b|amoworth|noss, and what shou|d wo do
about poop|o who bohavo vory d|ttoront|y?
Curront|y, whon a cr|m|na| stands |n tront ot tho judgo's bonch, tho |oga| systom asks, ls tbls porsoo b|omowortby? ln tho caso ot Wh|tman or A|ox
or a 1ourotto's pat|ont or a s|oopwa|kor, tho systom says no. 3ut |t you havo no obv|ous b|o|og|ca| prob|om, tho systom says yos. 1h|s cannot bo a
sons|b|o way to structuro a |oga| systom, g|von tho corta|nty that tochno|ogy w||| cont|nuo to |mprovo ovory yoar and movo tho pos|t|on ot tho °tau|t'
||no. lt |s porhaps too oar|y to say whothor ovory aspoct ot human bohav|or w||| somoday bo undorstood as boyond our vo||t|on. 3ut |n tho moant|mo,
tho march ot sc|onco w||| cont|nuo to push tho p|aco whoro wo draw our ||no on tho spoctrum botwoon vo||t|on and non-vo||t|on.
As d|roctor ot 3ay|or Co||ogo ot Vod|c|no's ln|t|at|vo on lourosc|onco and law, l havo gono around tho wor|d |octur|ng on thoso |ssuos. 1ho
b|ggost batt|o l havo to t|ght |s tho m|sporcopt|on that an |mprovod b|o|og|ca| undorstand|ng ot poop|o's bohav|ors and |ntorna| d|ttoroncos moans
wo w||| torg|vo cr|m|na|s and no |ongor tako thom ott tho stroots. 1hat's |ncorroct. 3|o|og|ca| oxp|anat|on w||| not oxcu|pato cr|m|na|s. 3ra|n sc|onco
w||| |mprovo tho |oga| systom, not |mpodo |ts tunct|on.
80
|or tho smooth oporat|on ot soc|oty, wo w||| st||| romovo trom tho stroots thoso cr|m|na|s
who provo thomso|vos to bo ovor-aggross|vo, undor-ompathot|c, and poor at contro|||ng tho|r |mpu|sos. 1hoy w||| st||| bo takon |nto tho caro ot tho
govornmont.
3ut tho |mportant chango w||| bo |n tho woy wo pun|sh tho vast rango ot cr|m|na| acts-|n torms ot rat|ona| sontonc|ng and now |doas tor
rohab|||tat|on. 1ho omphas|s w||| sh|tt trom pun|shmont to rocogn|z|ng prob|oms (both noura| and soc|a|) and moan|ngtu||y addross|ng thom.
87
As
ono oxamp|o, wo |oarnod |n th|s chaptor how tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork can ottor now hopo |n torms ot a rohab|||tat|vo stratogy.
|urthor, as wo como to bottor undorstand tho bra|n, wo can concontrato on bu||d|ng soc|ota| |ncont|vos to oncourago good bohav|or and
d|scourago bad bohav|or. Ettoct|vo |aw roqu|ros ottoct|vo bohav|ora| modo|s: undorstand|ng not just how wo wou|d |lko poop|o to bohavo, but how
thoy octoo||y bohavo. As wo m|no tho ro|at|onsh|ps among nourosc|onco, oconom|cs, and doc|s|on mak|ng, soc|a| po||cy can bo bottor structurod
to moro ottoct|vo|y |ovorago thoso t|nd|ngs.
88
1h|s w||| roduco our omphas|s on rotr|but|on |n oxchango tor proact|vo, provontat|vo po||cy mak|ng.
Vy argumont |n th|s chaptor has not boon to rodot|no b|amoworth|noss, |nstoad |t |s to romovo |t trom tho |oga| argot. 3|amoworth|noss |s a
backward-|ook|ng concopt that domands tho |mposs|b|o task ot untang||ng tho hopo|oss|y comp|ox wob ot gonot|cs and onv|ronmont that constructs
tho trajoctory ot a human ||to. Cons|dor, tor oxamp|o, that a|| known sor|a| murdorors woro abusod as ch||dron.
80
0oos th|s mako thom |oss
b|amoworthy? Who caros? lt's tho wrong quost|on to ask. 1ho know|odgo that thoy woro abusod oncouragos us to provont ch||d abuso, but |t doos
noth|ng to chango tho way wo doa| w|th tho part|cu|ar sor|a| murdoror stand|ng |n tront ot tho bonch. Wo st||| nood to warohouso h|m. Wo nood to
koop h|m ott tho stroots, |rrospoct|vo ot h|s past m|stortunos. 1ho ch||d abuso cannot sorvo as a moan|ngtu| b|o|og|ca| oxcuso, tho judgo must tako
act|on to koop soc|oty sato.
1ho concopt and word to rop|aco b|omowortblooss |s moolílobl|lty, a torward-|ook|ng torm that asks, What can wo do trom horo? ls rohab|||tat|on
ava||ab|o? lt so, groat. lt not, w||| tho pun|shmont ot a pr|son sontonco mod|ty tuturo bohav|or? lt so, sond h|m to pr|son. lt pun|shmont won't ho|p, thon
tako tho porson undor stato contro| tor tho purposos ot |ncapac|tat|on, not rotr|but|on.
Vy droam |s to bu||d an ov|donco-basod, noura||y compat|b|o soc|a| po||cy |nstoad ot ono basod on sh|tt|ng and provab|y bad |ntu|t|ons. 3omo
poop|o wondor whothor |t's unta|r to tako a sc|ont|t|c approach to sontonc|ng-attor a||, whoro's tho human|ty thoro? 3ut th|s concorn shou|d a|ways
bo mot w|th a quost|on: what's tho a|tornat|vo? As |t stands now, ug|y poop|o roco|vo |ongor sontoncos than attract|vo poop|o, psych|atr|sts havo no
capac|ty to guoss wh|ch sox ottondors w||| roottond, and our pr|sons aro ovorcrowdod w|th drug add|cts who cou|d bo moro usotu||y doa|t w|th by
rohab|||tat|on rathor than |ncarcorat|on. 3o |s curront sontonc|ng roa||y bottor than a sc|ont|t|c, ov|donco-basod approach?
lourosc|onco |s just bog|nn|ng to scratch tho surtaco ot quost|ons that woro onco on|y |n tho doma|n ot ph||osophors and psycho|og|sts,
quost|ons about how poop|o mako doc|s|ons and whothor thoy aro tru|y °troo.' 1hoso aro not |d|o quost|ons, but onos that w||| shapo tho tuturo ot
|oga| thoory and tho droam ot a b|o|og|ca||y |ntormod jur|sprudonco.
40
¯
lnc|donta||y, tho |obotomy |ost tavor not so much bocauso ot oth|ca| concorns, but bocauso psychoact|vo drugs camo on tho markot at tho bog|nn|ng |n tho 10b0s, prov|d|ng a moro
oxpod|ont approach to tho prob|om.
Lito Attor tho Nonarchy

°As tor mon, thoso myr|ad ||tt|o dotachod ponds w|th tho|r own swarm|ng corpuscu|ar ||to, what woro thoy but a way that wator has ot go|ng
about boyond tho roach ot r|vors?'
-loron E|so|oy, °1ho ||ow ot tho l|vor', 7bo lmmooso 1oorooy

FRON DE1ERONENEN1 1O DENOCRACY

Attor Ga|||oo d|scovorod tho moons ot 1up|tor |n h|s homomado to|oscopo |n 1010, ro||g|ous cr|t|cs docr|od h|s now sun-contorod thoory as a
dothronomont ot man. 1hoy d|dn't suspoct that th|s was on|y tho t|rst dothronomont ot sovora|. Ono hundrod yoars |ator, tho study ot sod|montary
|ayors by tho 3cott|sh tarmor 1amos |utton topp|od tho Church's ost|mato ot tho ago ot tho Earth-mak|ng |t o|ght hundrod thousand t|mos o|dor.
lot |ong attorward, Char|os 0arw|n ro|ogatod humans to just anothor branch |n tho swarm|ng an|ma| k|ngdom. At tho bog|nn|ng ot tho 1000s,
quantum mochan|cs |rroparab|y a|torod our not|on ot tho tabr|c ot roa||ty. ln 10b8, |ranc|s Cr|ck and 1amos Watson doc|phorod tho structuro ot
0lA, rop|ac|ng tho mystor|ous ghost ot ||to w|th somoth|ng that wo can wr|to down |n soquoncos ot tour |ottors and storo |n a computor.
And ovor tho past contury, nourosc|onco has shown that tho consc|ous m|nd |s not tho ono dr|v|ng tho boat. A moro tour hundrod yoars attor our
ta|| trom tho contor ot un|vorso, wo havo oxpor|oncod tho ta|| trom tho contor ot ourso|vos. ln tho t|rst chaptor wo saw that consc|ous accoss to tho
mach|nory undor tho hood |s s|ow, and otton doosn't happon at a||. Wo thon |oarnod that tho way wo soo tho wor|d |s not nocossar||y what's out
thoro: v|s|on |s a construct|on ot tho bra|n, and |ts on|y job |s to gonorato a usotu| narrat|vo at our sca|os ot |ntoract|ons (say, w|th r|po tru|ts, boars,
and matos). v|sua| |||us|ons rovoa| a doopor concopt: that our tboogbts aro gonoratod by mach|nory to wh|ch wo havo no d|roct accoss. Wo saw
that usotu| rout|nos bocomo burnod down |nto tho c|rcu|try ot tho bra|n, and that onco thoy aro thoro, wo no |ongor havo accoss to thom. lnstoad,
consc|ousnoss sooms to bo about sott|ng goa|s tor what shou|d bo burnod |nto tho c|rcu|try, and |t doos ||tt|o boyond that. ln Chaptor b wo |oarnod
that m|nds conta|n mu|t|tudos, wh|ch oxp|a|ns why you can curso at yourso|t, |augh at yourso|t, and mako contracts w|th yourso|t. And |n Chaptor 0
wo saw that bra|ns can oporato qu|to d|ttoront|y whon thoy aro changod by strokos, tumors, narcot|cs, or any var|oty ot ovonts that a|tor tho b|o|ogy.
1h|s ag|tatos our s|mp|o not|ons ot b|amoworth|noss.
ln tho wako ot a|| tho sc|ont|t|c progross, a troub||ng quost|on has surtacod |n tho m|nds ot many: what |s |ott tor humans attor a|| thoso
dothronomonts? |or somo th|nkors, as tho |mmons|ty ot tho un|vorso bocamo moro apparont, so d|d humank|nd's |nconsoquont|a||ty-wo bogan to
dw|nd|o |n |mportanco v|rtua||y to tho van|sh|ng po|nt. lt bocamo c|oar that tho opocha| t|mo sca|os ot c|v|||zat|ons roprosontod on|y a t|ash |n tho |ong
h|story ot mu|t|co||u|ar ||to on tho p|anot, and tho h|story ot ||to |s on|y a t|ash |n tho h|story ot tho p|anot |tso|t. And that p|anot, |n tho vastnoss ot tho
un|vorso, |s on|y a t|ny spock ot mattor t|oat|ng away trom othor spocks at cosm|c spood through tho doso|ato curvaturo ot spaco. 1wo hundrod
m||||on yoars trom now, th|s v|gorous, product|vo p|anot w||| bo consumod |n tho oxpans|on ot tho sun. As los||o lau| wroto |n Aoolbl|otloo oí Voo:
A|| ||to w||| d|o, a|| m|nd w||| coaso, and |t w||| a|| bo as |t |t had novor happonod. 1hat, to bo honost, |s tho goa| to wh|ch ovo|ut|on |s travo||ng,
that |s tho °bonovo|ont' ond ot tho tur|ous ||v|ng and tur|ous dy|ng.. A|| ||to |s no moro than a match struck |n tho dark and b|own out aga|n. 1ho
t|na| rosu|t . |s to dopr|vo |t comp|oto|y ot moan|ng.
1

Attor bu||d|ng many thronos and ta|||ng trom a|| ot thom, man |ookod around, ho wondorod whothor ho had acc|donta||y boon gonoratod |n a b||nd
and purposo|oss cosm|c procoss, and ho strovo to sa|vago somo sort ot purposo. As tho thoo|og|an E. l. Vasca|| wroto:
1ho d|tt|cu|ty wh|ch c|v|||zod Wostorn man |n tho wor|d today oxpor|oncos |s |n conv|nc|ng h|mso|t that ho has any spoc|a| ass|gnod status |n
tho un|vorso.. Vany ot tho psycho|og|ca| d|sordors wh|ch aro so common and d|stross|ng a toaturo ot our t|mo aro, l bo||ovo, to bo tracod to
th|s causo.
2

lh||osophors such as |o|doggor, 1aspors, 3hostov, K|orkogaard, and |ussor| a|| scramb|od to addross tho moan|ng|ossnoss w|th wh|ch tho
dothronomonts soomod to havo |ott us. ln h|s 1042 book Lo mytbo oo 5lsypbo, A|bort Camus |ntroducod h|s ph||osophy ot tho absurd, |n wh|ch
man soarchos tor moan|ng |n a tundamonta||y moan|ng|oss wor|d. ln th|s contoxt, Camus proposod that tho on|y roa| quost|on |n ph||osophy |s
whothor or not to comm|t su|c|do. (|o conc|udod that ono shou|d oot comm|t su|c|do, |nstoad, ono shou|d ||vo to rovo|t aga|nst tho absurd ||to, ovon
though |t w||| a|ways bo w|thout hopo. lt |s poss|b|o that ho was torcod to th|s conc|us|on bocauso tho oppos|to wou|d havo |mpodod sa|os ot h|s
book un|oss ho to||owod h|s own proscr|pt|on-a tr|cky catch-22.)
l suggost that tho ph||osophors may havo boon tak|ng tho nows ot tho dothronomonts a b|t too hard. ls thoro roa||y noth|ng |ott tor mank|nd attor a||
thoso dothronomonts? 1ho s|tuat|on |s ||ko|y to bo tho oppos|to: as wo p|umb turthor down, wo w||| d|scovor |doas much broador than tho onos wo
curront|y havo on our radar scroons, |n tho samo way that wo havo bogun to d|scovor tho gorgoousnoss ot tho m|croscop|c wor|d and tho
|ncomprohons|b|o sca|o ot tho cosmos. 1ho act ot dothronomont tonds to opon up somoth|ng b|ggor than us, |doas moro wondortu| than wo had
or|g|na||y |mag|nod. Each d|scovory taught us that roa||ty tar outstr|ps human |mag|nat|on and guosswork. 1hoso advancos dot|atod tho powor ot
|ntu|t|on and trad|t|on as an orac|o ot our tuturo, rop|ac|ng thom w|th moro product|vo |doas, b|ggor roa||t|os, and now |ovo|s ot awo.
ln tho caso ot Ga|||oo's d|scovory that wo aro not at tho contor ot tho un|vorso, wo now know somoth|ng much groator: that our so|ar systom |s ono
ot b||||ons ot tr||||ons. As l mont|onod oar||or, ovon |t ||to omorgos on|y on ono p|anot |n a b||||on, |t moans thoro may bo m||||ons and m||||ons ot
p|anots toom|ng w|th act|v|ty |n tho cosmos. 1o my m|nd, that's a b|ggor and br|ghtor |doa than s|tt|ng at a |ono|y contor surroundod by co|d and
d|stant astra| |amps. 1ho dothronomont |od to a r|chor, doopor undorstand|ng, and what wo |ost |n ogocontr|sm was countorba|ancod |n surpr|so
and wondor.
3|m||ar|y, undorstand|ng tho ago ot tho Earth oponod prov|ous|y un|mag|nab|o t|mo v|stas, wh|ch |n turn oponod tho poss|b|||ty ot undorstand|ng
natura| so|oct|on. latura| so|oct|on |s usod da||y |n |aborator|os around tho g|obo to so|oct co|on|os ot bactor|a |n rosoarch to combat d|soaso.
Ouantum mochan|cs has g|von us tho trans|stor (tho hoart ot our o|octron|cs |ndustry), |asors, magnot|c rosonanco |mag|ng, d|odos, and momory |n
U33 t|ash dr|vos-and may soon do||vor tho rovo|ut|ons ot quantum comput|ng, tunno||ng, and to|oportat|on. Our undorstand|ng ot 0lA and tho
mo|ocu|ar bas|s ot |nhor|tanco has a||owod us to targot d|soaso |n ways that woro un|mag|nab|o a ha|t contury ago. 3y tak|ng sor|ous|y tho
d|scovor|os ot sc|onco, wo havo orad|catod sma||pox, travo|od to tho moon, and |aunchod tho |ntormat|on rovo|ut|on. Wo havo tr|p|od ||to spans, and
by targot|ng d|soasos at tho mo|ocu|ar |ovo|, wo w||| soon t|oat tho avorago ||to span boyond ono hundrod yoars. 0othronomonts otton oqua|
progross.
ln tho caso ot tho dothronomont ot tho consc|ous m|nd, wo ga|n bottor |nroads to undorstand human bohav|or. Why do wo t|nd th|ngs boaut|tu|?
Why aro wo bad at |og|c? Who's curs|ng at whom whon wo got mad at ourso|vos? Why do poop|o ta|| tor tho a||uro ot adjustab|o-rato mortgagos?
|ow can wo stoor a car so wo|| but t|nd ourso|vos unab|o to doscr|bo tho procoss?
1h|s |mprovod undorstand|ng ot human bohav|or can trans|ato d|roct|y |nto |mprovod soc|a| po||cy. As ono oxamp|o, an undorstand|ng ot tho bra|n
mattors tor structur|ng |ncont|vos. loca|| tho tact trom Chaptor b that poop|o nogot|ato w|th thomso|vos, mak|ng an ond|oss sor|os ot U|yssos
contracts. 1h|s |oads to |doas ||ko tho proposod d|ot p|an trom that chaptor: poop|o who want to |oso wo|ght can dopos|t a good doa| ot monoy |nto
an oscrow ho|d|ng. lt thoy moot tho|r wo|ght-|oss goa| by a spoc|t|od doad||no, thoy got tho monoy back, othorw|so thoy |oso |t a||. 1h|s structuro
a||ows poop|o |n a momont ot sobor rot|oct|on to rocru|t support aga|nst tho|r short-torm doc|s|on mak|ng-attor a||, thoy know that tho|r tuturo so|t
w||| bo tomptod to oat w|th |mpun|ty. Undorstand|ng th|s aspoct ot human naturo a||ows th|s sort ot contract to bo usotu||y |ntroducod |n var|ous
sott|ngs-tor oxamp|o, gott|ng an omp|oyoo to s|phon a ||tt|o port|on ot h|s month|y paychock |nto an |nd|v|dua| rot|romont account. 3y mak|ng tho
doc|s|on up tront, ho can avo|d tho tomptat|on ot spond|ng |ator.
Our doopor undorstand|ng ot tho |nnor cosmos a|so g|vos us a c|oaror v|ow ot ph||osoph|ca| concopts. 1ako v|rtuo. |or m|||onn|a, ph||osophors
havo boon ask|ng what |t |s and what wo can do to onhanco |t. 1ho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork g|vos now |nroads horo. Wo can otton |ntorprot tho
r|va|rous o|omonts |n tho bra|n as ana|ogous to oogloo and brokos: somo o|omonts aro dr|v|ng you toward a bohav|or wh||o othors aro try|ng to stop
you. At t|rst b|ush, ono m|ght th|nk v|rtuo cons|sts ot not want|ng to do bad th|ngs. 3ut |n a moro nuancod tramowork, a v|rtuous porson can havo
strong |asc|v|ous dr|vos as |ong as ho a|so commands sutt|c|ont brak|ng powor to surmount thom. (lt |s a|so tho caso that a v|rtuous actor can havo
m|n|ma| tomptat|ons and thorotoro no roqu|romont tor good brakos, but ono cou|d suggost that tho moro v|rtuous porson |s ho who has tought a
strongor batt|o to ros|st tomptat|on rathor than ho who was novor ont|cod.) 1h|s sort ot approach |s poss|b|o on|y whon wo havo a c|oar v|ow ot tho
r|va|ry undor tho hood, and not |t wo bo||ovo poop|o possoss on|y a s|ng|o m|nd (as |n moos roo, °tho gu||ty m|nd'). W|th tho now too|s, wo can
cons|dor a moro nuancod batt|o botwoon d|ttoront bra|n rog|ons and how tho batt|o t|ps. And that opons up now opportun|t|os tor rohab|||tat|on |n
our |oga| systom: whon wo undorstand how tho bra|n |s roa||y oporat|ng and why |mpu|so contro| ta||s |n somo tract|on ot tho popu|at|on, wo can
dovo|op d|roct now stratog|os to strongthon |ong-torm doc|s|on mak|ng and t|p tho batt|o |n |ts tavor.
Add|t|ona||y, an undorstand|ng ot tho bra|n has tho potont|a| to o|ovato us to a moro on||ghtonod systom ot sontonc|ng. As wo saw |n tho prov|ous
chaptor, wo w||| bo ab|o to rop|aco tho prob|omat|c concopt ot b|amoworth|noss w|th a pract|ca|, tuturo-|ook|ng corroct|ons systom (¼bot ls tbls
porsoo |lko|y to oo írom boroº) |nstoad ot a rotrospoct|vo ono (lowmocb wos lt bls íoo|tº). 3omoday tho |oga| systom may bo ab|o to approach
noura| and bohav|ora| prob|oms |n tho samo mannor that mod|c|no stud|os |ung or bono prob|oms. 3uch b|o|og|ca| roa||sm w||| not c|oar cr|m|na|s,
but |nstoad w||| |ntroduco rat|ona| sontonc|ng and custom|zod rohab|||tat|on by adopt|ng a prospoct|vo approach |nstoad ot a rotrospoct|vo ono.
A bottor undorstand|ng ot nourob|o|ogy may |oad to bottor soc|a| po||cy. 3ut what doos |t moan tor undorstand|ng our own ||vos?
KNOW|NC 1EY5ELF

°Know thon thyso|t, prosumo not God to scan. 1ho propor study ot mank|nd |s man.'
-A|oxandor lopo

On |obruary 28, 1b71, on tho morn|ng ot h|s th|rty-o|ghth b|rthday, tho |ronch ossay|st V|cho| do Vonta|gno doc|dod to mako a rad|ca| chango |n
h|s ||to's trajoctory. |o qu|t h|s caroor |n pub||c ||to, sot up a ||brary w|th ono thousand books |n a towor at tho back ot h|s |argo ostato, and spont tho
rost ot h|s ||to wr|t|ng ossays about tho comp|ox, t|oot|ng, protoan subjoct that |ntorostod h|m tho most: blmso|í. ||s t|rst conc|us|on was that a
soarch to know onoso|t |s a too|'s orrand, bocauso tho so|t cont|nuous|y changos and koops ahoad ot a t|rm doscr|pt|on. 1hat d|dn't stop h|m trom
soarch|ng, howovor, and h|s quost|on has rosonatod through tho contur|os: Ooo sols-jo? (What do l know?)
lt was, and roma|ns, a good quost|on. Our oxp|orat|on ot tho |nnor cosmos corta|n|y d|sabusos us ot our |n|t|a|, uncomp||catod, |ntu|t|vo not|ons ot
know|ng ourso|vos. Wo soo that so|t-know|odgo roqu|ros as much work trom tho outs|do (|n tho torm ot sc|onco) as trom tho |ns|do (|ntrospoct|on).
1h|s |s not to say that wo cannot grow bottor at |ntrospoct|on. Attor a||, wo can |oarn to pay attont|on to what wo'ro roa||y soo|ng out thoro, as a
pa|ntor doos, and wo can attond moro c|oso|y to our |ntorna| s|gna|s, as a yog| doos. 3ut thoro aro ||m|ts to |ntrospoct|on. 1ust cons|dor tho tact that
your por|phora| norvous systom omp|oys ono hundrod m||||on nourons to contro| tho act|v|t|os |n your gut (th|s |s ca||od tho ontor|c norvous systom).
Ono hundrod m||||on nourons, and no amount ot your |ntrospoct|on can touch th|s. lor, most ||ko|y, wou|d you want |t to. lt's bottor ott runn|ng as tho
automatod, opt|m|zod mach|nory that |t |s, rout|ng tood a|ong your gut and prov|d|ng chom|ca| s|gna|s to contro| tho d|gost|on tactory w|thout ask|ng
your op|n|on on tho mattor.
3oyond |ack ot accoss, thoro cou|d ovon bo provont|on ot accoss. Vy co||oaguo load Vontaguo onco spocu|atod that wo m|ght havo a|gor|thms
that protoct us trom ourso|vos. |or oxamp|o, computors havo boot soctors wh|ch aro |naccoss|b|o by tho oporat|ng systom-thoy aro too |mportant
tor tho oporat|on ot tho computor tor any othor h|ghor |ovo| systoms to t|nd |nroads and ga|n adm|ss|on, undor any c|rcumstancos. Vontaguo notod
that whonovor wo try to th|nk about ourso|vos too much, wo tond to °b||nk out'-and porhaps th|s |s bocauso wo aro gott|ng too c|oso to tho boot
soctor. As la|ph Wa|do Emorson wroto ovor a contury oar||or, °Evoryth|ng |ntorcopts us trom ourso|vos.'
Vuch ot who wo aro roma|ns outs|do our op|n|on or cho|co. lmag|no try|ng to chango your sonso ot boauty or attract|on. What wou|d happon |t
soc|oty askod you to dovo|op and ma|nta|n an attract|on to somoono ot tho gondor to wh|ch you aro curront|y not attractod? Or somoono wo||
outs|do tho ago rango to wh|ch you aro curront|y attractod? Or outs|do your spoc|os? Cou|d you do |t? 0oubttu|. Your most tundamonta| dr|vos aro
st|tchod |nto tho tabr|c ot your noura| c|rcu|try, and thoy aro |naccoss|b|o to you. You t|nd corta|n th|ngs moro attract|vo than othors, and you don't
know why.
l|ko your ontor|c norvous systom and your sonso ot attract|on, a|most tho ont|roty ot your |nnor un|vorso |s toro|gn to you. 1ho |doas that str|ko
you, your thoughts dur|ng a daydroam, tho b|zarro contont ot your n|ghtdroams-a|| thoso aro sorvod up to you trom unsoon |ntracran|a| cavorns.
3o what doos a|| ot th|s moan tor tho Grook admon|t|on yvw0|orou¡ov-know thyso|t-|nscr|bod prom|nont|y |n tho torocourt ot tho 1omp|o ot
Apo||o at 0o|ph|? Can wo ovor know ourso|vos moro doop|y by study|ng our nourob|o|ogy? Yos, but w|th somo cavoats. ln tho taco ot tho doop
mystor|os prosontod by quantum phys|cs, tho phys|c|st l|o|s 3ohr onco suggostod that an undorstand|ng ot tho structuro ot tho atom cou|d bo
accomp||shod on|y by chang|ng tho dot|n|t|on °to undorstand.' Ono cou|d no |ongor draw p|cturos ot an atom, truo, but |nstoad ono cou|d now prod|ct
oxpor|monts about |ts bohav|or out to tourtoon doc|ma| p|acos. lost assumpt|ons woro rop|acod by somoth|ng r|chor.
3y tho samo tokon, to know onoso|t may roqu|ro a chango ot dot|n|t|on ot °to know.' Know|ng yourso|t now roqu|ros tho undorstand|ng that tho
consc|ous yoo occup|os on|y a sma|| room |n tho mans|on ot tho bra|n, and that |t has ||tt|o contro| ovor tho roa||ty constructod tor you. 1ho |nvocat|on
to know thyso|t noods to bo cons|dorod |n now ways.
lot's say you wantod to know moro about tho Grook |doa ot know|ng thyso|t, and you askod mo to oxp|a|n |t turthor. lt probab|y wou|dn't bo ho|ptu|
|t l sa|d, °Evoryth|ng you nood to know |s |n tho |nd|v|dua| |ottors: y v w 0 | o r o u ¡ o v.' lt you don't road Grook, tho o|omonts aro noth|ng but arb|trary
shapos. And ovon |t you oo road Grook, thoro's so much moro to tho |doa than tho |ottors-|nstoad you wou|d want to know tho cu|turo trom wh|ch |t
sprung, tho omphas|s on |ntrospoct|on, tho suggost|on ot a path to on||ghtonmont.
8
Undorstand|ng tho phraso roqu|ros moro than |oarn|ng tho
|ottors. And th|s |s tho s|tuat|on wo'ro |n whon wo |ook at tr||||ons ot nourons and tho|r soxt||||ons ot voyag|ng proto|ns and b|ochom|ca|s. What doos |t
moan to know ourso|vos trom that tota||y untam|||ar porspoct|vo? As wo w||| soo |n a momont, wo nood tho nourob|o|og|ca| data, but wo a|so nood
qu|to a b|t moro to know ourso|vos.
3|o|ogy |s a torr|t|c approach, but |t's ||m|tod. Cons|dor |owor|ng a mod|ca| scopo down your |ovor's throat wh||o ho or sho roads pootry to you.
Got a good, c|oso-up v|ow ot your |ovor's voca| chords, s||my and sh|ny, contract|ng |n and out |n spasms. You cou|d study th|s unt|| you woro
nausoatod (maybo soonor rathor than |ator, dopond|ng on your to|oranco tor b|o|ogy), but |t wou|d got you no c|osor to undorstand|ng why you |ovo
n|ghtt|mo p|||ow ta|k. 3y |tso|t, |n |ts raw torm, tho b|o|ogy g|vos on|y part|a| |ns|ght. lt's tho bost wo can do r|ght now, but |t's tar trom comp|oto. lot's
turn to th|s |n moro dota|| now.
WEA1 |1 DOE5 AND DOE5N'1 NEAN 1O BE CON51RuC1ED OF PEY5|CAL PAR15

Ono ot tho most tamous oxamp|os ot bra|n damago comos trom a twonty-t|vo-yoar-o|d work-gang toroman namod lh|noas Gago. 1ho Bostoo Post
roportod on h|m |n a short art|c|o on 3optombor 21, 1848, undor tho hoad||no °|orr|b|o Acc|dont':
As lh|noas l. Gago, a toroman on tho ra||road |n Cavond|sh, was yostorday ongagod |n tamp|ng tor a b|ast, tho powdor oxp|odod,
carry|ng an |nstrumont through h|s hoad an |nch and a tourth |n [d|amotor|, and throo toot and [sovon| |nchos |n |ongth, wh|ch ho was us|ng at tho
t|mo. 1ho |ron ontorod on tho s|do ot h|s taco, shattor|ng tho uppor jaw, and pass|ng back ot tho |ott oyo, and out at tho top ot tho hoad.

1ho |ron tamp|ng rod c|attorod to tho ground twonty-t|vo yards away. Wh||o Gago wasn't tho t|rst to havo h|s sku|| puncturod and a port|on ot h|s
bra|n sp|r|tod away by a projoct||o, ho was tho t|rst to not d|o trom |t. ln tact, Gago d|d not ovon |oso consc|ousnoss.
1ho t|rst phys|c|an to arr|vo, 0r. Edward |. W||||ams, d|d not bo||ovo Gago's statomont ot what had just happonod, but |nstoad °thought ho [Gago|
was doco|vod.' 3ut W||||ams soon undorstood tho grav|ty ot what had happonod whon °Vr. G. got up and vom|tod, tho ottort ot vom|t|ng prossod out
about ha|t a toacuptu| ot tho bra|n, wh|ch to|| upon tho t|oor.'
1ho |arvard surgoon who stud|od h|s caso, 0r. |onry 1acob 3|go|ow, notod that °tho |oad|ng toaturo ot th|s caso |s |ts |mprobab|||ty.. [lt |s|
unpara||o|od |n tho anna|s ot surgory.'
4
1ho Bostoo Post art|c|o summar|zod th|s |mprobab|||ty w|th just ono moro sontonco: °1ho most s|ngu|ar
c|rcumstanco connoctod w|th th|s mo|ancho|y atta|r |s that ho was a||vo at 2:00 th|s attornoon, and |n tu|| possoss|on ot h|s roason, and troo trom
pa|n.'
b
Gago's surv|va| a|ono wou|d havo mado an |ntorost|ng mod|ca| caso, |t bocamo a tamous caso bocauso ot somoth|ng o|so that camo to ||ght.
1wo months attor tho acc|dont h|s phys|c|an roportod that Gago was °too||ng bottor |n ovory rospoct . wa|k|ng about tho houso aga|n, says ho
too|s no pa|n |n tho hoad.' 3ut toroshadow|ng a |argor prob|om, tho doctor a|so notod that Gago °appoars to bo |n a way ot rocovor|ng, |t ho can bo
contro||od.'
What d|d ho moan, °|t ho can bo contro||od'? lt turnod out that tho proacc|dont Gago had boon doscr|bod as °a groat tavor|to' among h|s toam,
and h|s omp|oyors had ha||od h|m as °tho most ott|c|ont and capab|o toroman |n tho|r omp|oy.' 3ut attor tho bra|n chango, h|s omp|oyors
°cons|dorod tho chango |n h|s m|nd so markod that thoy cou|d not g|vo h|m h|s p|aco aga|n.' As 0r. 1ohn Vartyn |ar|ow, tho phys|c|an |n chargo ot
Gago, wroto |n 1808:
1ho oqu|||br|um or ba|anco, so to spoak, botwoon h|s |nto||octua| tacu|t|os and an|ma| propons|t|os, sooms to havo boon dostroyod. |o |s
t|ttu|, |rrovoront, |ndu|g|ng at t|mos |n tho grossost protan|ty (wh|ch was not prov|ous|y h|s custom), man|tost|ng but ||tt|o dotoronco tor h|s
to||ows, |mpat|ont ot rostra|nt or adv|co whon |t cont||cts w|th h|s dos|ros, at t|mos port|nac|ous|y obst|nato, yot capr|c|ous and vac|||at|ng,
dov|s|ng many p|ans ot tuturo oporat|ons, wh|ch aro no soonor arrangod than thoy aro abandonod |n turn tor othors appoar|ng moro toas|b|o. A
ch||d |n h|s |nto||octua| capac|ty and man|tostat|ons, ho has tho an|ma| pass|ons ot a strong man. lrov|ous to h|s |njury, a|though untra|nod |n tho
schoo|s, ho possossod a wo||-ba|ancod m|nd, and was |ookod upon by thoso who know h|m as a shrowd, smart bus|nossman, vory onorgot|c
and pors|stont |n oxocut|ng a|| h|s p|ans ot oporat|on. ln th|s rogard h|s m|nd was rad|ca||y changod, so doc|dod|y that h|s tr|onds and
acqua|ntancos sa|d ho was °no |ongor Gago.'
0

ln tho |ntorvon|ng 148 yoars wo havo w|tnossod many moro ot naturo's trag|c oxpor|monts-strokos, tumors, dogonorat|on, and ovory var|oty ot
bra|n |njury-and thoso havo producod many moro casos ||ko lh|noas Gago's. 1ho |osson trom a|| thoso casos |s tho samo: tho cond|t|on ot your
bra|n |s contra| to who you aro. 1ho yoo that a|| your tr|onds know and |ovo cannot ox|st un|oss tho trans|stors and scrows ot your bra|n aro |n p|aco.
lt you don't bo||ovo th|s, stop |nto any nouro|ogy ward |n any hosp|ta|. 0amago to ovon sma|| parts ot tho bra|n can |oad to tho |oss ot shock|ng|y
spoc|t|c ab|||t|os: tho ab|||ty to namo an|ma|s, or to hoar mus|c, or to manago r|sky bohav|or, or to d|st|ngu|sh co|ors, or to arb|trato s|mp|o
doc|s|ons. Wo'vo a|roady soon oxamp|os ot th|s w|th tho pat|ont who |ost tho ab|||ty to soo mot|on (Chaptor 2), and tho lark|nson's gamb|ors and
trontotompora| shop||ttors who |ost tho ab|||ty to manago r|sk-tak|ng (Chaptor 0). 1ho|r ossonco was changod by tho changos |n tho|r bra|n.
A|| ot th|s |oads to a koy quost|on: do wo possoss a sou| that |s soparato trom our phys|ca| b|o|ogy-or aro wo s|mp|y an onormous|y comp|ox
b|o|og|ca| notwork that mochan|ca||y producos our hopos, asp|rat|ons, droams, dos|ros, humor, and pass|ons?
7
1ho major|ty ot poop|o on tho
p|anot voto tor tho oxtrab|o|og|ca| sou|, wh||o tho major|ty ot nourosc|ont|sts voto tor tho |attor: an ossonco that |s a natura| proporty that omorgos
trom a vast phys|ca| systom, and noth|ng moro bos|dos. 0o wo know wh|ch answor |s corroct? lot w|th corta|nty, but casos ||ko Gago's corta|n|y
soom to wo|gh |n on tho prob|om.
1ho motorlo|lst v|owpo|nt statos that wo aro, tundamonta||y, mado on|y ot phys|ca| mator|a|s. ln th|s v|ow, tho bra|n |s a systom whoso oporat|on |s
govornod by tho |aws ot chom|stry and phys|cs-w|th tho ond rosu|t that a|| ot your thoughts, omot|ons, and doc|s|ons aro producod by natura|
roact|ons to||ow|ng |oca| |aws to |owost potont|a| onorgy. Wo aro our bra|n and |ts chom|ca|s, and any d|a||ng ot tho knobs ot your noura| systom
changos wbo yoo oro. A common vors|on ot mator|a||sm |s ca||od roooctloolsm, th|s thoory puts torth tho hopo that wo can undorstand comp|ox
phonomona ||ko happ|noss, avar|co, narc|ss|sm, compass|on, ma||co, caut|on, and awo by succoss|vo|y roooclog tho prob|oms down to tho|r sma||-
sca|o b|o|og|ca| p|ocos and parts.
At t|rst b|ush, tho roduct|on|st v|owpo|nt sounds absurd to many poop|o. l know th|s bocauso l ask strangors tho|r op|n|on about |t whon l s|t noxt to
thom on a|rp|anos. And thoy usua||y say somoth|ng ||ko °look, a|| that stutt-how l camo to |ovo my w|to, why l choso my job, and a|| tho rost-that
has noth|ng to do w|th tho chom|stry ot my brolo. lt's just wbo l om.' And thoy'ro r|ght to th|nk that tho connoct|on botwoon your ossonco as a porson
and a squ|shy contodoracy ot co||s sooms d|stant at bost. 1ho passongors' doc|s|ons camo trom tbom, not a bunch ot chom|ca|s cascad|ng
through |nv|s|b|y sma|| cyc|os. l|ght?
3ut what happons whon wo crash |nto onough casos ||ko lh|noas Gago's? Or whon wo turn tho spot||ght on othor |nt|uoncos on tho bra|n-tar
moro subt|o than a tamp|ng rod-that chango poop|o's porsona||t|os?
Cons|dor tho powortu| ottocts ot tho sma|| mo|ocu|os wo ca|| narcot|cs. 1hoso mo|ocu|os a|tor consc|ousnoss, attoct cogn|t|on, and nav|gato
bohav|or. Wo aro s|avo to thoso mo|ocu|os. 1obacco, a|coho|, and coca|no aro so|t-adm|n|storod un|vorsa||y tor tho purposo ot mood chang|ng. lt
wo know noth|ng o|so about nourob|o|ogy, tho moro ox|stonco ot narcot|cs wou|d g|vo us a|| tho ov|donco wo roqu|ro that our bohav|or and
psycho|ogy can bo commandoorod at tho mo|ocu|ar |ovo|. 1ako coca|no as an oxamp|o. 1h|s drug |ntoracts w|th a spoc|t|c notwork |n tho bra|n, ono
that rog|stors roward|ng ovonts-anyth|ng trom s|ak|ng your th|rst w|th a coo| |cod toa, to w|nn|ng a sm||o trom tho r|ght porson, to crack|ng a tough
prob|om, to hoar|ng °Good job!' 3y ty|ng pos|t|vo outcomos to tho bohav|ors that |od to thom, th|s w|dosproad noura| c|rcu|t (known as tho
moso||mb|c dopam|no systom) |oarns how to opt|m|zo bohav|or |n tho wor|d. lt a|ds us |n gott|ng tood, dr|nk, and matos, and |t ho|ps us nav|gato
||to's da||y doc|s|ons.
¯
Out ot contoxt, coca|no |s a tota||y un|ntorost|ng mo|ocu|o: sovontoon carbon atoms, twonty-ono hydrogons, ono n|trogon, and tour oxygons. What
makos coca|no cocoloo |s tho tact that |ts acc|donta| shapo happons to t|t |ock-and-koy |nto tho m|croscop|c mach|nory ot tho roward c|rcu|ts. 1ho
samo goos tor a|| tour major c|assos ot drugs ot abuso: a|coho|, n|cot|no, psychost|mu|ants (such as amphotam|nos), and op|atos (such as
morph|no): by ono |nroad or anothor, thoy a|| p|ug |nto th|s roward c|rcu|try.
8
3ubstancos that can g|vo a shot |n tho arm to tho moso||mb|c dopam|no
systom havo so|t-ro|ntorc|ng ottocts, and usors w||| rob storos and mug o|dor|y poop|o to cont|nuo obta|n|ng thoso spoc|t|c mo|ocu|ar shapos. 1hoso
chom|ca|s, work|ng tho|r mag|c at sca|os ono thousand t|mos sma||or than tho w|dth ot a human ha|r, mako tho usors too| |nv|nc|b|o and ouphor|c.
3y p|ugg|ng |nto tho dopam|no systom, coca|no and |ts cous|ns commandoor tho roward systom, to|||ng tho bra|n that th|s |s tho bost poss|b|o th|ng
that cou|d bo happon|ng. 1ho anc|ont c|rcu|ts aro h|jackod.
1ho coca|no mo|ocu|os aro hundrods ot m||||ons ot t|mos sma||or than tho tamp|ng rod that shot through lh|noas Gago's bra|n, and yot tho |osson
|s tho samo: who you aro doponds on tho sum tota| ot your nourob|o|ogy.
And tho dopam|no systom |s on|y ono ot hundrods ot oxamp|os. 1ho oxact |ovo|s ot dozons ot othor nourotransm|ttors-tor oxamp|o, soroton|n-
aro cr|t|ca| tor who you bo||ovo yourso|t to bo. lt you suttor trom c||n|ca| dopross|on, you w||| probab|y bo proscr|bod a mod|cat|on known as a
so|oct|vo soroton|n rouptako |nh|b|tor (abbrov|atod as an 33ll)-somoth|ng such as t|uoxot|no or sortra||no or paroxot|no or c|ta|opram. Evoryth|ng
you nood to know about how thoso drugs work |s conta|nod |n tho words °uptako |nh|b|tor': norma||y, channo|s ca||od transportors tako up soroton|n
trom tho spaco botwoon nourons, tho |nh|b|t|on ot thoso channo|s |oads to a h|ghor concontrat|on ot soroton|n |n tho bra|n. And tho |ncroasod
concontrat|on has d|roct consoquoncos on cogn|t|on and omot|on. loop|o on thoso mod|cat|ons can go trom cry|ng on tho odgo ot tho|r bod to
stand|ng up, showor|ng, gott|ng tho|r job back, and roscu|ng hoa|thy ro|at|onsh|ps w|th tho poop|o |n tho|r ||to. A|| bocauso ot a subt|o t|no-tun|ng ot a
nourotransm|ttor systom.
0
lt th|s story woron't so common, |ts b|zarronoss cou|d bo moro oas||y approc|atod.
lt's not just nourotransm|ttors that |nt|uonco your cogn|t|on. 1ho samo goos tor hormonos, tho |nv|s|b|y sma|| mo|ocu|os that surt tho b|oodstroam
and causo commot|on at ovory port thoy v|s|t. lt you |njoct a toma|o rat w|th ostrogon, sho w||| bog|n soxua| sook|ng, tostostorono |n a ma|o rat
causos aggross|on. ln tho prov|ous chaptor wo |oarnod about tho wrost|or Chr|s 3ono|t, who took mass|vo dosos ot tostostorono and murdorod h|s
w|to and h|s own ch||d |n a hormono rago. And |n Chaptor 4 wo saw that tho hormono vasopross|n |s ||nkod to t|do||ty. As anothor oxamp|o, just
cons|dor tho hormono t|uctuat|ons that accompany norma| monstrua| cyc|os. locont|y, a toma|o tr|ond ot m|no was at tho bottom ot hor monstrua|
mood changos. 3ho put on a wan sm||o and sa|d, °You know, l'm just not myso|t tor a tow days oach month.' 3o|ng a nourosc|ont|st, sho thon
rot|octod tor a momont and addod, °Or maybo tbls |s tho roa| mo, and l'm actua||y somoono o|so tho othor twonty-sovon days ot tho month.' Wo
|aughod. 3ho was not atra|d to v|ow horso|t as tho sum tota| ot hor chom|ca|s at any momont. 3ho undorstood that what wo th|nk ot as bor |s
somoth|ng ||ko a t|mo-avoragod vors|on.
A|| th|s adds up to somoth|ng ot a strango not|on ot a so|t. 3ocauso ot |naccoss|b|o t|uctuat|ons |n our b|o|og|ca| soup, somo days wo t|nd
ourso|vos moro |rr|tab|o, humorous, wo|| spokon, ca|m, onorg|zod, or c|oar-th|nk|ng. Our |ntorna| ||to and oxtorna| act|ons aro stoorod by b|o|og|ca|
cockta||s to wh|ch wo havo no|thor |mmod|ato accoss nor d|roct acqua|ntanco.
And don't torgot that tho |ong ||st ot |nt|uoncos on your monta| ||to strotchos tar boyond chom|ca|s-|t |nc|udos tho dota||s ot c|rcu|try, as wo||.
Cons|dor op||opsy. lt an op||opt|c so|zuro |s tocusod |n a part|cu|ar swoot spot |n tho tompora| |obo, a porson won't havo motor so|zuros, but |nstoad
somoth|ng moro subt|o. 1ho ottoct |s somoth|ng ||ko a cogn|t|vo so|zuro, markod by changos ot porsona||ty, hyporro||g|os|ty (an obsoss|on w|th
ro||g|on and a too||ng ot ro||g|ous corta|nty), hyporgraph|a (oxtons|vo wr|t|ng on a subjoct, usua||y about ro||g|on), tho ta|so sonso ot an oxtorna|
prosonco, and, otton, tho hoar|ng ot vo|cos that aro attr|butod to a god.
10
3omo tract|on ot h|story's prophots, martyrs, and |oadors appoar to havo
had tompora| |obo op||opsy.
11
Cons|dor 1oan ot Arc, tho s|xtoon-yoar-o|d-g|r| who managod to turn tho t|do ot tho |undrod Yoars War bocauso sho
bo||ovod (and conv|ncod tho |ronch so|d|ors) that sho was hoar|ng vo|cos trom 3a|nt V|chao| tho archango|, 3a|nt Cathor|no ot A|oxandr|a, 3a|nt
Vargarot, and 3a|nt Gabr|o|. As sho doscr|bod hor oxpor|onco, °Whon l was th|rtoon, l had a vo|co trom God to ho|p mo to govorn myso|t. 1ho t|rst
t|mo, l was torr|t|od. 1ho vo|co camo to mo about noon: |t was summor, and l was |n my tathor's gardon.' lator sho roportod, °3|nco God had
commandod mo to go, l must do |t. And s|nco God had commandod |t, had l had a hundrod tathors and a hundrod mothors, and had l boon a k|ng's
daughtor, l wou|d havo gono.' A|though |t's |mposs|b|o to rotrospoct|vo|y d|agnoso w|th corta|nty, hor typ|ca| roports, |ncroas|ng ro||g|os|ty, and
ongo|ng vo|cos aro corta|n|y cons|stont w|th tompora| |obo op||opsy. Whon bra|n act|v|ty |s k|nd|od |n tho r|ght spot, poop|o hoar vo|cos. lt a
phys|c|an proscr|bos an ant|-op||opt|c mod|cat|on, tho so|zuros go away and tho vo|cos d|sappoar. Our roa||ty doponds on what our b|o|ogy |s up to.
lnt|uoncos on your cogn|t|vo ||to a|so |nc|udo t|ny nonhuman croaturos: m|croorgan|sms such as v|rusos and bactor|a ho|d sway ovor bohav|or |n
oxtromo|y spoc|t|c ways, wag|ng |nv|s|b|o batt|os |ns|do us. |oro's my tavor|to oxamp|o ot a m|croscop|ca||y sma|| organ|sm tak|ng ovor tho
bohav|or ot a g|ant mach|no: tho rab|os v|rus. Attor a b|to trom ono mamma| to anothor, th|s t|ny bu||ot-shapod v|rus c||mbs |ts way up tho norvos and
|nto tho tompora| |obo ot tho bra|n. 1horo |t |ngrat|atos |tso|t |nto tho |oca| nourons, and by chang|ng tho |oca| pattorns ot act|v|ty |t |nducos tho
|ntoctod host to aggross|on, rago, and a propons|ty to b|to. 1ho v|rus a|so movos |nto tho sa||vary g|ands, and |n th|s way |t |s passod on through tho
b|to to tho noxt host. 3y stoor|ng tho bohav|or ot tho an|ma|, tho v|rus onsuros |ts sproad to othor hosts. 1ust th|nk about that: tho v|rus, a moas|y
sovonty-t|vo b||||onths ot a motor |n d|amotor, surv|vos by commandoor|ng tho mass|vo body ot an an|ma| twonty-t|vo m||||on t|mos |argor than |t. lt
wou|d bo ||ko you t|nd|ng a croaturo 28,000 m||os ta|| and do|ng somoth|ng vory c|ovor to bond |ts w||| to yours.
12
1ho cr|t|ca| tako-homo |osson |s
that |nv|s|b|y sma|| changos |ns|do tho bra|n can causo mass|vo changos to bohav|or. Our cho|cos aro |nsoparab|y marr|od to tho t|n|ost dota||s ot
our mach|nory.
18
As a t|na| oxamp|o ot our dopondonco on our b|o|ogy, noto that t|ny mutat|ons |n s|ng|o gonos a|so dotorm|no and chango bohav|or. Cons|dor
|unt|ngton's d|soaso, |n wh|ch croop|ng damago |n tho tronta| cortox |oads to changos |n porsona||ty, such as aggross|vonoss, hyporsoxua||ty,
|mpu|s|vo bohav|or, and d|srogard tor soc|a| norms-a|| happon|ng yoars botoro tho moro rocogn|zab|o symptom ot spast|c ||mb movomont
appoars.
14
1ho po|nt to approc|ato |s that |unt|ngton's |s causod by a mutat|on |n a s|ng|o gono. As lobort 3apo|sky summar|zos |t, °A|tor ono
gono among tons ot thousands and, approx|mato|y ha|tway through ono's ||to, thoro occurs a dramat|c transtormat|on ot porsona||ty.'
1b
ln tho taco ot
such oxamp|os, can wo conc|udo anyth|ng othor than a dopondonco ot our ossonco on tho dota||s ot our b|o|ogy? Cou|d you to|| a porson w|th
|unt|ngton's to uso h|s °troo w|||' to qu|t act|ng so strango|y?
3o wo soo that tho |nv|s|b|y sma|| mo|ocu|os wo ca|| narcot|cs, nourotransm|ttors, hormonos, v|rusos, and gonos can p|aco tho|r ||tt|o hands on tho
stoor|ng whoo| ot our bohav|or. As soon as your dr|nk |s sp|kod, your sandw|ch |s snoozod upon, or your gonomo p|cks up a mutat|on, your sh|p
movos |n a d|ttoront d|roct|on. 1ry as you m|ght to mako |t othorw|so, tho changos |n your mach|nory |oad to changos |n you. G|von thoso tacts on
tho ground, |t |s tar trom c|oar that wo ho|d tho opt|on ot °choos|ng' who wo wou|d ||ko to bo. As tho nourooth|c|st Vartha |arah puts |t, |t an
ant|doprossant p||| °can ho|p us tako ovoryday prob|oms |n str|do, and |t a st|mu|ant can ho|p us moot our doad||nos and koop our comm|tmonts at
work, thon must not unt|abbab|o tomporamonts and consc|ont|ous charactors a|so bo toaturos ot poop|o's bod|os? And |t so, |s thoro anyth|ng
about poop|o that |s oot a toaturo ot tho|r bod|os?'
10
Who you turn out to bo doponds on such a vast notwork ot tactors that |t w||| prosumab|y roma|n |mposs|b|o to mako a ono-to-ono mapp|ng
botwoon mo|ocu|os and bohav|or (moro on that |n tho momont). lonotho|oss, dosp|to tho comp|ox|ty, your wor|d |s d|roct|y t|od to your b|o|ogy. lt
thoro's somoth|ng ||ko a sou|, |t |s at m|n|mum tang|od |rrovors|b|y w|th tho m|croscop|c dota||s. Whatovor o|so may bo go|ng on w|th our mystor|ous
ox|stonco, our connoct|on to our b|o|ogy |s boyond doubt. |rom th|s po|nt ot v|ow, you can soo why b|o|og|ca| roduct|on|sm has a strong tootho|d |n
modorn bra|n sc|onco. 3ut roduct|on|sm |sn't tho who|o story.
FRON 1EE COLOR OF YOuR PA55POR1 1O ENERCEN1 PROPER1|E5

Vost poop|o havo hoard ot tho |uman Gonomo lrojoct, |n wh|ch our spoc|os succosstu||y docodod tho b||||ons-ot-|ottors-|ong soquonco |n our own
gonot|c codobook. 1ho projoct was a |andmark ach|ovomont, ha||od w|th tho propor tantaro.
lot ovoryono has hoard that tho projoct has boon, |n somo sonso, a ta||uro. Onco wo soquoncod tho who|o codo, wo d|dn't t|nd tho hopod-tor
broakthrough answors about tho gonos that aro un|quo to humank|nd, |nstoad wo d|scovorod a mass|vo roc|po book tor bu||d|ng tho nuts and bo|ts
ot b|o|og|ca| organ|sms. Wo tound that othor an|ma|s havo ossont|a||y tho samo gonomo wo do, th|s |s bocauso thoy aro mado ot tho samo nuts
and bo|ts, on|y |n d|ttoront cont|gurat|ons. 1ho human gonomo |s not torr|b|y d|ttoront trom tho trog gonomo, ovon though humans aro torr|b|y
d|ttoront trom trogs. At |oast, humans and trogs soom qu|to d|ttoront at t|rst. 3ut koop |n m|nd that both roqu|ro tho roc|pos to bu||d oyos, sp|oons,
sk|n, bonos, hoarts, and so on. As a rosu|t, tho two gonomos aro not so d|ss|m||ar. lmag|no go|ng to d|ttoront tactor|os and oxam|n|ng tho p|tchos
and |ongths ot tho scrows usod. 1h|s wou|d to|| you ||tt|o about tho tunct|on ot tho t|na| product-say, a toastor vorsus a b|ow dryor. 3oth havo s|m||ar
o|omonts cont|gurod |nto d|ttoront tunct|ons.
1ho tact that wo d|dn't |oarn what wo thought wo m|ght |s not a cr|t|c|sm ot tho |uman Gonomo lrojoct, |t had to bo dono as a t|rst stop. 3ut |t ls
to acknow|odgo that succoss|vo |ovo|s ot roduct|on aro doomod to to|| us vory ||tt|o about tho quost|ons |mportant to humans.
lot's roturn to tho |unt|ngton's oxamp|o, |n wh|ch a s|ng|o gono dotorm|nos whothor or not you'|| dovo|op tho d|soaso. 1hat sounds ||ko a succoss
story tor roduct|on|sm. 3ut noto that |unt|ngton's |s ono ot tho vory tow oxamp|os that can bo drodgod up tor th|s sort ot ottoct. 1ho roduct|on ot a
d|soaso to a slog|o mutat|on |s oxtraord|nar||y raro: most d|soasos aro po|ygonot|c, moan|ng that thoy rosu|t trom subt|o contr|but|ons trom tons or
ovon hundrods ot d|ttoront gonos. And as sc|onco dovo|ops bottor tochn|quos, wo aro d|scovor|ng that not just tho cod|ng rog|ons ot gonos mattor,
but a|so tho aroas |n botwoon-what usod to bo thought ot as °junk' 0lA. Vost d|soasos soom to rosu|t trom a portoct storm ot numorous m|nor
changos that comb|no |n droadtu||y comp|ox ways.
3ut tho s|tuat|on |s tar worso than just a mu|t|p|o-gonos prob|om: tho contr|but|ons trom tho gonomo can roa||y bo undorstood on|y |n tho contoxt ot
|ntoract|on w|th tho onv|ronmont. Cons|dor sch|zophron|a, a d|soaso tor wh|ch toams ot rosoarchors havo boon gono hunt|ng tor docados now.
|avo thoy tound any gonos that corro|ato w|th tho d|soaso? 3uro thoy havo. |undrods, |n tact. 0oos tho possoss|on ot any ono ot thoso gonos ottor
much |n tho way ot prod|ct|on about who w||| dovo|op sch|zophron|a as a young adu|t? vory ||tt|o. lo s|ng|o gono mutat|on |s as prod|ct|vo ot
sch|zophron|a as tho co|or ot your passport.
What doos your passport havo to do w|th sch|zophron|a? lt turns out that tho soc|a| stross ot bo|ng an |mm|grant to a now country |s ono ot tho
cr|t|ca| tactors |n dovo|op|ng sch|zophron|a.
17
ln stud|os across countr|os, |mm|grant groups who d|ttor tho most |n cu|turo and appoaranco trom tho
host popu|at|on carry tho h|ghost r|sk. ln othor words, a |owor |ovo| ot soc|a| accoptanco |nto tho major|ty corro|atos w|th a h|ghor chanco ot a
sch|zophron|c broak. ln ways not curront|y undorstood, |t appoars that ropoatod soc|a| rojoct|on porturbs tho norma| tunct|on|ng ot tho dopam|no
systoms. 3ut ovon thoso gonora||zat|ons don't to|| tho who|o story, bocauso w|th|n a s|ng|o |mm|grant group (say, Koroans |n Amor|ca), thoso who
too| worso about tho|r othn|c d|ttoroncos trom tho major|ty aro moro ||ko|y to bocomo psychot|c. 1hoso who aro proud and comtortab|o w|th tho|r
hor|tago aro monta||y sator.
1h|s nows comos as a surpr|so to many. ls sch|zophron|a gonot|c or |sn't |t? 1ho answor |s that gonot|cs p|ay a ro|o. lt tho gonot|cs produco nuts
and bo|ts that havo a s||ght|y strango shapo, tho who|o systom may run |n an unusua| mannor whon put |n part|cu|ar onv|ronmonts. ln othor
onv|ronmonts, tho shapo ot tho nuts and bo|ts may not mattor. Whon a|| |s sa|d and dono, how a porson turns out doponds on much moro than tho
mo|ocu|ar suggost|ons wr|tton down |n tho 0lA.
lomombor what wo sa|d oar||or about hav|ng an 828 porcont h|ghor chanco ot comm|tt|ng a v|o|ont cr|mo |t you carry tho Y chromosomo? 1ho
statomont |s tactua|, but tho |mportant quost|on to ask |s th|s: why aron't o|| ma|os cr|m|na|s? 1hat |s, on|y 1 porcont ot ma|os aro |ncarcoratod.
18
What's go|ng on?
1ho answor |s that know|odgo ot tho gonos a|ono |s not sutt|c|ont to to|| you much about bohav|or. Cons|dor tho work ot 3tophon 3uom|, a
rosoarchor who ra|sos monkoys |n natura| onv|ronmonts |n rura| Vary|and. ln th|s sott|ng, ho |s ab|o to obsorvo tho monkoys' soc|a| bohav|or trom
tho|r day ot b|rth.
10
Ono ot tho t|rst th|ngs ho not|cod was that monkoys bog|n to oxpross d|ttoront porsona||t|os trom a surpr|s|ng|y oar|y ago. |o
saw that v|rtua||y ovory soc|a| bohav|or was dovo|opod, pract|cod, and portoctod dur|ng tho courso ot poor p|ay by tour to s|x months ot ago. 1h|s
obsorvat|on wou|d havo boon |ntorost|ng by |tso|t, but 3uom| was ab|o to comb|no tho bohav|ora| obsorvat|ons w|th rogu|ar b|ood tost|ng ot
hormonos and motabo||tos, as wo|| as gonot|c ana|ys|s.
What ho tound among tho baby monkoys was that 20 porcont ot thom d|sp|ayod soc|a| anx|oty. 1hoy roactod to novo|, m||d|y strosstu| soc|a|
s|tuat|ons w|th unusua||y toartu| and anx|ous bohav|or, and th|s corro|atod w|th |ong-|ast|ng o|ovat|ons ot stross hormonos |n tho|r b|ood.
On tho othor ond ot tho soc|a| spoctrum, b porcont ot tho baby monkoys woro ovor|y aggross|vo. 1hoy showod |mpu|s|vo and |nappropr|ato|y
bo|||goront bohav|or. 1hoso monkoys had |ow |ovo|s ot a b|ood motabo||to ro|atod to tho broakdown on tho nourotransm|ttor soroton|n.
Upon |nvost|gat|on, 3uom| and h|s toam tound that thoro woro two d|ttoront °t|avors' ot gonos (ca||od a||o|os by gonot|c|sts) that ono cou|d
possoss tor a proto|n |nvo|vod |n transport|ng soroton|n
20
-|ot's ca|| thoso tho short and |ong torms. 1ho monkoys w|th tho short torm showod poor
contro| ot v|o|onco, wh||o thoso w|th tho |ong torm d|sp|ayod norma| bohav|ora| contro|.
3ut that turnod out to bo on|y part ot tho story. |ow a monkoy's porsona||ty dovo|opod dopondod on |ts onv|ronmont as wo||. 1horo woro two ways
tho monkoys cou|d bo roarod: w|th tho|r mothors (good onv|ronmont) or w|th tho|r poors (|nsocuro attachmont ro|at|onsh|ps). 1ho monkoys w|th tho
short torm ondod up as tho aggross|vo typo whon thoy woro ra|sod w|th tho|r poors, but d|d much bottor whon thoy woro ra|sod w|th tho|r mothors.
|or thoso w|th tho |ong torm ot tho gono, tho roar|ng onv|ronmont d|d not soom to mattor much, thoy woro wo|| adjustod |n o|thor caso.
1horo aro at |oast two ways to |ntorprot thoso rosu|ts. 1ho t|rst |s that tho |ong a||o|o |s a °good gono' that contors ros|||onco aga|nst a bad
ch||dhood onv|ronmont (|owor |ott cornor ot tho tab|o bo|ow). 1ho socond |s that a good mothor|ng ro|at|onsh|p somohow g|vos ros|||oncy tor thoso
monkoys who wou|d othorw|so turn out to bo bad soods (uppor r|ght cornor). 1hoso two |ntorprotat|ons aro not oxc|us|vo, and thoy both bo|| down to
tho samo |mportant |osson: a comb|nat|on ot gonot|cs and onv|ronmont mattors tor tho t|na| outcomo.

W|th tho succoss ot tho monkoy stud|os, poop|o bogan to study gono-onv|ronmont |ntoract|ons |n humans.
21
ln 2001, Avsha|om Casp| and h|s
co||oaguos bogan to wondor whothor thoro aro gonos tor dopross|on. Whon thoy wont on tho hunt, thoy tound that tho answor |s °sort ot.' 1hoy
|oarnod that thoro aro gonos that proolsposo you, whothor you actua||y suttor trom dopross|on doponds on your ||to's ovonts.
22
1ho rosoarchors
d|scovorod th|s by carotu||y |ntorv|ow|ng dozons ot poop|o to t|nd out what sort ot major traumat|c ovonts had transp|rod |n tho|r ||vos: |oss ot a |ovod
ono, a major car acc|dont, and tho ||ko. |or oach part|c|pant, thoy a|so ana|yzod tho gonot|cs-spoc|t|ca||y, tho torm ot a gono |nvo|vod |n rogu|at|on
ot soroton|n |ovo|s |n tho bra|n. 3ocauso poop|o carry two cop|os ot tho gono (ono trom oach paront), thoro aro throo poss|b|o comb|nat|ons
somoono m|ght carry: short/short, short/|ong, or |ong/|ong. 1ho amaz|ng rosu|t was that tho short/short comb|nat|on prod|sposod tho part|c|pants to
c||n|ca| dopross|on, but on|y |t thoy oxpor|oncod an |ncroas|ng numbor ot bad ||to ovonts. lt thoy woro |ucky onough to ||vo a good ||to, thon carry|ng
tho short/short comb|nat|on mado thom no moro ||ko|y than anyono o|so to bocomo c||n|ca||y doprossod. 3ut |t thoy woro un|ucky onough to run |nto
sor|ous troub|os, |nc|ud|ng ovonts that woro ont|ro|y out ot tho|r contro|, thon thoy woro moro than tw|co as ||ko|y to bocomo doprossod as somoono
w|th tho |ong/|ong comb|nat|on.
A socond study addrossod a doop soc|ota| concorn: thoso w|th abus|vo paronts tond to bo abus|vo thomso|vos. Vany poop|o bo||ovo th|s
statomont, but |s |t roa||y truo? And doos |t mattor what k|nd ot gonos tho ch||d |s carry|ng? What caught tho attont|on ot rosoarchors was tho tact
that somo abusod ch||dron bocomo v|o|ont as adu|ts wh||o othors do not. Whon a|| tho obv|ous tactors woro contro||od tor, tho tact stood that
ch||dhood abuso, by |tso|t, d|d not prod|ct how an |nd|v|dua| wou|d turn out. lnsp|rod to undorstand tho d|ttoronco botwoon thoso who porpotuato tho
v|o|onco and thoso who do not, Casp| and h|s co||oaguos d|scovorod that a sma|| chango |n tho oxpross|on ot a part|cu|ar gono d|ttoront|atod thoso
ch||dron.
28
Ch||dron w|th |ow oxpross|on ot tho gono woro moro ||ko|y to dovo|op conduct d|sordors and bocomo v|o|ont cr|m|na|s as adu|ts.
|owovor, th|s bad outcomo was much moro ||ko|y |t tho ch||dron woro abusod. lt thoy harborod tho °bad' torms ot tho gono but had boon sparod
ch||dhood abuso, thoy woro not ||ko|y to bocomo abusors. And |t thoy harborod tho °good' torms, thon ovon a ch||dhood ot sovoro ma|troatmont
wou|d not nocossar||y dr|vo thom to cont|nuo tho cyc|o ot v|o|onco.

lrod|spos|t|ons |n tho gonos. Why do strosstu| oxpor|oncos |oad to dopross|on |n somo |nd|v|dua|s but not |n othors? lt may bo a mattor ot gonot|c prod|spos|t|on. |rom Casp| ot a|.,
5clooco, 2008.

A th|rd oxamp|o comos trom tho obsorvat|on that smok|ng cannab|s (mar|juana) as a toonagor |ncroasos tho probab|||ty ot dovo|op|ng psychos|s
as an adu|t. 3ut th|s connoct|on |s truo on|y tor somo poop|o, and not tor othors. 3y th|s po|nt, you can guoss tho punch ||no: a gonot|c var|at|on
undor||os ono's suscopt|b|||ty to th|s. W|th ono comb|nat|on ot a||o|os, thoro |s a strong ||nk botwoon cannab|s uso and adu|t psychos|s, w|th a
d|ttoront comb|nat|on, tho ||nk |s woak.
24
3|m||ar|y, psycho|og|sts Ango|a 3carpa and Adr|an la|no moasurod d|ttoroncos |n bra|n tunct|on among poop|o d|agnosod w|th ant|soc|a|
porsona||ty d|sordor-a syndromo charactor|zod by a tota| d|srogard tor tho too||ngs and r|ghts ot othors, and ono that |s h|gh|y prova|ont among tho
cr|m|na| popu|at|on. 1ho rosoarchors tound that ant|soc|a| porsona||ty d|sordor had tho h|ghost ||ko||hood ot occurr|ng whon bra|n abnorma||t|os
woro comblooo w|th a h|story ot advorso onv|ronmonta| oxpor|oncos.
2b
ln othor words, |t you havo corta|n prob|oms w|th your bra|n but aro ra|sod |n
a good homo, you m|ght turn out okay. lt your bra|n |s t|no and your homo |s torr|b|o, you m|ght st||| turn out t|no. 3ut |t you havo m||d bra|n damago
ooo ond up w|th a bad homo ||to, you'ro toss|ng tho d|co tor a vory un|ucky synorgy.
1hoso oxamp|os domonstrato that |t |s no|thor b|o|ogy a|ono nor onv|ronmont a|ono that dotorm|nos tho t|na| product ot a porsona||ty.
20
Whon |t
comos to tho naturo vorsus nurturo quost|on, tho answor a|most a|ways |nc|udos both.
As wo saw |n tho prov|ous chaptor, you chooso no|thor your naturo nor your nurturo, much |oss tho|r ontang|od |ntoract|on. You |nhor|t a gonot|c
b|uopr|nt and aro born |nto a wor|d ovor wh|ch you havo no cho|co throughout your most tormat|vo yoars. 1h|s |s tho roason poop|o como to tho
tab|o w|th qu|to d|ttoront ways ot soo|ng tho wor|d, d|ss|m||ar porsona||t|os, and var|od capac|t|os tor doc|s|on mak|ng. 1hoso aro not cho|cos, thoso
aro tho doa|t hands ot cards. 1ho po|nt ot tho prov|ous chaptor was to h|gh||ght tho d|tt|cu|ty ot ass|gn|ng cu|pab|||ty undor thoso c|rcumstancos. 1ho
po|nt ot th|s chaptor |s to h|gh||ght tho tact that tho mach|nory that makos us who wo aro |s not s|mp|o, and that sc|onco |s not porchod on tho vorgo
ot undorstand|ng how to bu||d m|nds trom p|ocos and parts. W|thout a doubt, m|nds and b|o|ogy aro connoctod-but not |n a mannor that wo'|| havo
any hopo ot undorstand|ng w|th a puro|y roduct|on|st approach.
loduct|on|sm |s m|s|oad|ng tor two roasons. ||rst, as wo havo just soon, tho untathomab|o comp|ox|ty ot gono-onv|ronmont |ntoract|ons puts us
a |ong way trom undorstand|ng how any |nd|v|dua|-w|th hor ||tot|mo ot oxpor|oncos, convorsat|ons, abusos, joys, |ngostod toods, rocroat|ona|
drugs, proscr|bod mod|cat|ons, post|c|dos, oducat|ona| oxpor|onco, and so on-w||| dovo|op. lt's s|mp|y too comp|ox and w||| prosumab|y roma|n
so.
3ocond, ovon wh||o |t's truo that wo aro t|od to our mo|ocu|os and proto|ns and nourons-as strokos and hormonos and drugs and
m|croorgan|sms |nd|sputab|y to|| us-|t doos not |og|ca||y to||ow that humans aro bost doscr|bod on|y as p|ocos and parts. 1ho oxtromo roduct|on|st
|doa that wo aro oo moro tboo tho co||s ot wh|ch wo aro composod |s a nonstartor tor anyono try|ng to undorstand human bohav|or. 1ust bocauso a
systom |s mado ot p|ocos and parts, and just bocauso thoso p|ocos and parts aro cr|t|ca| to tho work|ng ot tho systom, that doos not moan that tho
p|ocos and parts aro tho corroct |ovo| ot doscr|pt|on.
3o why d|d roduct|on|sm catch on |n tho t|rst p|aco? 1o undorstand th|s, wo nood on|y to oxam|no |ts h|stor|ca| roots. Ovor rocont contur|os,
th|nk|ng mon and womon watchod tho growth ot dotorm|n|st|c sc|onco around thom |n tho torm ot tho dotorm|n|st|c oquat|ons ot Ga|||oo, lowton,
and othors. 1hoso sc|ont|sts pu||od spr|ngs and ro||od ba||s and droppod wo|ghts, and |ncroas|ng|y thoy woro ab|o to prod|ct what tho objocts wou|d
do w|th s|mp|o oquat|ons. 3y tho n|notoonth contury, l|orro-3|mon lap|aco had proposod that |t ono cou|d know tho pos|t|on ot ovory part|c|o |n tho
un|vorso, thon ono cou|d computo torward to know tho ont|ro tuturo (and crank tho oquat|ons |n tho othor d|roct|on to know ovoryth|ng past). 1h|s
h|stor|ca| succoss story |s tho hoart ot roduct|on|sm, wh|ch ossont|a||y proposos that ovoryth|ng b|g can bo undorstood by d|scorn|ng sma||or and
sma||or p|ocos ot |t. ln th|s v|owpo|nt, tho arrows ot undorstand|ng a|| po|nt to tho sma||or |ovo|s: humans can bo undorstood |n torms ot b|o|ogy,
b|o|ogy |n tho |anguago ot chom|stry, and chom|stry |n tho oquat|ons ot atom|c phys|cs. loduct|on|sm has boon tho ong|no ot sc|onco s|nco botoro
tho lona|ssanco.
3ut roduct|on|sm |s not tho r|ght v|owpo|nt tor ovoryth|ng, and |t corta|n|y won't oxp|a|n tho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon tho bra|n and tho m|nd. 1h|s |s
bocauso ot a toaturo known as omorgooco.
27
Whon you put togothor |argo numbors ot p|ocos and parts, tho who|o can bocomo somoth|ng groator
than tho sum. lono ot tho |nd|v|dua| mota| hunks ot an a|rp|ano havo tho proporty ot í|lgbt, but whon thoy aro attachod togothor |n tho r|ght way, tho
rosu|t takos to tho a|r. A th|n mota| bar won't do you much good |t you'ro try|ng to contro| a jaguar, but sovora| ot thom |n para||o| havo tho proporty ot
cootolomoot. 1ho concopt ot omorgont proport|os moans that somoth|ng now can bo |ntroducod that |s not |nhoront |n any ot tho parts.
As anothor oxamp|o, |mag|no you woro an urban h|ghway p|annor and you noodod to undorstand your c|ty's tratt|c t|ow: whoro tho cars tond to
bunch up, whoro poop|o spood, and whoro tho most dangorous attompts at pass|ng occur. lt won't tako you |ong to roa||zo that an undorstand|ng ot
thoso |ssuos w||| roqu|ro somo modo| ot tho psycho|ogy ot tho dr|vors thomso|vos. You wou|d |oso your job |t you proposod to study tho |ongth ot tho
scrows and tho combust|on ott|c|oncy ot tho spark p|ugs |n tho ong|nos. 1hoso aro tho wrong |ovo|s ot doscr|pt|on tor undorstand|ng tratt|c jams.
1h|s |s not to say that tho sma|| p|ocos don't mattor, thoy oo mattor. As wo saw w|th bra|ns, add|ng narcot|cs, chang|ng nourotransm|ttor |ovo|s, or
mutat|ng gonos can rad|ca||y a|tor tho ossonco ot a porson. 3|m||ar|y, |t you mod|ty scrows and spark p|ugs, tho ong|nos work d|ttoront|y, cars m|ght
spood or s|ow, and othor cars m|ght crash |nto thom. 3o tho conc|us|on |s c|oar: wh||o tratt|c t|ow doponds on tho |ntogr|ty ot tho parts, |t |s not |n any
moan|ngtu| way oqolvo|oot to tho parts. lt you want to know why tho to|ov|s|on show 7bo 5lmpsoos |s tunny, you won't got tar by study|ng tho
trans|stors and capac|tors |n tho back ot your p|asma-scroon to|ov|s|on. You m|ght bo ab|o to o|uc|dato tho o|octron|c parts |n groat dota|| and
probab|y |oarn a th|ng or two about o|octr|c|ty, but that won't got you any c|osor to undorstand|ng h||ar|ty. Watch|ng 7bo 5lmpsoos doponds ont|ro|y
on tho |ntogr|ty ot tho trans|stors, but tho parts aro not thomso|vos tunny. 3|m||ar|y, wh||o m|nds dopond on tho |ntogr|ty ot nourons, nourons aro not
thomso|vos th|nk|ng.
And th|s torcos a rocons|dorat|on ot how to bu||d a sc|ont|t|c account ot tho bra|n. lt wo woro to work out a comp|oto phys|cs ot nourons and tho|r
chom|ca|s, wou|d that o|uc|dato tho m|nd? lrobab|y not. 1ho bra|n prosumab|y doos not broak tho |aws ot phys|cs, but that doos not moan that
oquat|ons doscr|b|ng dota||od b|ochom|ca| |ntoract|ons w||| amount to tho corroct |ovo| ot doscr|pt|on. As tho comp|ox|ty thoor|st 3tuart Kauttman
puts |t, °A coup|o |n |ovo wa|k|ng a|ong tho banks ot tho 3o|no aro, |n roa| tact, a coup|o |n |ovo wa|k|ng a|ong tho banks ot tho 3o|no, not moro
part|c|os |n mot|on.'
A moan|ngtu| thoory ot human b|o|ogy cannot bo roducod to chom|stry and phys|cs, but |nstoad must bo undorstood |n |ts own vocabu|ary ot
ovo|ut|on, compot|t|on, roward, dos|ro, roputat|on, avar|co, tr|ondsh|p, trust, hungor, and so on-|n tho samo way that tratt|c t|ow w||| bo undorstood
not |n tho vocabu|ary ot scrows and spark p|ugs, but |nstoad |n torms ot spood ||m|ts, rush hours, road rago, and poop|o want|ng to got homo to tho|r
tam|||os as soon as poss|b|o whon tho|r workday |s ovor.
1horo's anothor roason why tho noura| p|ocos and parts won't bo sutt|c|ont tor a tu|| undorstand|ng ot human oxpor|onco: your bra|n |s not tho on|y
b|o|og|ca| p|ayor |n tho gamo ot dotorm|n|ng who you aro. 1ho bra|n |s t|od |n constant two-way commun|cat|on w|th tho ondocr|no and |mmuno
systoms, wh|ch can bo thought ot as tho °groator norvous systom.' 1ho groator norvous systom |s, |n turn, |nsoparab|o trom tho chom|ca|
onv|ronmonts that |nt|uonco |ts dovo|opmont-|nc|ud|ng nutr|t|on, |oad pa|nt, a|r po||utants, and so on. And you aro part ot a comp|ox soc|a| notwork
that changos your b|o|ogy w|th ovory |ntoract|on, and wh|ch your act|ons can chango |n roturn. 1h|s makos tho bordors |ntorost|ng to contomp|ato:
how shou|d wo dot|no yoo? Whoro do you bog|n and whoro do you ond? 1ho on|y so|ut|on |s to th|nk about tho bra|n as tho donsost concontrat|on ot
yoonoss. lt's tho poak ot tho mounta|n, but not tho who|o mounta|n. Whon wo ta|k about °tho bra|n' and bohav|or, th|s |s a shorthand |abo| tor
somoth|ng that |nc|udos contr|but|ons trom a much broador soc|ob|o|og|ca| systom.
¯¯
1ho bra|n |s not so much tho soat ot tho m|nd as tho hub ot tho
m|nd.
3o |ot's summar|zo whoro wo aro. |o||ow|ng a ono-way stroot |n tho d|roct|on ot tho vory sma|| |s tho m|stako that roduct|on|sts mako, and |t |s tho
trap wo want to avo|d. Whonovor you soo a shorthand statomont such as °you aro your bra|n,' don't undorstand |t to moan that nourosc|onco w|||
undorstand bra|ns on|y as mass|vo consto||at|ons ot atoms or as vast jung|os ot nourons. lnstoad, tho tuturo ot undorstand|ng tho m|nd ||os |n
doc|phor|ng tho pattorns ot act|v|ty that ||vo oo top oí tho wotwaro, pattorns that aro d|roctod both by |ntorna| mach|nat|ons and by |ntoract|ons trom
tho surround|ng wor|d. laborator|os a|| ovor tho wor|d aro work|ng to t|guro out how to undorstand tho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon phys|ca| mattor and
subjoct|vo oxpor|onco, but |t's tar trom a so|vod prob|om.


ln tho oar|y 10b0s, tho ph||osophor |ans lo|chonbach statod that human|ty was po|sod botoro a comp|oto, sc|ont|t|c, objoct|vo account ot tho wor|d
-a °sc|ont|t|c ph||osophy.'
28
1hat was s|xty yoars ago. |avo wo arr|vod? lot yot, anyway.
ln tact, wo'ro a |ong way ott. |or somo poop|o, tho gamo |s to act as though sc|onco |s just on tho br|nk ot t|gur|ng ovoryth|ng out. lndood, thoro |s
groat prossuro on sc|ont|sts-app||od trom grant|ng agonc|os and popu|ar mod|a a||ko-to protond as though tho major prob|oms aro about to bo
so|vod at any momont. 3ut tho truth |s that wo taco a t|o|d ot quost|on marks, and th|s t|o|d strotchos to tho van|sh|ng po|nt.
1h|s suggosts an ontroaty tor oponnoss wh||o oxp|or|ng thoso |ssuos. As ono oxamp|o, tho t|o|d ot quantum mochan|cs |nc|udos tho concopt ot
obsorvotloo: whon an obsorvor moasuros tho |ocat|on ot a photon, that co||apsos tho stato ot tho part|c|o to a part|cu|ar pos|t|on, wh||o a momont
ago |t was |n an |nt|n|ty ot poss|b|o statos. What |s |t about obsorvotloo? 0o human m|nds |ntoract w|th tho stutt ot tho un|vorso?
20
1h|s |s a tota||y
unso|vod |ssuo |n sc|onco, and ono that w||| prov|do a cr|t|ca| moot|ng ground botwoon phys|cs and nourosc|onco. Vost sc|ont|sts curront|y
approach tho two t|o|ds as soparato, and tho sad truth |s that rosoarchors who try to |ook moro doop|y |nto tho connoct|ons botwoon thom otton ond
up marg|na||zod. Vany sc|ont|sts w||| mako tun ot tho pursu|t by say|ng somoth|ng ||ko °Ouantum mochan|cs |s mystor|ous, and consc|ousnoss |s
mystor|ous, thorotoro, thoy must bo tho samo th|ng.' 1h|s d|sm|ss|vonoss |s bad tor tho t|o|d. 1o bo c|oar, l'm not assort|ng thoro ls a connoct|on
botwoon quantum mochan|cs and consc|ousnoss. l am say|ng thoro coo|o bo a connoct|on, and that a promaturo d|sm|ssa| |s not |n tho sp|r|t ot
sc|ont|t|c |nqu|ry and progross. Whon poop|o assort that bra|n tunct|on can bo comp|oto|y oxp|a|nod by c|ass|ca| phys|cs, |t |s |mportant to rocogn|zo
that th|s |s s|mp|y an assort|on-|t's d|tt|cu|t to know |n any ago ot sc|onco what p|ocos ot tho puzz|o wo'ro m|ss|ng.
As an oxamp|o, l'|| mont|on what l'|| ca|| tho °rad|o thoory' ot bra|ns. lmag|no that you aro a Ka|ahar| 3ushman and that you stumb|o upon a
trans|stor rad|o |n tho sand. You m|ght p|ck |t up, tw|dd|o tho knobs, and suddon|y, to your surpr|so, hoar vo|cos stroam|ng out ot th|s strango ||tt|o
box. lt you'ro cur|ous and sc|ont|t|ca||y m|ndod, you m|ght try to undorstand what |s go|ng on. You m|ght pry ott tho back covor to d|scovor a ||tt|o nost
ot w|ros. low |ot's say you bog|n a carotu|, sc|ont|t|c study ot what causos tho vo|cos. You not|co that oach t|mo you pu|| out tho groon w|ro, tho
vo|cos stop. Whon you put tho w|ro back on |ts contact, tho vo|cos bog|n aga|n. 1ho samo goos tor tho rod w|ro. Yank|ng out tho b|ack w|ro causos
tho vo|cos to got garb|od, and romov|ng tho yo||ow w|ro roducos tho vo|umo to a wh|spor. You stop carotu||y through a|| tho comb|nat|ons, and you
como to a c|oar conc|us|on: tho vo|cos dopond ont|ro|y on tho |ntogr|ty ot tho c|rcu|try. Chango tho c|rcu|try and you damago tho vo|cos.
lroud ot your now d|scovor|os, you dovoto your ||to to dovo|op|ng a sc|onco ot tho way |n wh|ch corta|n cont|gurat|ons ot w|ros croato tho
ox|stonco ot mag|ca| vo|cos. At somo po|nt, a young porson asks you bowsomo s|mp|o |oops ot o|octr|ca| s|gna|s can ongondor mus|c and
convorsat|ons, and you adm|t that you don't know-but you |ns|st that your sc|onco |s about to crack that prob|om at any momont.
Your conc|us|ons aro ||m|tod by tho tact that you know abso|uto|y noth|ng about rad|o wavos and, moro gonora||y, o|octromagnot|c rad|at|on. 1ho
tact that thoro aro structuros |n d|stant c|t|os ca||od rad|o towors-wh|ch sond s|gna|s by porturb|ng |nv|s|b|o wavos that travo| at tho spood ot ||ght-
|s so toro|gn to you that you cou|d not ovon droam |t up. You can't tasto rad|o wavos, you can't soo thom, you can't smo|| thom, and you don't yot
havo any pross|ng roason to bo croat|vo onough to tantas|zo about thom. And |t you olo droam ot |nv|s|b|o rad|o wavos that carry vo|cos, who cou|d
you conv|nco ot your hypothos|s? You havo no tochno|ogy to domonstrato tho ox|stonco ot tho wavos, and ovoryono just|t|ab|y po|nts out that tho
onus |s on you to conv|nco thom.
3o you wou|d bocomo a rad|o mator|a||st. You wou|d conc|udo that somohow tho r|ght cont|gurat|on ot w|ros ongondors c|ass|ca| mus|c and
|nto|||gont convorsat|on. You wou|d not roa||zo that you'ro m|ss|ng an onormous p|oco ot tho puzz|o.
l'm not assort|ng that tho bra|n |s ||ko a rad|o-that |s, that wo'ro rocoptac|os p|ck|ng up s|gna|s trom o|sowhoro, and that our noura| c|rcu|try
noods to bo |n p|aco to do so-but l om po|nt|ng out that |t coo|o bo truo. 1horo |s noth|ng |n our curront sc|onco that ru|os th|s out. Know|ng as ||tt|o
as wo do at th|s po|nt |n h|story, wo must rota|n concopts ||ko th|s |n tho |argo t|||ng cab|not ot |doas that wo cannot yot ru|o |n tavor ot or aga|nst. 3o
ovon though tow work|ng sc|ont|sts w||| dos|gn oxpor|monts around occontr|c hypothosos, |doas a|ways nood to bo proposod and nurturod as
poss|b|||t|os unt|| ov|donco wo|ghs |n ono way or anothor.
3c|ont|sts otton ta|k ot pars|mony (as |n °tho s|mp|ost oxp|anat|on |s probab|y corroct,' a|so known as Occam's razor), but wo shou|d not got
soducod by tho apparont o|oganco ot argumont trom pars|mony, th|s ||no ot roason|ng has ta||od |n tho past at |oast as many t|mos as |t has
succoodod. |or oxamp|o, |t |s moro pars|mon|ous to assumo that tho sun goos around tho Earth, that atoms at tho sma||ost sca|o oporato |n
accordanco w|th tho samo ru|os that objocts at |argor sca|os to||ow, and that wo porco|vo what |s roa||y out thoro. A|| ot thoso pos|t|ons woro |ong
dotondod by argumont trom pars|mony, and thoy woro a|| wrong. ln my v|ow, tho argumont trom pars|mony |s roa||y no argumont at a||-|t typ|ca||y
tunct|ons on|y to shut down moro |ntorost|ng d|scuss|on. lt h|story |s any gu|do, |t's novor a good |doa to assumo that a sc|ont|t|c prob|om |s
cornorod.
At th|s momont |n h|story, tho major|ty ot tho nourosc|onco commun|ty subscr|bos to mator|a||sm and roduct|on|sm, on||st|ng tho modo| that wo
aro undorstandab|o as a co||oct|on ot co||s, b|ood vosso|s, hormonos, proto|ns, and t|u|ds-a|| to||ow|ng tho bas|c |aws ot chom|stry and phys|cs.
Each day nourosc|ont|sts go |nto tho |aboratory and work undor tho assumpt|on that undorstand|ng onough ot tho p|ocos and parts w||| g|vo an
undorstand|ng ot tho who|o. 1h|s broak-|t-down-to-tho-sma||ost-b|ts approach |s tho samo succosstu| mothod that sc|onco has omp|oyod |n phys|cs,
chom|stry, and tho rovorso-ong|noor|ng ot o|octron|c dov|cos.
3ut wo don't havo any roa| guarantoo that th|s approach w||| work |n nourosc|onco. 1ho bra|n, w|th |ts pr|vato, subjoct|vo oxpor|onco, |s un||ko any
ot tho prob|oms wo havo tack|od so tar. Any nourosc|ont|st who to||s you wo havo tho prob|om cornorod w|th a roduct|on|st approach doosn't
undorstand tho comp|ox|ty ot tho prob|om. Koop |n m|nd that ovory s|ng|o gonorat|on botoro us has workod undor tho assumpt|on that thoy
possossod a|| tho major too|s tor undorstand|ng tho un|vorso, and thoy woro a|| wrong, w|thout oxcopt|on. 1ust |mag|no try|ng to construct a thoory ot
ra|nbows botoro undorstand|ng opt|cs, or try|ng to undorstand ||ghtn|ng botoro know|odgo ot o|octr|c|ty, or addross|ng lark|nson's d|soaso botoro
tho d|scovory ot nourotransm|ttors. 0oos |t soom roasonab|o that wo aro tho t|rst onos |ucky onough to bo born |n tho portoct gonorat|on, tho ono |n
wh|ch tho assumpt|on ot a comprohons|vo sc|onco |s t|na||y truo? Or doos |t soom moro ||ko|y that |n ono hundrod yoars poop|o w||| |ook back on us
and wondor what |t was ||ko to to bo |gnorant ot what thoy know? l|ko tho b||nd poop|o |n Chaptor 4, wo do not oxpor|onco a gap|ng ho|o ot
b|acknoss whoro wo aro |ack|ng |ntormat|on-|nstoad, wo do not approc|ato that anyth|ng |s m|ss|ng.
80
l'm not say|ng that mator|a||sm |s |ncorroct, or ovon that l'm hop|ng |t's |ncorroct. Attor a||, ovon a mator|a||st un|vorso wou|d bo m|nd-b|ow|ng|y
amaz|ng. lmag|no tor a momont that wo aro noth|ng but tho product ot b||||ons ot yoars ot mo|ocu|os com|ng togothor and ratchot|ng up through
natura| so|oct|on, that wo aro composod on|y ot h|ghways ot t|u|ds and chom|ca|s s||d|ng a|ong roadways w|th|n b||||ons ot danc|ng co||s, that tr||||ons
ot synapt|c convorsat|ons hum |n para||o|, that th|s vast ogg||ko tabr|c ot m|cron-th|n c|rcu|try runs a|gor|thms undroamt ot |n modorn sc|onco, and
that thoso noura| programs g|vo r|so to our doc|s|on mak|ng, |ovos, dos|ros, toars, and asp|rat|ons. 1o mo, that undorstand|ng wou|d bo a num|nous
oxpor|onco, bottor than anyth|ng ovor proposod |n anyono's ho|y toxt. Whatovor o|so ox|sts boyond tho ||m|ts ot sc|onco |s an opon quost|on tor
tuturo gonorat|ons, but ovon |t str|ct mator|a||sm turnod out to bo |t, |t wou|d bo onough.
Arthur C. C|arko was tond ot po|nt|ng out that any sutt|c|ont|y advancod tochno|ogy |s |nd|st|ngu|shab|o trom mag|c. l don't v|ow tho dothronomont
trom tho contor ot ourso|vos as dopross|ng, l v|ow |t as mag|c. Wo'vo soon |n th|s book that ovoryth|ng conta|nod |n tho b|o|og|ca| bags ot t|u|d wo
ca|| os |s a|roady so tar boyond our |ntu|t|on, boyond our capac|ty to th|nk about such vast sca|os ot |ntoract|on, boyond our |ntrospoct|on that th|s
ta|r|y qua||t|os as °somoth|ng boyond us.' 1ho comp|ox|ty ot tho systom wo oro |s so vast as to bo |nd|st|ngu|shab|o trom C|arko's mag|ca|
tochno|ogy. As tho qu|p goos: lt our bra|ns woro s|mp|o onough to bo undorstood, wo wou|dn't bo smart onough to undorstand thom.
ln tho samo way that tho cosmos |s |argor than wo ovor |mag|nod, wo ourso|vos aro somoth|ng groator than wo had |ntu|tod by |ntrospoct|on.
Wo'ro now gott|ng tho t|rst g||mpsos ot tho vastnoss ot |nnor spaco. 1h|s |ntorna|, h|ddon, |nt|mato cosmos commands |ts own goa|s, |mporat|vos,
and |og|c. 1ho bra|n |s an organ that too|s a||on and out|and|sh to us, and yot |ts dota||od w|r|ng pattorns scu|pt tho |andscapo ot our |nnor ||vos.
What a porp|ox|ng mastorp|oco tho bra|n |s, and how |ucky wo aro to bo |n a gonorat|on that has tho tochno|ogy and tho w||| to turn our attont|on to |t.
lt |s tho most wondrous th|ng wo havo d|scovorod |n tho un|vorso, and |t |s us.
¯
1ho bas|c arch|tocturo ot th|s roward c|rcu|t |s h|gh|y consorvod throughout ovo|ut|on. 1ho bra|n ot a honoyboo usos tho samo roward programs that your bra|n doos, runn|ng tho
samo sottwaro program on a much moro compact p|oco ot hardwaro. (3oo Vontaguo, ot a|., °3oo torag|ng.').
¯¯
ln Llío|loos, b|o|og|st 3tovon loso po|nts out that °roduct|on|st |doo|ogy not on|y h|ndors b|o|og|sts trom th|nk|ng adoquato|y about tho phonomona wo w|sh to undorstand: |t has
two |mportant soc|a| consoquoncos: |t sorvos to ro|ocato soc|a| prob|oms to tho |nd|v|dua| . rathor than oxp|or|ng tho soc|ota| roots and dotorm|nants ot a phonomonon, and socond, |t
d|vorts attont|on and tund|ng trom tho soc|a| to tho mo|ocu|ar.'

AcknowIodgmonta

Vany poop|o havo |nsp|rod mo |n tho wr|t|ng ot th|s book. 3omo had atoms that wont tho|r soparato ways botoro my atoms camo togothor-l may
havo |nhor|tod somo ot tho|r atoms, but, moro |mportant|y, l was tortunato onough to |nhor|t tho |doas thoy |ott boh|nd as mossagos |n a bott|o. l havo
a|so boon tortunato to sharo ox|stonco contomporanoous|y w|th a notwork ot tromondous|y smart poop|o, wh|ch bogan w|th my paronts, Arthur and
C|ro|, and cont|nuod w|th my graduato thos|s adv|sor, load Vontaguo, and was susta|nod by montors such as 1orry 3ojnowsk| and |ranc|s Cr|ck
at tho 3a|k lnst|tuto. l onjoy da||y |nsp|rat|on w|th co||oaguos, studonts, and tr|onds such as 1onathan 0ownar, 3rott Vonsh, Choss 3totson, 0on
vaughn, Abdu| Kudrath, and 3r|an losontha|, to namo a tow. l thank 0an |rank and l|ck 0av|os tor tho|r oxport od|tor|a| toodback, and 1|na 3orja
and a|| tho studonts |n my |ab tor ||no-by-||no road|ngs, thoso studonts |nc|udo 1ommy 3praguo, 3tott|o 1omson, 3on 3umann, 3ront larsons,
V|ngbo Ca|, and 0a|sy 1homson-lako. l thank 1onathan 0. Cohon tor a som|nar ho gavo wh|ch shapod somo ot my th|nk|ng |n Chaptor b. 1hank
you to 3haunagh 0ar||ng lobortson tor propos|ng tho t|t|o . l am gratotu| to |aunch my books trom tho so||d bodrock ot tho Wy||o Agoncy,
wh|ch |nc|udos tho g|ttod Androw Wy||o, tho oxcopt|ona| 3arah Cha|tant, and a|| tho|r sk|||od coworkors. l am doop|y gratotu| to my t|rst agont, 1ano
Go|tman, tor bo||ov|ng |n mo and |n th|s book trom tho bog|nn|ng. l thank 1am|o 3yng tor h|s bound|oss onthus|asm and doop support. ||na||y, my
grat|tudo goos to my w|to 3arah tor hor |ovo, humor and oncouragomont. 1ho othor day l saw a s|gn that s|mp|y road |AllllE33-and l roa||zod that
tho thought ot 3arah was my |nstant monta| hoad||no. 0oop |n tho canop|os ot my bra|n torost, happ|noss and 3arah havo bocomo synapt|ca||y
synonymous, and tor hor prosonco |n my ||to l am gratotu|.


1hroughout tho book you w||| otton t|nd tho narrator's torm wo |nstoad ot l. 1h|s |s tor throo roasons. ||rst, as w|th any book that synthos|zos |argo
bod|os ot know|odgo, l co||aborato w|th thousands ot sc|ont|sts and h|stor|ans ovor tho courso ot contur|os. 3ocond, tho road|ng ot a book shou|d
bo an act|vo co||aborat|on botwoon roador and wr|tor. 1h|rd, our bra|ns aro composod ot vast, comp|ox, and sh|tt|ng co||oct|ons ot subparts, most ot
wh|ch wo havo no accoss to, th|s book was wr|tton ovor tho courso ot a tow yoars by sovora| d|ttoront poop|o, a|| ot whom woro namod 0av|d
Eag|oman, but who woro somowhat d|ttoront w|th oach pass|ng hour.
About the Author

David EagIoman |s a nourosc|ont|st at 3ay|or Co||ogo ot Vod|c|no, whoro ho d|rocts tho laboratory tor lorcopt|on and Act|on as wo|| as tho
ln|t|at|vo on lourosc|onco and law. ||s sc|ont|t|c rosoarch has boon pub||shod |n journa|s trom 5clooco to Notoro, and h|s nourosc|onco books
|nc|udo ¼oooosooy ls loolgo B|oo. Llscovorlog tbo Brolo oí 5yoostboslo (w|th l|chard Cytow|c) and tho torthcom|ng Llvo-¼lroo. |o |s a|so tho
author ot tho |ntornat|ona||y bost-so|||ng book ot t|ct|on 5om. lorty 7o|os írom tbo Aítor|lvos.
5UV |s a|so ava||ab|o as an o3ook: 078-0-807-87802-0

v|s|t 0av|d Eag|oman's wobs|to: www.oag|oman.com
Or to||ow h|m on: tw|ttor.com/Qdav|doag|oman

Works ||stod |n tu|| |n tho 3|b||ography aro rotorrod to on|y by short t|t|o horo.
Chaµtor 1. 1horo'a 5omoono |n Ny Eoad, But |t'a Not No

1 Vus|c: °1romondous Vag|c,' 7lmo 0ocombor 4, 10b0.
2 3omoth|ng l'vo a|ways tound |nsp|r|ng: tho yoar Ga|||oo d|od-1042-lsaac lowton was born |nto tho wor|d and comp|otod Ga|||oo's job by
doscr|b|ng tho oquat|ons undor|y|ng tho p|anotary orb|ts around tho sun.
8 Aqu|nas, 5ommo tboo|ogloo.
4 3poc|t|ca||y, lo|bn|z onv|s|onod a mach|no that wou|d uso marb|os (roprosont|ng b|nary numbors) that wou|d bo gu|dod by what wo now
rocogn|zo as cous|ns to punch cards. A|though Char|os 3abbago and Ada lovo|aco aro gonora||y crod|tod w|th work|ng out tho concopts
ot sottwaro soparat|on, tho modorn computor |s ossont|a||y no d|ttoront than what lo|bn|z onv|sagod: °1h|s [b|nary| ca|cu|us cou|d bo
|mp|omontod by a mach|no (w|thout whoo|s) |n tho to||ow|ng mannor, oas||y to bo suro and w|thout ottort. A conta|nor sha|| bo prov|dod w|th
ho|os |n such a way that thoy can bo oponod and c|osod. 1hoy aro to bo opon at thoso p|acos that corrospond to a 1 and roma|n c|osod at
thoso that corrospond to a 0. 1hrough tho oponod gatos sma|| cubos or marb|os aro to ta|| |nto tracks, through tho othors noth|ng. lt [tho
gato array| |s to bo sh|ttod trom co|umn to co|umn as roqu|rod.' 3oo lo|bn|z, Lo Progrosslooo Lyoolco. 1hanks to Goorgo 0yson tor th|s
d|scovory |n tho ||toraturo.
b lo|bn|z, NowEssoys oo lomoo Uooorstooolog, pub||shod 170b. 3y °|nsons|b|o corpusc|os,' lo|bn|z |s rotorr|ng to tho bo||ot sharod by
lowton, 3oy|o, locko, and othors that mator|a| objocts aro mado ot t|ny |nsons|b|o corpusc|os, wh|ch g|vo r|so to tho sonso qua||t|os ot tho
objocts.
0 |orbart, Psycbo|ogy os o 5clooco.
7 V|chao| |o|do|borgor, Notoro írom ¼ltblo.
8 1ohannos Vü||or, looobocb oor Pbyslo|oglo oos Vooscboo, orltto vorbossorto Aoí|ogo, 2 vo|s (Cob|onz: |ö|schor, 1887-1840).
0 Catto||, °1ho t|mo takon up,' 220-242.
10 Catto||, °1ho psycho|og|ca| |aboratory,' 87-b1.
11 3oo http://www.|op.utm.odu/t/troud.htm.
12 |roud and 3rouor, 5tooloo 0bor lystorlo.
Chaµtor 2. 1ho 1oatimony ot tho 5onaoa

1 Eag|oman, °v|sua| |||us|ons.'
2 3horr|ngton, Voo oo lls Notoro. 3oo a|so 3hoots-1ohnstono, °Consc|ousnoss: a natura| h|story.'
8 Vaclood and ||no, °v|s|on attor oar|y b||ndnoss.'
4 Eag|oman, °v|sua| |||us|ons.'
b 3oo oag|oman.com/|ncogn|to tor |ntoract|vo domonstrat|ons ot how ||tt|o wo porco|vo ot tho wor|d. |or oxco||ont rov|ows on chango
b||ndnoss, soo lons|nk, O'logan, and C|ark, °1o soo or not to soo', 3|mons, °Curront approachos to chango b||ndnoss', and 3|ackmoro,
3ro|statt, lo|son, and 1rosc|anko, °ls tho r|chnoss ot our v|sua| wor|d an |||us|on?'
0 lov|n and 3|mons, °|a||uro to dotoct changos to attondod objocts.'
7 3|mons and lov|n, °|a||uro to dotoct changos to poop|o.'
8 Vackn|k, K|ng, land|, ot. a|., °Attont|on and awaronoss |n stago mag|c.'
0 1ho concopt ot a 2.b-0 skotch was |ntroducod by tho |ato nourosc|ont|st 0av|d Varr. |o or|g|na||y proposod th|s as an |ntormod|ato stago
on tho v|sua| systom's journoy to dovo|op|ng a tu|| 8-0 modo|, but |t has s|nco bocomo c|oar that tho tu|| 8-0 modo| novor comos to tru|t|on
|n roa| bra|ns, and |s not noodod to got by |n tho wor|d. 3oo Varr, Vlsloo.
10 O'logan, °3o|v|ng tho roa| mystor|os ot v|sua| porcopt|on,' and Edo|man, Roprosoototloo ooo Rocogoltloo lo Vlsloo. loto that ono group
rocogn|zod tho prob|om oar|y on, |n 1078, but |t took many yoars to bocomo moro w|do|y rocogn|zod: °1ho pr|mary tunct|on ot porcopt|on
|s to koop our |ntorna| tramowork |n good rog|strat|on w|th that vast oxtorna| momory, tho oxtorna| onv|ronmont |tso|t,' notod lo|tman,
lado, and W||cox |n °Vach|no porcopt|on,' 72.
11 Yarbus, °Eyo movomonts.'
12 1h|s phonomonon |s known as b|nocu|ar r|va|ry. |or rov|ows, soo 3|ako and logothot|s, °v|sua| compot|t|on' and 1ong, Vong, and 3|ako,
°loura| basos.'
18 1ho ho|o ot m|ss|ng photorocoptors occurs bocauso tho opt|c norvo passos through th|s |ocat|on |n tho rot|na, |oav|ng no room tor tho ||ght-
sons|ng co||s. Chanco, °Ophtha|mo|ogy,' and Eag|oman, °v|sua| |||us|ons.'
14 |o|mho|tz, looobocb.
1b lamachandran, °lorcopt|on ot shapo.'
10 Korston, Kn|||, Vamass|an, and 3ü|thott, °l||usory mot|on.'
17 Vathor, vorstraton, and Anst|s, 7bo Votloo Aítoroííoct, and Eag|oman, °v|sua| |||us|ons.'
18 0onnott, Cooscloosooss Exp|olooo.
10 3akor, |oss, and Z|h|, °los|dua| mot|on', Z|h|, von Cramon, and Va|, °3o|oct|vo d|sturbanco', and Z|h|, von Cramon, Va|, and 3chm|d,
°0|sturbanco ot movomont v|s|on.'
20 Vc3oath, 3hattor, and Ka|sor, °|ow basoba|| outt|o|dors.'
21 lt turns out that t|ghtor p||ots uso th|s samo a|gor|thm dur|ng pursu|t tasks, as do t|sh and hovort||os. l||ots: O'|aro, °lntroduct|on', t|sh:
lanchostor and Vark, °lursu|t and prod|ct|on', and hovort||os: Co||ott and land, °v|sua| contro|.'
22 Kurson, Crosblog 7broogb.
28 lt shou|d bo notod that somo b||nd poop|o can convort tho|r to|t wor|d to two- or throo-d|mons|ona| draw|ngs. |owovor, |t |s prosumab|y tho
caso that draw|ng tho convorg|ng ||nos ot a ha||way |s a cogn|t|vo oxorc|so tor thom, d|ttoront trom tho way that s|ghtod poop|o havo tho
|mmod|ato sonsory oxpor|onco.
24 loö, Actloo lo Porcoptloo.
2b l. 3ach-y-l|ta, °1act||o sonsory subst|tut|on stud|os.'
20 3ach-y-l|ta, Co|||ns, 3aundors, Wh|to, and 3caddon, °v|s|on subst|tut|on.'
27 |or an ovorv|ow and synthos|s ot thoso stud|os, soo Eag|oman, Llvo-¼lroo. lowadays |t |s popu|ar tor tho tact||o d|sp|ay to como trom an
o|octrodo gr|d p|acod d|roct|y on tho tonguo. 3oo 3ach-y-l|ta, Kaczmarok, 1y|or, and Garc|a-lara, °|orm porcopt|on.'
28 Eag|oman, Llvo-¼lroo.
20 C. lonay, O. Gaponno, 3. |annoton, C. Varquo, and C. Gonouo|, °3onsory subst|tut|on: l|m|ts and porspoct|vos,' |n 7oocblog íor
Koowlog, Cogoltlvo Psycbo|ogy oí loptlc Voooo| Porcoptloo (Amstordam: 1ohn 3onjam|ns, 2008), 27b-02, and Eag|oman, Llvo-
¼lroo.
80 1ho 3ra|nlort |s mado by W|cab, lnc, a company toundod by p|ast|c|ty p|onoor lau| 3ach-y-l|ta.
81 3ach-y-l|ta, Co|||ns, 3aundors, Wh|to, and 3caddon, °v|s|on subst|tut|on', 3ach-y-l|ta, °1act||o sonsory subst|tut|on stud|os', 3ach-y-l|ta,
Kaczmarok, 1y|or, and Garc|a-lara, °|orm porcopt|on', V. lt|to, 3. Voosgaard, A. Gjoddo, and l. Kupors, °Cross-moda| p|ast|c|ty
rovoa|od by o|octrotact||o st|mu|at|on ot tho tonguo |n tho congon|ta||y b||nd,' Brolo 128 (200b), 000-14, and 3ach-y-l|ta, °Emorg|ng
concopts ot bra|n tunct|on,' 1ooroo| oí lotogrotlvo Noorosclooco 4 (200b), 188-20b.
82 Yancoy |a||. °3o|d|ors may got 's|ght' on t|ps ot tho|r tonguos,' Notlooo| Ooogropblc Nows, Vay 1, 2000.
88 3. lovy, °1ho b||nd c||mbor who 'soos' w|th h|s tonguo,' Llscovor, 1uno 28, 2008.
84 |awk|ns, Oo loto||lgooco, and Eag|oman, Llvo-¼lroo.
8b Gora|d |. 1acobs, Gary A. W||||ams, |ugh Cah|||, and 1oromy lathans, °Emorgonco ot novo| co|or v|s|on |n m|co ong|noorod to oxpross a
human cono photop|gmont,' 5clooco 28 (2007): vo|. 81b. no. b810, 1728-2b. |or a dotract|ng op|n|on about tho |ntorprotat|on ot rosu|ts,
soo Wa|tor Vakous, °Commont on 'Emorgonco ot novo| co|or v|s|on |n m|co ong|noorod to oxpross a human cono photop|gmont,'
5clooco (2007): vo|. 818. no. b848, 100, |n wh|ch ho arguos that |t |s |mposs|b|o to conc|udo much ot anyth|ng about tho |ntorna|
oxpor|onco ot tho m|co, a procond|t|on tor c|a|m|ng that thoy oxpor|oncod co|or v|s|on as opposod to d|ttoront |ovo|s ot ||ght and dark.
Whatovor tho |ntorna| oxpor|onco ot tho m|co, |t |s c|oar that tho|r bra|ns havo |ntogratod tho |ntormat|on trom tho now photop|gmonts and
can now d|scr|m|nato toaturos that thoy cou|d not botoro. lmportant|y, th|s tochn|quo |s now poss|b|o |n rhosus monkoys, a mothod that
shou|d opon tho door to ask|ng tho corroct, dota||od porcoptua| quost|ons.
80 1amoson, °1otrachromat|c co|or v|s|on.'
87 l||nas, l oí tbo Vortox.
88 3rown, °1ho |ntr|ns|c tactors.' A|though 3rown was wo|| known |n tho 1020s tor h|s p|onoor|ng nourophys|o|ogy oxpor|monts, ho bocamo
ovon bottor known |n tho 1080s tor h|s wor|d-tamous mounta|noor|ng oxpod|t|ons and d|scovor|os ot now routos to tho summ|t ot Vont
3|anc.
80 3o||, °lovo|s and |oops.'
40 VcGurk and Vac0ona|d, °|oar|ng ||ps,' and 3chwartz, lobort-l|bos, and Escud|or, °1on yoars attor 3ummort|o|d.'
41 3hams, Kam|tan|, and 3h|mojo, °l||us|ons.'
42 Gobhard and Vowbray, °On d|scr|m|nat|ng', 3h|p|oy, °Aud|tory t|uttor-dr|v|ng', and Wo|ch, 0uttonhurt, and Warron, °Contr|but|ons.'
48 1ros|||an, °v|sua||y t|mod act|on', lacquan|t|, Carrozzo, and 3orghoso, °l|ann|ng and contro| ot ||mb |mpodanco', Zago, ot. a|., °lntorna|
modo|s', Vclntyro, Zago, 3orthoz, and lacquan|t|, °0oos tho bra|n modo| lowton's |aws?', Vohta and 3chaa|, °|orward modo|s', Kawato,
°lntorna| modo|s', Wo|port, Ghahraman|, and 1ordan, °An |ntorna| modo|', and Eag|oman, °1|mo porcopt|on |s d|stortod dur|ng v|sua| s|ow
mot|on,' 3oc|oty tor lourosc|onco, abstract, 2004.
44 VacKay, °1owards an |ntormat|on-t|ow modo|', Konnoth Cra|k, 7bo Notoro oí Exp|oootloo (Cambr|dgo, UK: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross,
1048), Grush, °1ho omu|at|on thoory'. A|so soo Kawato, |urukawa, and 3uzuk|, °A h|orarch|ca| noura|-notwork modo|', 1ordan and
1acobs, °|o|rarch|ca| m|xturos ot oxports', V|a|| and Wo|port, °|orward modo|s', and Wo|port and ||anagan, °Votor prod|ct|on.'
4b Grossborg, °|ow doos a bra|n . ?', Vumtord, °On tho computat|ona| arch|tocturo', U||man, °3oquonco sook|ng', and lao, °An opt|ma|
ost|mat|on approach.'
40 VacKay, °1ho op|stomo|og|ca| prob|om.'
47 3oo 3|akomoro, Wo|port, and |r|th, °Why can't you t|ck|o yourso|t?' tor moro about t|ck||ng. Voro gonora||y, v|o|at|ons ot sonsory
oxpoctat|ons can |ntorm a bra|n about rospons|b|||ty-that |s, d|d l causo tho act|on or d|d somoono o|so? 3ch|zophron|c ha||uc|nat|ons
may ar|so trom a ta||uro ot match|ng oxpoctat|ons about ono's own motor acts to tho|r rosu|t|ng sonsory s|gna|s. |a||uro to d|st|ngu|sh
ono's own act|ons trom thoso ot |ndopondont agonts moans that tho pat|ont attr|butos h|s |ntorna| vo|cos to somoono o|so. |or moro on
th|s |doa, soo |r|th and 0o|an, °3ra|n mochan|sms.'
48 3ymonds and VacKonz|o, °3||atora| |oss ot v|s|on.'
40 Eag|oman and 3ojnowsk|, °Vot|on |ntograt|on,' and Eag|oman, °|uman t|mo porcopt|on.'
b0 Eag|oman and lar|yadath, °ls subjoct|vo durat|on . ?'
Chaµtor 8. Nind: 1ho Caµ

1 Vacuga, ot a|., °Chang|ng |anos.'
2 3chactor, °lmp||c|t momory.'
8 Ebb|nghaus, Vomory. A Cootrlbotloo to Exporlmooto| Psycbo|ogy.
4 |orsoy, 7bo Art oí Cblckoo 5oxlog, 3|odorman and 3h|ttrar, °3ox|ng day-o|d ch|cks', 3random, °lns|ghts and b||ndspots ot ro||ab|||sm', and
|arnad, °Expor|monta| ana|ys|s.'
b A||an, °loarn|ng porcoptua| sk|||s.'
0 Cohon, E|chonbaum, 0oacodo, and Cork|n, °0|ttoront momory systoms,' and 3rooks and 3addo|oy, °What can amnos|c pat|onts |oarn?'
7 As anothor oxamp|o ot ty|ng th|ngs togothor at an unconsc|ous |ovo|, subjocts woro g|von a carbonatod dr|nk, and thon tho|r cha|rs woro
rockod back and torth to |nduco mot|on s|cknoss. As a rosu|t, tho subjocts ostab||shod an avors|on to tho carbonatod dr|nk, ovon though
thoy wo|| know (consc|ous|y) that tho dr|nk had noth|ng to do w|th tho nausoat|ng mot|on. 3oo Arwas, lo|n|ck, and lubow, °Cond|t|onod
tasto avors|on.'
8 Groonwa|d, VcGhoo, and 3chwartz, °Voasur|ng |nd|v|dua| d|ttoroncos.'
0 1ho |mp||c|t assoc|at|on tost can bo takon on||no: https://|mp||c|t.harvard.odu/|mp||c|t/domo/so|octatost.htm|.
10 Wojnow|cz, |orguson, 0a|o, and 3p|voy, °1ho so|t-organ|zat|on ot oxp||c|t att|tudos.' 3oo a|so |rooman, Ambady, lu|o, and 1ohnson, °W|||
a catogory cuo attract you?'
11 1onos, lo|ham, Carva||o, and V|ronborg, °|ow do l |ovo thoo?'
12 lb|d.
18 lo|ham, V|ronborg, and 1onos, °Why 3us|o so||s,' and lo|ham, Carva||o, and 1onos, °lmp||c|t ogot|sm.'
14 Abo|, °lnt|uonco ot namos.'
1b 1acoby and W|thorspoon, °lomombor|ng w|thout awaronoss.'
10 1u|v|ng, 3chactor, and 3tark, °lr|m|ng ottocts.' 1hoso ottocts ho|d ovon |t l d|stract you so much that wo'ro corta|n you cannot oxp||c|t|y
romombor what tho words woro, you'ro st||| just as good at tho word comp|ot|on. 3oo Grat and 3chactor, °3o|oct|vo ottocts.'
17 1ho |doa ot pr|m|ng has a r|ch h|story |n ||toraturo and ontorta|nmont. ln 7bo 5ob|lmloo| Voo, by 1. G. 3a||ard (1008), a charactor namod
|athaway |s tho on|y ono who suspocts that tho dozons ot g|gant|c b|ank s|gns towor|ng ovor tho roads aro roa||y sub||m|na| advort|s|ng
mach|nos, oncourag|ng poop|o to tako on moro jobs and buy moro products. A moro dro|| |ncarnat|on ot 3ub||m|na| Van can bo tound |n
comod|an Kov|n loa|on's 5otorooy Nlgbt Llvo charactor, who says, dur|ng a ta|k show |ntorv|ow, °l'vo a|ways ||kod watch|ng th|s show
(nausoat|ng). lt's tun to bo a guost on th|s show (torturo). lt's k|nd ot ||ko a socond homo to mo (7ltoolc).'
18 Grat and 3chactor, °lmp||c|t and oxp||c|t momory.'
10 3oo 1om, lo|son, 3rzont|c, and K|ng, °Voro oxposuro.' |or a moro bas|c approach to domonstrat|ng that tho bra|n can absorb what |t has
soon ovon w|thout attont|on to |t, soo Gutn|sky, |anson, l||oscu, and 0rago|, °Attont|on a|tors v|sua| p|ast|c|ty.'
20 lron|ca||y, no ono |s qu|to suro who sa|d th|s t|rst. 1ho quotat|on has boon var|ous|y attr|butod to Vao Wost, l. 1. 3arnum, Goorgo V. Cohan,
W||| logors, and W. C. ||o|ds, among othors.
21 |ashor, Go|dsto|n, and 1opp|no, °|roquoncy and tho contoronco ot rotoront|a| va||d|ty.'
22 3ogg, Anas, and |ar|nacc|, °0|ssoc|at|on ot procossos |n bo||ot.'
28 C|ooromans, Vocboolsms oí lmp|lclt Loorolog.
24 3ochara, 0amas|o, 1rano|, and 0amas|o, °0oc|d|ng advantagoous|y.'
2b 0amas|o, °1ho somat|c markor hypothos|s', 0amas|o, Loscortos` Error, and 0amas|o, 7bo loo|log oí ¼bot loppoos.
20 Eag|oman, Llvo-¼lroo.
27 Vontaguo, Yoor Brolo ls (A|most) Poríoct.
28 lt you watch ath|otos c|oso|y, you w||| not|co thoy otton omp|oy phys|ca| r|tua|s to got thomso|vos |nto tho zono-tor oxamp|o, dr|bb||ng tho ba||
oxact|y throo t|mos, crank|ng tho|r nock to tho |ott, and thon shoot|ng. 3y prov|d|ng prod|ctab|||ty, thoso r|tua|s oaso thom |nto a |oss
consc|ous stato. 1o tho samo ond, ropot|t|vo and prod|ctab|o r|tua|s aro rout|no|y usod |n ro||g|ous sorv|cos-tor oxamp|o, roto prayors,
rosary count|ng, and chants a|| ho|p to ro|ax tho buzz|ng ot tho consc|ous m|nd.
Chaµtor 4. 1ho Kinda ot 1houghta 1hat Aro 1hinkabIo

1 3|a|so lasca|, Poosoos, 1070.
2 A|| ot thoso s|gna|s (rad|o, m|crowavo, X-ray, gamma ray, co|| phono transm|ss|ons, to|ov|s|on broadcasts, and so on) aro oxact|y tho samo
th|ng as tho stutt com|ng out ot tho tront ot your t|ash||ght-just ot a d|ttoront wavo|ongth. 3omo roadors a|roady know th|s, tor thoso who
d|dn't, tho shoor amaz|ngnoss ot th|s s|mp|o sc|ont|t|c tact urgos |ts |nc|us|on.
8 1akob von Uoxkü|| |ntroducod tho |doa ot tho umwo|t |n 1000 and oxp|orod |t through tho 1040s. lt was thon |ost tor docados unt|| rod|scovory
and rov|v|t|cat|on by tho som|ot|c|an 1homas A. 3obook |n 1070, 1akob von Uoxkü||, °A stro|| through tho wor|ds ot an|ma|s and mon.' 3oo
a|so G|org|o Agambon, Chaptor 10, °Umwo|t', |n h|s book 7bo Opoo. Voo ooo Aolmo|, trans. Kov|n Atto|| (la|o A|to: 3tantord Un|vors|ty
lross, 2004), or|g|na||y pub||shod |n lta||an |n 2002 as L`oporto. |`oomo o |`oolmo|o.
4 K. A. 1amoson, 3. ||ghnoto, and l. Wassorman, °l|chor co|or oxpor|onco |n obsorvors w|th mu|t|p|o photop|gmont ops|n gonos,'
Psycbooomlc Bo||otlo & Rovlow, 8, no.2 (2001): 244-01, and 1amoson, °1otrachromat|c co|or v|s|on.'
b |or moro about synosthos|a, soo Cytow|c and Eag|oman, ¼oooosooy ls loolgo B|oo.
0 1h|nk you m|ght havo synosthos|a? 1ako tho troo on||no tosts at www.synosthoto.org. 3oo Eag|oman, ot a|., °A standard|zod tost battory tor
tho study ot synosthos|a.'
7 Our |aboratory has turnod to tho dota||s ot synosthos|a-trom bohav|or to nouro|mag|ng to gonot|cs-to uso |t as an |nroad |nto
undorstand|ng how s||ght d|ttoroncos |n tho bra|n can |oad to |argo d|ttoroncos |n tho porcopt|on ot roa||ty. 3oo www.synosthoto.org.
8 ln othor words, tho torms havo a |ocat|on |n monta| spaco that can bo po|ntod to. lt you'ro not a spat|a| soquonco synosthoto, |mag|no your
car parkod |n tho spaco |n tront ot you. A|though you do not phys|ca||y soo |t thoro ||ko a ha||uc|nat|on, you w||| havo no troub|o po|nt|ng to
tho tront whoo|, tho dr|vor's s|do w|ndow, tho roar bumpor, and so on. 1ho car has throo-d|mons|ona| coord|natos |n your monta| spaco. 3o
|t goos w|th automat|ca||y tr|ggorod numbor torms. Un||ko ha||uc|nat|ons, thoy do not ovor||o tho outs|do v|sua| wor|d, thoy |nstoad ||vo |n a
monta| spaco. ln tact, ovon b||nd subjocts can oxpor|onco numbor torm synosthos|a, soo Whoo|or and Cutstorth, °1ho numbor torms ot a
b||nd subjoct.' |or a |argor d|scuss|on ot spat|a| soquonco synosthos|a, soo Eag|oman, °1ho objoct|t|cat|on ot ovor|oarnod soquoncos,'
and Cytow|c and Eag|oman, ¼oooosooy ls loolgo B|oo.
0 Eag|oman, °1ho objoct|t|cat|on ot ovor|oarnod soquoncos.'
10 An |ntorost|ng spocu|at|on |s that a|| bra|ns aro synosthot|c--but tho major|ty ot us roma|n unconsc|ous ot tho sonsory tus|ons go|ng on |n
our bra|ns undor tho surtaco ot awaronoss. ln tact, ovoryono sooms to possoss |mp||c|t numbor ||nos tor soquoncos. Whon askod, wo
m|ght agroo that tho numbor ||no tor |ntogors |ncroasos as ono goos trom |ott to r|ght. 3pat|a| soquonco synosthotos d|ttor |n that thoy
oxpor|onco soquoncos oxp||c|t|y |n throo d|mons|ons as automat|c, cons|stont, and concroto cont|gurat|ons. 3oo Eag|oman, °1ho
objoct|t|cat|on ot ovor|oarnod soquoncos', and Cytow|c and Eag|oman, ¼oooosooy ls loolgo B|oo.
11 lago|, 7bo Vlowírom Nowboro.
12 3oo Cosm|dos and 1ooby, Cogoltlvo Aooptotloos, tor an ovorv|ow, and 3tovon l|nkor's 7bo B|ook 5|oto tor an oxco||ont |n-dopth road.
18 1ohnson and Vorton, °COl3lEC and COllEll.'
14 Vo|tzott, °Undorstand|ng tho |ntont|ons ot othors.'
1b l|nkor, 7bo B|ook 5|oto.
10 Wason and 3hap|ro, °loason|ng,' and Wason, °latura| and contr|vod oxpor|onco'
17 Cosm|dos and 1ooby, Cogoltlvo Aooptloos.
18 3arkow, Cosm|dos, and 1ooby, 7bo Aooptoo Vloo
10 Cosm|dos and 1ooby, °Evo|ut|onary psycho|ogy: A pr|mor,' 1007, http://www.psych.ucsb.odu/rosoarch/cop/pr|mor.htm|
20 1amos, 7bo Prloclp|os oí Psycbo|ogy.
21 1ooby and Cosm|dos, Evo|otlooory Psycbo|ogy. loooootlooo| Popors (Cambr|dgo, VA: Vl1 lross, 2000).
22 3|ngh, °Adapt|vo s|gn|t|canco' and °ls th|n roa||y boaut|tu|,' and Yu and 3hopard, °ls boauty |n tho oyo?'
28 Voro gonora||y, womon w|th wa|sts th|nnor than th|s rango aro soon as moro aggross|vo and amb|t|ous, wh||o thoso w|th th|ckor wa|sts aro
v|owod as k|nd and ta|thtu|.
24 lamachandran, °Why do gont|omon .?'
2b lonton-voak, ot a|., °|oma|o protoronco tor ma|o tacos changos cyc||ca||y.'
20 vaughn and Eag|oman, °|acos br|ot|y g||mpsod.'
27 |r|odman, VcCarthy, |örstor, and 0onz|or, °Automat|c ottocts.' lt may ovon bo tho caso that othor concopts ro|atod to a|coho| (such as
soc|ab|||ty) may a|so bo act|vatod by pr|m|ng to a|coho|-ro|atod words-such that moro|y soo|ng (not dr|nk|ng) a g|ass ot w|no cou|d |oad
to oas|or convorsat|on and moro oyo contact. A moro spocu|at|vo and cha||ong|ng poss|b|||ty |s that soo|ng advort|somonts tor a|coho|
a|ong h|ghway b|||boards cou|d |oad to d|m|n|shod dr|v|ng portormanco.
28 Concoa|od ovu|at|on (as wo|| as |ntorna| tort|||zat|on, as opposod to tho |ay|ng ot oxtorna| oggs) may havo como about as a mochan|sm that
oncouragos ma|os to roma|n attont|vo to tho|r toma|o matos oqua||y at a|| t|mos, thoroby d|m|n|sh|ng tho chancos ot dosort|on.
20 loborts, |av||cok, and ||ogr, °|oma|o tac|a| attract|vonoss |ncroasos.'
80 3ymmotry ot oars, broasts, and t|ngors dur|ng ovu|at|on: Vann|ng, 3cutt, Wh|tohouso, lo|nstor, and Wa|ton, °Asymmotry,' 3cutt and
Vann|ng, °3ymmotry', tor ||ghtor sk|n tono, soo van don 3orgho and |rost, °3k|n co|or protoronco.'
81 G. |. V|||or, 1. V. 1ybur, and 3. 0. 1ordan, °Ovu|atory cyc|o ottocts on t|p oarn|ngs by |ap-dancors: Econom|c ov|donco tor human ostrus?'
Evo|otloo ooo lomoo Bobovlor, 28 (2007): 87b-81.
82 l|bor|os and 3uck, °A socond c|ass.' 3ocauso humans a|so carry tho gonos tor th|s tam||y ot rocoptors, |t's tho most prom|s|ng road to sn|tt
down whon |ook|ng tor a ro|o tor phoromonos |n humans.
88 loarson, °Vouso data.'
84 C. Wodok|nd, 1. 3oobock, |. 3ottons, and A. 1. laopko, °V|C-dopondont mato protoroncos |n humans.' Procooolog oí tbo Royo|
5ocloty oí Looooo 5orlos B. Blo|oglco| 5cloocos 200, no. 18b0 (100b): 24b-40.
8b varond| and lortor, °3roast odour.'
80 3torn and VcC||ntock, °logu|at|on ot ovu|at|on by human phoromonos.' Wh||o |t |s w|do|y bo||ovod that womon ||v|ng togothor w|||
synchron|zo tho|r monstrua| cyc|os, |t appoars that th|s |s not truo. Carotu| stud|os ot tho or|g|na| roports (and subsoquont |argo-sca|o
stud|os) show that stat|st|ca| t|uctuat|ons can g|vo tho porcoptloo ot synchrony but aro noth|ng but chanco occurronco. 3oo Zhongwo| and
3chank, °Womon do not synchron|zo.'
87 Vo|os, K|ottor, and 0'Amato, °0ot|c|t |n attachmont bohav|or.'
88 l|m, ot a|., °Enhancod partnor protoronco.'
80 |. Wa|um, l. Wostborg, 3. |onn|ngsson, 1. V. lo|dorh|sor, 0. lo|ss, W. lg|, 1. V. Gan|ban, ot a|.,°Gonot|c var|at|on |n tho vasopross|n
rocoptor 1a gono (Avll1A) assoc|atos w|th pa|r-bond|ng bohav|or |n humans.' PNA5 10b, no.87 (2008): 141b8-b0.
40 W|nston, lomoo lostloct.
41 ||shor, Aootomy oí Lovo.
Chaµtor 5. 1ho Brain |a a 1oam ot RivaIa

1 3oo Varv|n V|nsky's 1080 book 5ocloty oí Vloo.
2 0|amond, Ooos, Oorms, ooo 5too|.
8 |or a concroto |||ustrat|on ot tho advantagos and shortcom|ngs ot a °soc|oty' arch|tocturo, cons|dor tho concopt ot subsumpt|on
arch|tocturo, p|onoorod by tho robot|c|st lodnoy 3rooks (3rooks, °A robust |ayorod'). 1ho bas|c un|t ot organ|zat|on |n tho subsumpt|on
arch|tocturo |s a modu|o. Each modu|o spoc|a||zos |n somo |ndopondont, |ow-|ovo| task, such as contro|||ng a sonsor or actuator. 1ho
modu|os oporato |ndopondont|y, oach do|ng |ts own task. Each modu|o has an |nput and an output s|gna|. Whon tho |nput ot a modu|o
oxcoods a prodotorm|nod throsho|d, tho output ot tho modu|o |s act|vatod. lnputs como trom sonsors or othor modu|os. Each modu|o a|so
accopts a suppross|on s|gna| and an |nh|b|t|on s|gna|. A suppross|on s|gna| ovorr|dos tho norma| |nput s|gna|. An |nh|b|t|on s|gna| causos
output to bo comp|oto|y |nh|b|tod. 1hoso s|gna|s a||ow bohav|ors to ovorr|do oach othor so that tho systom can produco cohoront bohav|or.
1o produco cohoront bohav|or, tho modu|os aro organ|zod |nto |ayors. Each |ayor m|ght |mp|omont a bohav|or, such as woooor or ío||owo
movlog objoct. 1hoso |ayors aro h|orarch|ca|: h|ghor |ayors can |nh|b|t tho bohav|or ot |owor onos by |nh|b|t|on or suppross|on. 1h|s g|vos
oach |ovo| |ts own rank ot contro|. 1h|s arch|tocturo t|ght|y coup|os porcopt|on and act|on, produc|ng a h|gh|y roact|vo mach|no. 3ut tho
downs|do |s that a|| pattorns ot bohav|or |n thoso systoms aro prow|rod. 3ubsumpt|on agonts aro tast, but thoy dopond ont|ro|y on tho
wor|d to to|| thom what to do, thoy aro puro|y rot|ox|vo. ln part, subsumpt|on agonts havo tar-trom-|nto|||gont bohav|or bocauso thoy |ack an
|ntorna| modo| ot tho wor|d trom wh|ch to mako conc|us|ons. lodnoy 3rooks c|a|ms th|s |s an advantago: by |ack|ng roprosontat|on, tho
arch|tocturo avo|ds tho t|mo nocossary to road, wr|to, ut|||zo, and ma|nta|n tho wor|d modo|s. 3ut somohow, human bra|ns oo put |n tho
t|mo, and havo c|ovor ways ot do|ng |t. l arguo that human bra|ns w||| bo s|mu|atod on|y by mov|ng boyond tho assomb|y ||no ot
soquostorod oxports |nto tho |doa ot a cont||ct-basod domocracy ot m|nd, whoro mu|t|p|o part|os p|tch |n tho|r votos on tho samo top|cs.
4 |or oxamp|o, th|s approach |s usod common|y |n art|t|c|a| noura| notworks: 1acobs, 1ordan, low|an, and ||nton, °Adapt|vo m|xturos.'
b V|nsky, 5ocloty oí Vloo.
0 lng|o, °1wo v|sua| systoms,' d|scussod |n a |argor tramowork by V||nor and Gooda|o, 7bo Vlsoo| Brolo.
7 |or tho |mportanco ot cont||ct |n tho bra|n, soo Edo|man, Compotlog tbo Vloo. An opt|ma| bra|n can bo composod ot cont||ct|ng agonts,
soo l|vnat and l|ppongor, °An opt|ma| bra|n', 1vorsky and 3hat|r, °Cho|co undor cont||ct', |ost|ngor, Cooí|lct, Loclsloo, ooo Llssooooco.
3oo a|so Cohon, °1ho vu|can|zat|on,' and VcC|uro ot a|., °Cont||ct mon|tor|ng.'
8 V|||or, °lorsona||ty,' as c|tod |n l|vnat and l|ppongor, °An opt|ma| bra|n.'
0 |or a rov|ow ot dua|-procoss accounts, soo Evans, °0ua|-procoss|ng accounts.'
10 3oo 1ab|o 1 ot |b|d.
11 |roud, Boyooo tbo P|oosoro Prloclp|o (1020). 1ho |doas ot h|s throo-part modo| ot tho psycho woro oxpandod throo yoars |ator |n h|s Los
lcb ooo oos Es, ava||ab|o |n |roud, 7bo 5tooooro Eoltloo.
12 3oo, tor oxamp|o: Vosu|am, Prloclp|os oí Bobovloro| ooo Cogoltlvo oooro|ogy, E|||ott, 0o|an, and |r|th, °0|ssoc|ab|o tunct|ons', and |aw,
°lro-tronta| oxocut|vo comm|ttoo.' 1horo aro many subt|ot|os ot tho nouroanatomy and dobatos w|th|n tho t|o|d, but thoso dota||s aro not
contra| to my argumont and w||| thorotoro bo ro|ogatod to thoso rotoroncos.
18 3omo authors havo rotorrod to thoso systoms, dry|y, as 3ystom 1 and 3ystom 2 procossos (soo, tor oxamp|o, 3tanov|ch, ¼bo ls rotlooo|º
or Kahnoman and |rodor|ck, °loprosontat|vonoss rov|s|tod'). |or our purposos, wo uso what wo hopo w||| bo tho most |ntu|t|vo (|t
|mportoct) uso ot omot|ona| and rat|ona| systoms. 1h|s cho|co |s common |n tho t|o|d, soo, tor oxamp|o, Cohon, °1ho vu|can|zat|on,' and
VcC|uro, ot a|., °Cont||ct mon|tor|ng.'
14 ln th|s sonso, omot|ona| rosponsos can bo v|owod as |ntormat|on procoss|ng-ovory b|t as comp|ox as a math prob|om but occup|od w|th
tho |ntorna| wor|d rathor than tho outs|do. 1ho output ot tho|r procoss|ng-bra|n statos and bod||y rosponsos-can prov|do a s|mp|o p|an ot
act|on tor tho organ|sm to to||ow: do th|s, don't do that.
1b Groono, ot a|., °1ho noura| basos ot cogn|t|vo cont||ct.'
10 3oo l|odontha|, °Embody|ng omot|on,' and |a|dt, °1ho now synthos|s.'
17 |rodor|ck, loowonsto|n, and O'0onoghuo, °1|mo d|scount|ng.'
18 VcC|uro, la|bson, loowonsto|n, and Cohon, °3oparato noura| systoms.' 3poc|t|ca||y, whon choos|ng |ongor-torm rowards w|th h|ghor
roturn, tho |atora| protronta| and postor|or par|ota| cort|cos woro moro act|vo.
10 l. 1. 3h|||or, °lntoct|ous oxuboranco,' At|ootlc Vootb|y, 1u|y/August 2008.
20 |roud, °1ho tuturo ot an |||us|on,' |n 7bo 5tooooro Eoltloo.
21 l|||no|s Lol|y Ropob|lcoo, 3o|v|doro, ll, 1anuary 2, 1020.
22 Ar||o l. 3|abaugh, Cbrlstmos 7okoos ooo Vooo|s (Ch|cago: pr|ntod by Author, 1000), AlA l|brary Cata|oguo lo. lV8b.Cb3b.
28 1amos 3urow|ock|, °3|ttor monoy and chr|stmas c|ubs,' lorbos.com, |obruary 14, 2000.
24 Eag|oman, °Amor|ca on doad||no.'
2b 1homas C. 3cho|||ng, Cbolco ooo Coosoqoooco (Cambr|dgo, VA |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 1084), lyan 3po||ocy, °lov|v|ng U|yssos
contracts,' Koooooy lostltoto oí Etblcs 1ooroo| 18, no. 4 (2008): 878-02, lam|ta luran, °U|yssos contracts: 3ound to troatmont or troo to
chooso?' York 5cbo|or 2 (200b): 42-b1.
20 1horo |s no guarantoo that tho oth|cs boards accurato|y guoss at tho monta| ||to ot tho tuturo pat|ont, thon aga|n, U|yssos contracts a|ways
suttor trom |mportoct know|odgo ot tho tuturo.
27 1h|s phraso |s borrowod trom my co||oaguo 1onathan 0ownar, who put |t as °lt you can't ro|y on your own dorso|atora| protronta| cortox,
borrow somoono o|so's.' As much as l |ovo tho or|g|na| phras|ng, l'vo s|mp||t|od |t tor tho prosont purposos.
28 |or a dota||od summary ot docados ot sp||t-bra|n stud|os, soo 1ramo, ot a|., °|om|sphor|c 3poc|a||zat|on.' |or a |ay-aud|onco summary,
soo V|chao| Gazzan|ga, °1ho sp||t-bra|n rov|s|tod.'
20 1aynos, 7bo Orlglo oí Cooscloosooss.
80 3oo, tor oxamp|o, lauch, 3h|n, and lho|ps, °louroc|rcu|try modo|s.' |or an |nvost|gat|on ot tho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon toartu| momor|os and
tho porcopt|on ot t|mo, soo 3totson, ||osta, and Eag|oman, °0oos t|mo roa||y . ?'
81 |oro's anothor aspoct to cons|dor about momory and tho coaso|oss ro|nvont|on hypothos|s: nourosc|ont|sts do not th|nk ot momory as ono
phonomonon but, |nstoad, as a co||oct|on ot many d|ttoront subtypos. On tho broadost sca|o, thoro |s short-torm and |ong-torm momory.
3hort-torm |nvo|vos romombor|ng a phono numbor |ong onough to d|a| |t. W|th|n tho |ong-torm catogory thoro |s doc|arat|vo momory (tor
oxamp|o, what you ato tor broaktast and what yoar you got marr|od) and nondoc|arat|vo momory (how to r|do a b|cyc|o), tor an ovorv|ow,
soo Eag|oman and Vontaguo, °Vodo|s ot |oarn|ng.' 1hoso d|v|s|ons havo boon |ntroducod bocauso pat|onts can somot|mos damago ono
subtypo w|thout damag|ng othors-an obsorvat|on that has |od nourosc|ont|sts |nto a hopo ot catogor|z|ng momory |nto sovora| s||os. 3ut
|t |s ||ko|y that tho t|na| p|cturo ot momory won't d|v|do so noat|y |nto natura| catogor|os, |nstoad, as por tho thomo ot th|s chaptor, d|ttoront
momory mochan|sms w||| ovor|op |n tho|r doma|ns. (3oo, tor oxamp|o, lo|drack and lackard, °Compot|t|on,' tor a rov|ow ot soparab|o
°cogn|t|vo' and °hab|t' momory systoms that ro|y on tho mod|a| tompora| |obo and basa| gang||a, rospoct|vo|y.) Any c|rcu|t that contr|butos
to momory, ovon a b|t, w||| bo strongthonod and can mako |ts contr|but|on. lt truo, th|s w||| go somo d|stanco toward oxp|a|n|ng an ondur|ng
mystory to young ros|donts ontor|ng tho nouro|ogy c||n|c: why do roa| pat|ont casos on|y raro|y match tho toxtbook caso doscr|pt|ons?
1oxtbooks assumo noat catogor|zat|on, wh||o roa| bra|ns coaso|oss|y ro|nvont ovor|app|ng stratog|os. As a rosu|t, roa| bra|ns aro robust-
and thoy aro a|so ros|stant to humancontr|c |abo||ng.
82 |or a rov|ow ot d|ttoront modo|s ot mot|on dotoct|on, soo C||ttord and lbbotson, °|undamonta| mochan|sms.'
88 1horo aro many oxamp|os ot th|s |nc|us|on ot mu|t|p|o so|ut|ons |n modorn nourosc|onco. 1ako, tor |nstanco, tho mot|on attorottoct,
mont|onod |n Chaptor 2. lt you staro at a watorta|| tor a m|nuto or so, thon |ook away at somoth|ng o|so-say, tho rocks on tho s|do-|t w|||
|ook as though tho stat|onary rocks aro mov|ng upward. 1h|s |||us|on rosu|ts trom an adaptat|on ot tho systom, ossont|a||y, tho v|sua| bra|n
roa||zos that |t |s dor|v|ng ||tt|o now |ntormat|on trom a|| tho downward mot|on, and |t starts to adjust |ts |ntorna| paramotors |n tho d|roct|on
ot canco||ng out tho downwardnoss. As a rosu|t, somoth|ng stat|onary now bog|ns to |ook ||ko |t's mov|ng upward. |or docados, sc|ont|sts
dobatod whothor tho adaptat|on happons at tho |ovo| ot tho rot|na, at tho oar|y stagos ot tho v|sua| systom, or at |ator stagos ot tho v|sua|
systom. Yoars ot carotu| oxpor|monts havo t|na||y roso|vod th|s dobato by d|sso|v|ng |t: thoro |s no s|ng|o answor to tho quost|on, bocauso
|t |s |||-posod. 1horo |s adaptat|on at many d|ttoront |ovo|s |n tho v|sua| systom (Vathor, lavan, Campana, and Casco, °1ho mot|on
attorottoct'). 3omo aroas adapt qu|ck|y, somo s|ow|y, othors at spoods |n botwoon. 1h|s stratogy a||ows somo parts ot tho bra|n to
sons|t|vo|y to||ow changos |n tho |ncom|ng data stroam, wh||o othors w||| not chango tho|r stubborn ways w|thout |ast|ng ov|donco.
loturn|ng to tho |ssuo ot momory d|scussod abovo, |t |s a|so thoor|zod that Vothor laturo has tound sovora| mothods to storo momor|os
at sovora| d|ttoront t|mo sca|os, and |t |s tho |ntoract|on ot a|| thoso t|mo sca|os that makos o|dor momor|os moro stab|o than young
momor|os. 1ho tact that o|dor momor|os aro moro stab|o |s known as l|bot's |aw. |or moro on tho |doa ot oxp|o|t|ng d|ttoront t|mo sca|os
ot p|ast|c|ty, soo |us|, 0row, and Abbott, °Cascado modo|s.'
84 ln a w|dor b|o|og|ca| contoxt, tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork accords wo|| w|th tho |doa that tho bra|n |s a 0arw|n|an systom, ono |n wh|ch
st|mu|| trom tho outs|do wor|d happon to rosonato w|th corta|n random pattorns ot noura| c|rcu|try, and not w|th othors. 1hoso c|rcu|ts that
happon to rospond to st|mu|| |n tho outs|do wor|d aro strongthonod, and othor random c|rcu|ts cont|nuo to dr|tt around unt|| thoy t|nd
somoth|ng to rosonato w|th. lt thoy novor t|nd anyth|ng to °oxc|to' thom, thoy d|o ott. 1o phraso |t trom tho oppos|to d|roct|on, st|mu|| |n tho
outs|do wor|d °p|ck out' c|rcu|ts |n tho bra|n: thoy happon to |ntoract w|th somo c|rcu|ts and not othors. 1ho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork |s
n|co|y compat|b|o w|th noura| 0arw|n|sm, and omphas|zos that 0arw|n|an so|oct|on ot noura| c|rcu|try w||| tond to strongthon mo|tlp|o
c|rcu|ts-ot vory d|ttoront provonanco-a|| ot wh|ch happon to rosonato w|th a st|mu|us or task. 1hoso c|rcu|ts aro tho mu|t|p|o tact|ons |n
tho bra|n's congross. |or v|ows on tho bra|n as a 0arw|n|an systom, soo Gora|d Edo|man, Nooro| Lorwlolsm, Ca|v|n, lowBrolos 7blok,
0onnott, Cooscloosooss Exp|olooo, or |ayok, 7bo 5oosory Oroor.
8b 3oo Wo|skrantz, °Out|ooks' and B|looslgbt.
80 1ochn|ca||y, ropt||os don't soo much outs|do ot tho |mmod|ato roach ot tho|r tonguos, un|oss somoth|ng |s mov|ng w||d|y. 3o |t you'ro rost|ng
on a |oungo cha|r ton toot away trom a ||zard, you most ||ko|y don't ox|st to h|m.
87 3oo, tor oxamp|o, Cr|ck and Koch, °1ho unconsc|ous homuncu|us,' tor uso ot tho torm zomblo systoms.
88 A rocont t|nd|ng shows that tho 3troop ottoct can d|sappoar to||ow|ng posthypnot|c suggost|on. Am|r laz and h|s co||oaguos so|octod a
poo| ot hypnot|zab|o subjocts us|ng a comp|oto|y |ndopondont tost battory. Undor hypnos|s, subjocts woro to|d that |n a |ator task, thoy
wou|d attond to on|y |nk co|or. Undor thoso cond|t|ons, whon tho subjocts woro tostod, tho 3troop |ntortoronco ossont|a||y van|shod.
|ypnos|s |s not a phonomonon that |s wo|| undorstood at tho |ovo| ot tho norvous systom, nor |s |t undorstood why somo subjocts aro moro
hypnot|zab|o than othors, and what oxact|y tho ro|o ot attont|on, or ot roward pattorns, m|ght bo |n oxp|a|n|ng tho ottocts. lovortho|oss, tho
data ra|so |ntr|gu|ng quost|ons about cont||ct roduct|on botwoon |ntorna| var|ab|os, such as a dos|ro to run vorsus a dos|ro to stay and
t|ght. 3oo laz, 3hap|ro, |an, and losnor, °|ypnot|c suggost|on.'
80 3om, °3o|t-porcopt|on thoory', Eag|oman, °1ho whoro and whon ot |ntont|on.'
40 Gazzan|ga, °1ho sp||t-bra|n rov|s|tod.'
41 Eag|oman, lorson, and Vontaguo, °A computat|ona| ro|o tor dopam|no.' ln th|s papor wo constructod a modo| basod on tho roward
systoms |n tho bra|n, and ran th|s modo| on tho samo computor gamo. Astound|ng|y, tho s|mp|o modo| capturod tho |mportant toaturos ot
tho human stratog|os, wh|ch suggostod that poop|o's cho|cos woro bo|ng dr|von by surpr|s|ng|y s|mp|o undor|y|ng mochan|sms.
42 V. 3hormor, °lattorn|c|ty: ||nd|ng moan|ngtu| pattorns |n moan|ng|oss no|so,' 5clootlílc Amorlcoo, 0ocombor 2008.
48 |or s|mp||c|ty, l'vo ro|atod tho random-act|v|ty hypothos|s ot droam contont, known tochn|ca||y as tho act|vat|on-synthos|s modo| (|obson
and VcCar|oy, °1ho bra|n as a droam stato gonorator'). ln tact, thoro aro many thoor|os ot droam|ng. |roud suggostod that droams aro a
d|sgu|sod attompt at w|sh tu|t|||mont, howovor, th|s may bo un||ko|y |n tho taco ot, say, tho ropot|t|vo droams ot post-traumat|c stross
d|sordor. lator, |n tho 1070s, 1ung proposod that droams aro componsat|ng tor aspocts ot tho porsona||ty nog|octod |n wak|ng ||to. 1ho
prob|om horo |s that tho thomos ot droams soom to bo tho samo ovorywhoro, across cu|turos and gonorat|ons-thomos such as bo|ng
|ost, propar|ng moa|s, or bo|ng |ato tor an oxam|nat|on-and |t's a b|t d|tt|cu|t to oxp|a|n what thoso th|ngs havo to do w|th porsona||ty
nog|oct. ln gonora|, howovor, l wou|d ||ko to omphas|zo that dosp|to tho popu|ar|ty ot tho act|vat|on-synthos|s hypothos|s |n nourob|o|ogy
c|rc|os, thoro |s much about droam contont that roma|ns doop|y unoxp|a|nod.
44 Cr|ck and Koch, °Constra|nts.'
4b 1|nborgon. °0or|vod act|v|t|os.'
40 Ko||y, 7bo Psycbo|ogy oí 5ocrots.
47 lonnobakor, °1raumat|c oxpor|onco'
48 lotr|o, 3ooth, and lonnobakor, °1ho |mmuno|og|ca| ottocts.'
40 1o bo c|oar, tho toam-ot-r|va|s tramowork, by |tso|t, doosn't so|vo tho who|o Al prob|om. 1ho noxt d|tt|cu|ty |s |n |oarn|ng how to contro| tho
subparts, how to dynam|ca||y a||ocato contro| to oxport subsystoms, how to arb|trato batt|os, how to updato tho systom on tho bas|s ot
rocont succossos and ta||uros, how to dovo|op a mota-know|odgo ot how tho parts w||| act whon controntod w|th tomptat|ons |n tho noar
tuturo, and so on. Our tronta| |obos havo dovo|opod ovor m||||ons ot yoars us|ng b|o|ogy's t|nost tr|cks, and wo st||| havo not toasod out tho
r|dd|os ot tho|r c|rcu|try. lonotho|oss, undorstand|ng tho corroct arch|tocturo trom tho got-go |s our bost way torward.
Chaµtor 0. Why BIamoworthinoaa |a tho Wrong Ouoation

1 lavorgno, A 5olpor lo tbo 7owor.
2 loport to Govornor, Char|os 1. Wh|tman Catastropho, Vod|ca| Aspocts, 3optombor 8, 1000.
8 3. 3rown, and E. 3hator, °An lnvost|gat|on |nto tho tunct|ons ot tho occ|p|ta| and tompora| |obos ot tho monkoy's bra|n,' Pbl|osopblco|
7roosoctloos oí tbo Royo| 5ocloty oí Looooo. Blo|oglco| 5cloocos 170 (1888): 808-27.
4 K|üvor and 3ucy, °lro||m|nary ana|ys|s' 1h|s consto||at|on ot symptoms, usua||y accompan|od by hyporsoxua||ty and hyporora||ty, |s known
as K|üvor-3ucy syndromo.
b K. 3uchor, l. Vyors, and C. 3outhw|ck, °Antor|or tompora| cortox and matorna| bohav|our |n monkoy,' Nooro|ogy 20 (1070): 41b.
0 3urns and 3word|ow, °l|ght orb|totronta| tumor.'
7 Vondoz, ot a|., °lsych|atr|c symptoms assoc|atod w|th A|zho|mor's d|soaso', Vondoz, ot a|., °Acqu|rod soc|opathy and trontotompora|
domont|a.'
8 V. loann 0odd, Kov|n 1. K|os, 1amos |. 3owor, Yonas E. Goda, Ko|th A. 1osophs, and 1. Er|c Ah|skog, °latho|og|ca| gamb||ng causod by
drugs usod to troat lark|nson d|soaso,'Arcblvos oí Nooro|ogy 02, no. 0 (200b): 1877-81.
0 |or a so||d toundat|on and c|oar oxpos|t|on ot tho roward systoms, soo Vontaguo, Yoor Brolo ls (A|most) Poríoct.
10 luttor, °Env|ronmonta||y mod|atod r|sks', Casp| and Vott|tt, °Gono-onv|ronmont |ntoract|ons.'
11 1ho gu||ty m|nd |s known as moos roo. lt you comm|t tho gu||ty act (octos roos) but d|d not provab|y havo moos roo, you aro not cu|pab|o.
12 3roughton, ot a|., °|om|c|da| somnambu||sm.'
18 As ot th|s wr|t|ng, thoro havo boon s|xty-o|ght casos ot hom|c|da| somnambu||sm |n lorth Amor|can and Europoan courts, tho t|rst ono
rocordod |n tho 1000s. Wh||o wo can assumo that somo tract|on ot thoso casos aro d|shonost p|oas, not a|| ot thom aro. 1hoso samo
cons|dorat|ons ot parasomn|as havo como |nto courtrooms moro rocont|y w|th s|oop sox-tor oxamp|o, rapo or |nt|do||ty wh||o s|oop|ng-
and sovora| casos havo boon acqu|ttod on thoso grounds.
14 l|bot, G|oason, Wr|ght, and loar|, °1|mo', |aggard and E|mor, °On tho ro|at|on', Kornhubor and 0oocko, °Changos', Eag|oman, °1ho
whoro and whon ot |ntont|on', Eag|oman and |o|combo, °Causa||ty', 3oon, ot a|., °Unconsc|ous dotorm|nants ot troo doc|s|ons.'
1b lot ovoryono agroos that l|bot's s|mp|o tost const|tutos a moan|ngtu| tost ot troo w|||. As lau| Vc|ugh po|nts out, °What o|so wou|d ono
oxpoct whon study|ng a capr|c|ous act w|th no|thor consoquonco nor s|gn|t|canco to tho actor?'
10 lomombor, cr|m|na| bohav|or |s not ont|ro|y about tho actor's gonos a|ono. 0|abotos and |ung d|soaso aro |nt|uoncod by h|gh-sugar toods
and o|ovatod a|r po||ut|on, as wo|| as a gonot|c prod|spos|t|on. ln tho samo way, b|o|ogy and tho oxtorna| onv|ronmont |ntoract |n cr|m|na||ty.
17 3|ngham, lrotaco.
18 3oo Eag|oman and 0ownar, Cogoltlvo Noorosclooco.
10 Ead|o and 3|ad|n, A Llsooso Ooco 5ocroo.
20 3apo|sky, °1ho tronta| cortox.'
21 3carpa and la|no, °1ho psychophys|o|ogy,' and K|oh|, °A cogn|t|vo nourosc|onco porspoct|vo on psychopathy.'
22 3apo|sky, °1ho tronta| cortox.'
28 3|ngor, °Ko|nor kann andors, a|s or |st.'
24 loto that °abnorma|' |s moant on|y |n a stat|st|ca| sonso-that |s, not tho norma| way ot bohav|ng. 1ho tact that most poop|o bohavo a
corta|n way |s muto on whothor that act|on |s corroct |n a |argor mora| sonso. lt |s on|y a statomont about tho |oca| |aws, customs, and
moros ot a group ot poop|o at a part|cu|ar t|mo-oxact|y tho samo |ooso constra|nts by wh|ch tho °cr|mo' |s a|ways dot|nod.
2b 3oo Vonahan, °A jur|sprudonco,' or 0onno, °Consc|ousnoss.'
20 A cha||ongo tor b|o|og|ca| oxp|anat|ons ot bohav|or |s that poop|o on tho |ott and r|ght w||| push tho|r own agondas. 3oo la|and and 3rown,
5ooso ooo Noosooso, as wo|| as O'|ara, °|ow nourosc|onco m|ght advanco tho |aw.' Appropr|ato caut|on |s ot tantamount |mportanco,
bocauso b|o|og|ca| stor|os about human bohav|or havo boon m|susod |n tho past to support agondas. |owovor, past m|suso doos not
moan tho b|o|og|ca| stud|os shou|d bo abandonod, |t on|y |mp||os that thoy shou|d bo |mprovod.
27 3oo, tor oxamp|o, 3ozdj|an, la|no, 3akor, and lynam, °lsychopath|c porsona||ty,' or la|no, 7bo Psycbopotbo|ogy oí Crlmo.
28 loto that tho |obotomy was cons|dorod a succosstu| procoduro tor noncr|m|na| pat|onts |n |argo part bocauso ot tho g|ow|ng roports ot tho
tam|||os. lt wasn't |mmod|ato|y approc|atod how b|asod tho sourcos woro. laronts wou|d br|ng |n a troub|od, |oud, dramat|c, and
troub|osomo ch||d, and attor tho surgory tho ch||d wou|d bo much oas|or to hand|o. 1ho monta| prob|oms had boon rop|acod by doc|||ty. 3o
tho toodback was pos|t|vo. Ono woman roportod ot hor mothor's |obotomy: °3ho was abso|uto|y v|o|ont|y su|c|da| botorohand. Attor tho
transorb|ta| |obotomy thoro was noth|ng. lt stoppod |mmod|ato|y. lt was just poaco. l don't know how to oxp|a|n |t to you, |t was ||ko turn|ng a
co|n ovor. 1hat qu|ck. 3o whatovor [0r. |rooman| d|d, ho d|d somoth|ng r|ght.'
As tho oporat|on grow |n popu|ar|ty, tho ago throsho|d tor roco|v|ng ono wont down. 1ho youngost pat|ont to roco|vo tho troatmont was a
two|vo-yoar-o|d boy namod |oward 0u||y. ||s stopmothor doscr|bod tho bohav|or that, to hor m|nd, nocoss|tatod tho oporat|on: °|o
objocts to go|ng to bod but thon s|oops wo||. |o doos a good doa| ot daydroam|ng and whon askod about |t ho says 'l don't know.' |o
turns tho room's ||ghts on whon thoro |s broad sun||ght outs|do.' And undor tho |co p|ck ho wont.
20 3oo, tor oxamp|o, Konnody and Grub|n, °|ot-hoadod or |mpu|s|vo?', and 3tantord and 3arratt, °lmpu|s|v|ty.'
80 3oo laConto, ot a|., °Vodu|at|ng,' and Ch|u, ot a|., °loa|-t|mo tVll.' 3tophon laConto has boon a p|onoor |n tho dovo|opmont ot roa|-t|mo
toodback |n tunct|ona| magnot|c rosonanco |mag|ng (tVll), and ho |s tho mastorm|nd ot th|s work. loar| Ch|u |s an oxport |n psycho|ogy
and add|ct|on, and sho |s spoarhoad|ng tho curront oxpor|monts to uso th|s tochno|ogy to curo c|garotto smokors ot tho|r add|ct|on.
81 lmag|no a tantasy wor|d |n wh|ch wo cou|d rohab|||tato w|th 100 porcont succoss. Wou|d that moan that systoms ot pun|shmont wou|d go
away? lot ont|ro|y. lt cou|d bo roasonab|y arguod that pun|shmont wou|d st||| bo nocossary tor two roasons: dotorronco ot tuturo cr|m|na|s
and tho sat|stact|on ot tho natura| rotr|but|vo |mpu|so.
82 Eag|oman, °Unso|vod mystor|os.'
88 Goodonough, °lospons|b|||ty and pun|shmont.'
84 3a|rd and |ugo|sang, °1ho omorgonco ot consoquont|a| thought.'
8b Eag|oman, °1ho doath pona|ty.'
80 Groono and Cohon, °|or tho |aw.'
87 1horo aro |mportant nuancos and subt|ot|os to tho argumonts prosontod |n th|s short chaptor, and thoso aro dovo|opod at moro |ongth
o|sowhoro. |or thoso |ntorostod |n turthor dota||, p|oaso soo tho ln|t|at|vo on lourosc|onco and law (www.nou|aw.org), wh|ch br|ngs
togothor nourosc|ont|sts, |awyors, oth|c|sts, and po||cy makors w|th tho goa| ot bu||d|ng ov|donco-basod soc|a| po||cy. |or turthor road|ng,
soo Eag|oman, °lourosc|onco and tho |aw,' or Eag|oman, Corroro, and 3|ngh, °Why nourosc|onco mattors.'
88 |or moro about |ncont|vo structur|ng, soo 1onos, °law, ovo|ut|on, and tho bra|n' or Chorvat and VcCabo, °1ho bra|n and tho |aw.'
80 V|tcho|| and Aamodt, °1ho |nc|donco ot ch||d abuso |n sor|a| k|||ors.'
40 Eag|oman, °lourosc|onco and tho |aw.'
Chaµtor 7. Lito Attor tho Nonarchy

1 lau|, Aoolbl|otloo oí Voo.
2 Vasca||, 7bo lmportooco oí Bolog lomoo.
8 As tor tho h|story ot tho phraso, tho loman poot 1uvona| suggostod that °Know thyso|t' doscondod stra|ght trom hoavon (oo coo|o), moro
sobor scho|ars attr|buto |t to Ch||on ot 3parta, |orac||tus, lythagoras, 3ocratos, 3o|on ot Athons, 1ha|os ot V||otus, or s|mp|y popu|ar
provorb.
4 3|go|ow, °0r. |ar|ow's caso.'
b Bostoo Post, 3optombor 21, 1848, crod|t|ng an oar||or roport trom tho Loo|owlroo 5ol| Uoloo (a vormont nowspapor). 1ho vors|on ot tho
toxt quotod corrocts a contus|on |n tho or|g|na| roport |n wh|ch tho word °d|amotor' was |ncorroct|y rop|acod w|th °c|rcumtoronco.' 3oo a|so
Vacm|||an, Ao Ooo Kloo oí lomo.
0 |ar|ow, °locovory.'
7 |or c|ar|ty, l am not compo||od by trad|t|ona| ro||g|ous stor|os ot tho sou|. What l moan w|th tho quost|on ot a °sou|' |s somoth|ng moro ||ko a
gonora| ossonco that ||vos on top ot, or outs|do ot, tho curront|y undorstood b|o|og|ca| procossos.
8 l|orco and Kumarosan, °1ho moso||mb|c dopam|no systom.'
0 ln an|ma| modo|s, rosoarchors w||| shut down soroton|n rocoptors and domonstrato changos |n anx|oty and bohav|or, thon rostoro tho
rocoptors and rostoro norma| bohav|or. |or oxamp|o, soo Wo|sstaub, Zhou and l|ra, °Cort|ca| b-|12A.'
10 Waxman and Goschw|nd, °|yporgraph|a.'
11 3oo 1r|mb|o and |rooman, °An |nvost|gat|on,' tor stud|os ot ro||g|os|ty |n pat|onts w|th tompora| |obo op||opsy, and 0ov|nsky and la|,
°3p|r|tua||ty,' tor an ovorv|ow ot op||opsy and ro||g|os|ty. 3oo d'Ors| and 1|nupor, ° 'l hoard vo|cos,' ' tor tho v|ow that tho op||opsy ot 1oan
ot Arc was a now|y doscr|bod typo: |d|opath|c part|a| op||opsy w|th aud|tory toaturos (llEA|). 3oo |roomon, °A d|ttoront|a| d|agnos|s,' tor
a h|stor|ca| d|agnos|s ot Vuhammad |n wh|ch ho conc|udos, °A|though an unoqu|voca| doc|s|on |s not poss|b|o trom ox|st|ng know|odgo,
psychomotor or comp|ox part|a| so|zuros ot tompora| |obo op||opsy wou|d bo tho most tonab|o d|agnos|s.'
12 l havo otton wondorod whothor tho promot|on ot soxua| bohav|or |n humans wou|d bo tho most obv|ous mochan|sm tor a soxua||y
transm|ttod v|rus to advanco so|t-surv|va|. l do not know ot any data that support th|s, but |t sooms an obv|ous p|aco to go hunt|ng.
18 1horo aro many moro oxamp|os ot sma|| b|o|og|ca| twoaks caus|ng b|g changos. lat|onts w|th horpos s|mp|ox oncopha||t|s otton got
damago to spoc|t|c aroas ot tho|r bra|ns, and show up at tho doctor's ott|co w|th prob|oms |n us|ng and undorstand|ng tho moan|ng ot
words-tor oxamp|o, past tonso |rrogu|ars such as orlvo and orovo. lt you ovor |ntu|tod that somoth|ng as |mpa|pab|o as past tonso
|rrogu|ars |s not d|roct|y connoctod to tho m|croscop|c knobs, th|nk aga|n. And Croutzto|dt-1akob d|soaso, a prob|om causod by
abnorma||y to|dod proto|ns ca||od pr|ons, a|most a|ways onds |n a g|oba| domont|a charactor|zod by so|t-nog|oct, apathy, and |rr|tab|||ty.
3|zarro|y, v|ct|ms havo spoc|t|c prob|oms w|th wr|t|ng, road|ng, and |ott-r|ght d|sor|ontat|on. Who wou|d havo thought that your sonso ot |ott
and r|ght had a dopondonco on tho oxact to|d|ng structuro ot proto|ns that aro two thousand t|mos sma||or than tho w|dth ot a ha|r on your
hoad? 3ut thoro |t |s.
14 Cumm|ngs, °3ohav|ora| and psych|atr|c symptoms.'
1b 3apo|sky, °1ho tronta| cortox.'
10 3oo |arah, °lourooth|cs.'
17 Accord|ng to ono hypothos|s ot tho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon sch|zophron|a and |mm|grat|on, cont|nua| soc|a| dotoat porturbs dopam|no
tunct|on |n tho bra|n. |or rov|ows, soo 3o|ton, Cantor-Graao, and Kahn, °V|grat|on,' or Wo|sor, ot a|., °E|aborat|on.' 1hanks to my
co||oaguo 1onathan 0ownar tor t|rst br|ng|ng th|s ||toraturo to my attont|on.
18 As ot 2008, tho U.3. had 2.8 m||||on poop|o boh|nd bars, |oad|ng tho wor|d |n tho porcontago ot |ts c|t|zons |n ja||. Wh||o soc|oty bonot|ts
trom |ncarcorat|ng v|o|ont ropoat ottondors, many ot thoso boh|nd bars-such as drug add|cts-cou|d bo doa|t w|th |n a moro tru|ttu|
mannor than |mpr|sonmont.
10 3uom|, °l|sk, ros|||onco.'
20 1ho gonot|c chango |n quost|on ||os |n tho promotor rog|on ot tho soroton|n transportor (b-|11) gono.
21 Uhor and VcGutt|n, °1ho modorat|on,' and lob|nson, Groz|ngor, and Wh|tt|o|d, °3oc|ogonom|cs.'
22 Casp|, 3ugdon, Vott|tt, ot a|., °lnt|uonco ot ||to stross on dopross|on.'
28 Casp|, VcC|ay, Vott|tt, ot a|., °lo|o ot gonotypo.' 1ho gonot|c chango thoy tound was |n tho promotor rog|on ot tho gono oncod|ng tor
monoam|no ox|daso A (VAOA). VAOA |s a mo|ocu|o that mod|t|os two nourotransm|ttor systoms cr|t|ca| tor mood and omot|ona|
rogu|at|on: noradrona||no and soroton|n.
24 Casp|, Vott|tt, Cannon, ot a|., °Vodorat|on.' ln th|s caso, tho ||nk |s a sma|| chango |n tho gono oncod|ng catocho|-O-mothy|transtoraso
(COV1).
2b 3carpa and la|no, °1ho psychophys|o|ogy ot ant|soc|a| bohav|our.'
20 ls |t poss|b|o that undorstand|ng gono-onv|ronmont |ntoract|ons cou|d |ntorm provontat|vo approachos? |oro's a thought oxpor|mont:
shou|d wo mod|ty tho gonos onco wo undorstand thom? Wo havo soon that not ovoryono who suttors ch||dhood ma|troatmont to||ows tho
path to v|o|onco |n adu|thood. ||stor|ca||y, soc|o|og|sts havo tocusod on soc|a| oxpor|oncos that m|ght protoct somo ch||dron (tor oxamp|o,
can wo roscuo tho ch||d trom tho abus|vo homo and ra|so h|m |n a sato and car|ng onv|ronmont?). 3ut what has not yot boon oxp|orod |s a
protoct|vo ro|o ot gonos-that |s, whothor gonos can protoct aga|nst onv|ronmonta| |nsu|ts. Wh||o th|s |doa |s curront|y sc|onco t|ct|on, |t w|||
not bo |ong botoro somoono proposos a gono thorapy tor such s|tuat|ons: a v|o|onco vacc|no.
3ut thoro's a downs|do to th|s sort ot |ntorvont|on: gonot|c var|at|on |s bonot|c|a|. Wo nood var|at|on to produco art|sts, ath|otos,
accountants, arch|tocts, and so on. As 3tophon 3uom| puts |t, tho °var|at|on soon |n corta|n gonos |n rhosus monkoys and humans but
apparont|y not |n othor pr|mato spoc|os may actua||y contr|buto to tho|r romarkab|o adaptab|||ty and ros|||onco at tho spoc|os |ovo|.' ln
othor words, wo havo a doop |gnoranco ot wh|ch gonot|c comb|nat|ons ond up bo|ng most bonot|c|a| tor a soc|oty-and th|s |gnoranco
prov|dos tho t|rmost argumont aga|nst gonot|c |ntorvont|on. |urthor, dopond|ng on tho onv|ronmont |n wh|ch ono t|nds onoso|t, tho samo
sot ot gonos may causo oxco||onco |nstoad ot cr|mo. Gonos prod|spos|ng tor aggross|vonoss may mako a ta|ontod ontropronour or CEO,
gonos prod|spos|ng tor v|o|onco may mako a tootba|| horo, adm|rod and pa|d a handsomo sa|ary by tho popu|at|on.
27 Kauttman, Rolovootlog tbo 5ocroo.
28 lo|chonbach, 7bo Rlso oí 5clootlílc Pbl|osopby.
20 Ono potont|a| st|ck|ng po|nt |n draw|ng a ro|at|onsh|p botwoon nourosc|onco and quantum mochan|cs |s tho tact that bra|n t|ssuo |s rough|y
throo hundrod dogroos Ko|v|n and |s |n constant |ntoract|on w|th |ts |mmod|ato onv|ronmont-thoso toaturos aro not amonab|o to
|ntorost|ng macroscop|c quantum bohav|ors such as ontang|omont. lonotho|oss, tho gap botwoon tho two t|o|ds |s bog|nn|ng to c|oso,
w|th sc|ont|sts trom both s|dos mak|ng ovorturos to roach a moan|ngtu| hand across tho gu|t. Voroovor, |t |s now c|oar that photosynthos|s
oporatos w|th quantum mochan|ca| pr|nc|p|os |n th|s samo tomporaturo rango, wh|ch turthor bospoaks tho ||ko||hood that Vothor laturo,
hav|ng t|gurod out how to oxp|o|t thoso tr|cks |n ono arona, w||| oxp|o|t thom o|sowhoro. |or moro on tho poss|b|||ty ot quantum ottocts |n
tho bra|n, soo Koch and |opp, °Ouantum mochan|cs,' or Vacgrogor, °Ouantum mochan|cs and bra|n uncorta|nty.'
80 Wo aro somot|mos |ucky onough to havo a h|nt ot what's m|ss|ng. |or oxamp|o, A|bort E|nsto|n to|t corta|n that wo woro stuck |n our
psycho|og|ca| t||tors whon |t camo to undorstand|ng tho passago ot t|mo. E|nsto|n wroto tho to||ow|ng to tho s|stor and son ot h|s bost
tr|ond, V|cho|o 3osso, attor 3osso's doath: °V|cho|o has procodod mo a ||tt|o |n |oav|ng th|s strango wor|d. 1h|s |s not |mportant. |or us
who aro conv|ncod phys|c|sts, tho d|st|nct|on botwoon past, prosont, and tuturo |s on|y an |||us|on, howovor pors|stont.' E|nsto|n-3osso
corrospondonco, od|tod by l|orro 3poz|a|| (lar|s: |ormann, 1072), b87-80.
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laz, A., 1. 3hap|ro, 1. |an, and V. l. losnor. 2002. °|ypnot|c suggost|on and tho modu|at|on ot 3troop |ntortoronco.' Arcblvos oí Ooooro|
Psycblotry b0 (12): 11bb-01.
lo|chonbach, |. 10b1. 7bo Rlso oí 5clootlílc Pbl|osopby. 3orko|oy: Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a lross.
lo|tman, W., l. lado, and 3. W||cox. 1078. °Vach|no porcopt|on: What makos |t so hard tor computors to soo?' ln Porcoptloo ooo Cogoltloo.
lssoos lo tbo loooootloos oí Psycbo|ogy, od|tod by C. W. 3avago, 0b-87. vo|umo lX ot V|nnosota 3tud|os |n tho lh||osophy ot 3c|onco.
V|nnoapo||s: Un|vors|ty ot V|nnosota lross.
lons|nk, l. A., 1. K. O'logan, and 1. 1. C|ark. 1007. °1o soo or not to soo: 1ho nood tor attont|on to porco|vo changos |n sconos.' Psycbo|oglco|
5clooco 8 (b): 808-78.
loport to Govornor. Char|os 1. Wh|tman Catastropho, Vod|ca| Aspocts. 3optombor 8, 1000. Aust|n ||story Contor.
http://www.c|.aust|n.tx.us/||brary/ahc/wh|tmat.
lhawn, 1. 2000. Nooropsycblotry, Nooropsycbo|ogy, C|lolco| Noorosclooco. low York: Acadom|c lross.
l|ttor, V. 2000. °3ra|n-scan ||o dotoctors com|ng |n noar tuturo.' 1ranscr|pt. |ox lows, 1anuary 81.
loborts, 3. C., 1. |av||cok, and 1. ||ogr. 2004. °|oma|o tac|a| attract|vonoss |ncroasos dur|ng tho tort||o phaso ot tho monstrua| cyc|o.'
Procooologs oí tbo Royo| 5ocloty oí Looooo B, 271: 3270-72.
lobort, 3., l. Gray, 1. 3m|th, V. Vorr|s, and V. VacCu||och. 2004. °lmp||c|t attoct|vo assoc|at|ons to v|o|onco |n psychopath|c murdorors.'
1ooroo| oí lorooslc Psycblotry &Psycbo|ogy 1b (4): 020-41.
lob|nson, G. E., C. V. Groz|ngor, and C. W. Wh|tt|o|d. 200b. °3oc|ogonom|cs: 3oc|a| ||to |n mo|ocu|ar torms.' Notlooo| Rovlowoí Ooootlcs 0 (4):
2b7-70.
loso, 3. 1007. Llío|loos. Blo|ogy, lroooom, Lotormlolsm. low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross.
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Pbyslo|oglco| Psycbo|ogy 47 (8): 178-78.
luttor, V. 200b. °Env|ronmonta||y mod|atod r|sks tor psychopatho|ogy: losoarch stratog|os and t|nd|ngs.' 1ooroo| oí tbo Amorlcoo Acooomy oí
Cbl|o ooo Aoo|oscoot Psycblotry 44: 8-18.
3apo|sky, l. V. 2004. °1ho tronta| cortox and tho cr|m|na| just|co systom.' Pbl|osopblco| 7roosoctloos oí tbo Royo| 5ocloty B 8b0 (14b1):
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3carpa, A., and A. la|no. 2008. °1ho psychophys|o|ogy ot ant|soc|a| bohav|or: lntoract|ons w|th onv|ronmonta| oxpor|oncos.' ln Blosoclo|
Crlmloo|ogy. Cbo||ooglog Eovlroomooto|lsm`s 5opromocy, od|tod by A. Wa|sh and l. E|||s. low York: lova 3c|onco.
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3chwartz, 1., 1. lobort-l|bos, and 1. l. Escud|or. 1008. °1on yoars attor 3ummort|o|d: A taxonomy ot modo|s tor aud|o-v|sua| tus|on |n spooch
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loolvlooo| Llííoroocos 10: 128-82.
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absurd, ph||osophy ot
actuar|a| tosts
a|rp|ano spottors
A|borts, A|trod
A|caous ot Vyt||ono
a|coho| b.1, b.2, 7.1
a||on hand syndromo b.1, 0.1
a|||torat|vo a|||ancos
A|zho|mor's d|soaso b.1, 0.1
amnos|a
amygda|a b.1, 0.1
Aoolbl|otloo oí Voo (lau|)
anosognos|a
antor|or s|ngu|ato cortox
Ant|-0otamat|on loaguo
ant|-3om|t|sm b.1, b.2
Anton's syndromo
'apporcopt|vo mass'
'appot|t|ons'
Aqu|nas, 3a|nt 1homas
Ar|stot|o
art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco 4.1, b.1, b.2
assumpt|ons
attract|on 1.1, 4.1, 7.1
noura| proprogramm|ng
'aud|tory dr|v|ng'
August|no
automat|sm
pr|nc|p|o ot sutt|c|ont
automat|zat|on
autonom|c norvous systom
awaronoss soo consc|ousnoss, know|odgo/awaronoss gap
bab|os
gonot|cs 4.1, 4.2
proprogramm|ng
3aby|on|an 1a|mud
3ach-y-l|ta, lau| 2.1, 2.2
bactor|a
boauty 4.1, 7.1
3ochara, Anto|no
3ockw|th, A||on
3ockw|th, 0a||as
bohav|or, human
bra|n damago and 0.1, 7.1
d|s|nh|b|tod 0.1
drugs and
undorstand|ng
3o||, Char|os
3ono|t, Chr|s 0.1, 7.1
b|asos, |mp||c|t
3|go|ow, 0r |onry 1acob
3||||ngs, lona|d
3|ngham, lord
b|o|og|ca| approach
3|ako, W||||am
b|amoworth|noss
bra|n damago, bohav|or changos and
Char|os Wh|tman (oxamp|o) 1.1, 0.1, 0.2, 0.8
cr|m|na||ty, naturo ot
dovo|opmont paths
troo w||| 1.1, 0.1
|mpu|so contro| 0.1, 7.1
monta| d|sordors, concoptua| sh|tts
soo o|so |oga| systom
b||ndnoss 2.1, 4.1
b||nd spot
b||nds|ght
chango 2.1, 2.2
co|or
don|a|
|nst|nct
mot|on
sonsory subst|tut|on
3ohr, l|o|s
bond|ng
3ra|||o
bra|n
damago 0.1, 7.1
tunct|on
hom|sphoros b.1, b.2
structuro
tumors
3ra|nlort
3rouor, 1osot
3rown, 1homas Graham
3runo, G|ordano
3ucy, lau|
3ush, Goorgo W.,
Camus, A|bort
Casp|, Avsha|om 7.1, 7.2
Catto||, 1amos VcKoon
chango b||ndnoss 2.1, 2.2
chaos thoory
Char|os 3onnot syndromo
Chaso, 3a|mon
ch|ck sox|ng
Ch|u, loar|
cho|cos, troo w||| 1.1, 0.1, 7.1
Cho, 3oung-|u|
Chr|stmas bank|ng c|ubs b.1, b.2
c|ta|opram
C|v|| l|ghts Act (1008)
C|arko, Arthur C.
C||nton, 3|||
coca|no
cogn|t|vo rosorvo
Cohon, 1onathan b.1, b.2
Co|or|dgo, 3amuo| 1ay|or
co|or b||ndnoss 4.1
compot|t|on
cont||ctod m|nds
consc|ousnoss
chango |n
contro|||ng ro|o b.1, 7.1
dogroo ot
troo w|||
|roud and
hunchos 8.1, 8.2
nood-to-know bas|s
summar|os 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2
tasks and
unconsc|ous, |nt|uonco on
soo o|so know|odgo/awaronoss gap
consonsus bu||d|ng
conta|nmont
Coporn|cus
copro|a||a
Cosm|dos, loda 4.1, 4.2, 4.8
crav|ngs
Cr|ck, |ranc|s b.1, 7.1
cr|m|na||ty
|oga| systom and
naturo ot
cu|pab|||ty soo b|amoworth|noss
0amas|o, Anton|o
0arw|n, Char|os 1.1, 4.1, 7.1
doatnoss
doc|s|on mak|ng 1.1, b.1
troo w||| cho|cos 1.1, 0.1, 7.1
domont|a, trontotompora|
domocracy ot m|nd
0onnott, 0an|o|
0orbysh|ro, 1ohn
0oscartos, lono
dos|ro 4.1, 4.2
soo o|so attract|on
dovo|opmonta| paths
0ov||n, 0oan
0|ck|nson, Em||y
d|s|nh|b|tod bohav|or
d|stanco ot |ntoract|on
d|v|s|on ot |abor modo|
0lA 4.1, 7.1, 7.2
d'O||vot, Anto|no |abro
doma|ns, ovor|app|ng b.1, b.2
dopam|no systom 0.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.8
0oug|as, 1ust|co W||||am O. 1.1, b.1
droam|ng 2.1, 2.2
drugs
bohav|or changos and
drug add|cts
dua|-procoss modo|
rat|ona| vs omot|ona| systom b.1, b.2, b.8
oars
Ebb|nghaus, |ormann
Ed|son, 1homas
E|so|oy, loron
o|octromagnot|c rad|at|on
omorgonco
Emorson, la|ph Wa|do
omot|ona| vs rat|ona| systom b.1, b.2
onorgy ott|c|oncy
onv|ronmont
dovo|opmonta| paths
gonot|cs and 0.1, 7.1, 7.2
umwo|t
op||opsy
oqua||ty
ostrogon
oth|cs b.1, 0.1
ov|donco-basod sontonc|ng
Evl| Looo 1.1 (mov|o), b.1
ovo|ut|onary tactors
approach
goa|s
psycho|ogy 4.1, 4.2
oxpoctat|ons 2.1, 2.2, 2.8, b.1
oxpor|onco
doconstruct|ng
t|mo, porcopt|on ot
v|s|on soo v|s|on
oxp||c|t momory 8.1, 8.2
oyos soo v|s|on
taco-vaso |||us|on
|arah, Vartha
toodback
|oops
roa|-t|mo, |mag|ng
sonsory 2.1, 2.2
tr|a|-and-orror
tort|||ty 4.1, 4.2
t|do||ty, gonot|cs and
||shor, |o|on
t|ash ottoct
t|ox|b|o |nto|||gonco 8.1, 4.1, b.1
t|uoxot|no 0.1, 7.1
|orstor, E. V.
|oxman, Abraham
troo w||| cho|cos 1.1, 0.1, 7.1
|rooman, Wa|tor
|roud, 3|gmund 1.1, b.1, b.2
tronta| |obotom|os
trontotompora| domont|a
|uoss, E|a|no,
Gago, lh|noas
Ga|||oo Ga|||o| 1.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.8
gazo-road|ng systom
Gazzan|ga, V|chao|
gonot|cs 4.1, 4.2, 0.1, 7.1, 7.2
onv|ronmont and 0.1, 7.1, 7.2
prod|spos|t|on
v|s|on and
G|bson, Vo| 1.1, b.1, b.2
'g||mpso ottoct'
Gootho, 1ohann Wo|tgang von 1.1, 1.2
Goodw|n, 0or|s Koarns
Goro, A|
groator norvous systom
Groono, 1oshua,
ha||uc|nat|ons 2.1, 2.2
|ar|ow, 1ohn Vartyn
|arr|s, Er|c
|awk|ns, 1ott
|o|doggor, Vart|n
|o|mho|tz, |ormann von
hom|sphoros, cont||ct|ng b.1, b.2
loory Vl, Port 2 (3hakospoaro)
|orbart, 1ohann |r|odr|ch
h|ppocampus
||rano, 3tovo
hom|c|da| somnambu||sm
hormonos 4.1, 7.1, 7.2
|orow|tz, 0av|d
|u 1|ntao, lros|dont
|uman Gonomo lrojoct
human ||to
b|o|og|ca| approach
gonot|cs soo gonot|cs
undorstand|ng
hunchos
|unt|ngton's d|soaso 7.1, 7.2
|ussor|, Edmund
|utton, 1amos,
|doas
|||us|ons
act|on/sonsat|on rovorsa|
t|ash ottoct
|||us|on-ot-truth ottoct
sound
v|sua| 2.1, 2.2, 2.8, 2.4, 2.b, 7.1
|mag|ng mothods
|mm|grant groups
|mp||c|t tactors
b|asos
ogot|sm
momory 8.1, 8.2, 8.8
|mpu|so contro| 0.1, 7.1
|nconsoquont|a||ty, human
|ntoronco, unconsc|ous
|nt|do||ty, gonot|cs and
'|nnoror schwo|nohund'
|nst|nct
b||ndnoss
|nto|||gonco
art|t|c|a| 4.1, b.1, b.2
t|ox|b|o 8.1, 4.1, b.1
|ntont|ons
|ntoract|on, d|stanco ot
|ntorna| modo|s 2.1, 2.2, 2.8
lntorna| lovonuo 3orv|co (ll3) phonomonon
7bo lotorprototloo oí Lrooms (|roud)
|ntrospoct|on 2.1, 2.2, 2.8, 2.4, 8.1, 4.1, 7.1, 7.2
|ntu|t|on
l-want-|t-now doa|s,
1acobs, Gora|d
1amos, W||||am 4.1, 4.2, 4.8, b.1
1aspors, Kar|
1aynos, 1u||an
1oan ot Arc
1onos, 1ohn
1ung, Car|,
Kahnoman, 0an|o|
Kasparov, Garry
Kauttman, 3tuart
Kosoy, Kon
K|orkogaard, 3øron
K|obo|d, 0y|an
K|üvor, |o|nr|ch
know|odgo/awaronoss gap
automat|zat|on
hunchos
|mp||c|t b|asos
|mp||c|t ogot|sm
|mp||c|t momory 8.1, 8.2, 8.8
pr|m|ng
unconsc|ous, consc|ous |nt|uonco on
unconsc|ous |oarn|ng
Koch, Chr|stot
Kob|o Kboo (Co|or|dgo)
|abor, d|v|s|on ot
laConto, 3tophon
land|s, Vorko| b.1, b.2
lap|aco, l|orro-3|mon
|oarn|ng
t|ox|b|||ty ot
unconsc|ous
lo0oux, 1osoph
|oga| systom
b|amoworth|noss and 0.1, 0.2
bra|n-compat|b|o
oqua||ty and
troo w||| and
sontonc|ng, mod|t|ab|||ty and 0.1, 7.1
|oucotom|os
l| Koq|ang
l|bot, 3onjam|n
l|chtonborg, Goorg C.
l|obn|z, Gotttr|od W||ho|m
||mb|c systom
l|nco|n, Abraham
||th|um
|obotom|os
|og|c,
Vc3oath, V|ko
VcC|uro, 3am
VcGurk ottoct
Vach, Ernst
Vach bands
mach|no motaphor 1.1, 1.2, 1.8
VacKay, 0ona|d
Vacloan, lau|
major h|stocompat|b|||ty comp|ox (V|C)
Var|otto, Edmo
Var|att, G. A|an
Vasca||, E. l.
mator|a||st v|owpo|nt 7.1, 7.2
Vaxwo||, 1amos C|ork
Vay, V|ko 2.1, 2.2
momory
oxp||c|t
|mp||c|t 8.1, 8.2, 8.8
procodura|
monta| d|sordors, concoptua| sh|tts
monta| subagonts
Voyors, lona|d
m|nd-road|ng systom
V|nsky, Varv|n 4.1, b.1, b.2
mod|t|ab|||ty, sontonc|ng and 0.1, 7.1
Von|z, Egas
monogamy 4.1
Vontaguo, load 8.1, b.1, 7.1, 7.2
Vonta|gno, V|cho| do b.1, 7.1
mot|on
attorottoct |||us|on
b||ndnoss
motor |nput
Vugabo, lros|dont lobort
Vü||or, 1ohannos lotor
mu|t|stab|o cubo
Lo mytbo oo 5lsypbo (Camus)
narcot|cs soo drugs
lathans, 1oromy
natura| so|oct|on
noocortox
norvos
norvous systom, groator
nourob|o|ogy
nouro|mag|ng
nouro|og|ca| d|sordors
nourons 1.1, 1.2, 2.1
act|v|ty
spoc|a||zat|on 4.1, 4.2
soo o|so proprogramm|ng, noura|
nourop|ast|c|ty
nourosc|onco 1.1, 0.1, 0.2, 7.1, 7.2
nourotransm|ttor systom 7.1, 7.2
NowEssoys oo lomoo Uooorstooolog (l|obn|z)
lowton, lsaac
numbor torms,
obsorvat|on 2.1, 7.1
Occam's razor
odor, |nt|uonco ot
Ooo l|owovor tbo Cockoo`s Nost (Kosoy)
op|um
orb|totronta| cortox
organ|c d|sordors
Orgo|, los||o
7bo Orlglo oí 5poclos (0arw|n) 1.1, 4.1
ovor|app|ng doma|ns (|n tho bra|n),
parasomn|as
lark|nson's d|soaso
larks, Konnoth 0.1, 0.2, 0.8, 0.4
paroxot|no
lasca|, 3|a|so
lau|, los||o
lo|ham, 3rott
lonnobakor, 1amos
porcopt|on
consc|ous
'pot|to porcopt|ons'
ot t|mo
unanchorod
phoronomos
phrono|ogy
phys|ca| stato, ot body
l|nk ||oyd
l||ny tho E|dor
lopo, A|oxandor
pract|ca| roasonors
pram|poxo|o
prod|ct|ons
prod|spos|t|on, gonot|c
protronta| cortox
proprogramm|ng, noura|
boauty and
soo o|so gonot|cs
pr|m|ng
7bo Prloclp|os oí Psycbo|ogy (1amos)
pr|sons
procodura| momory
progross, human
prosopagnos|a
psoudoha||uc|nat|ons
psych|atr|c d|sordors
psych|atry
psychoana|ys|s
psychogon|c d|sordors 0.1, 0.2
psycho|ogy, ovo|ut|onary 4.1, 4.2
psychophys|cs
lto|omy,
quantum mochan|cs 7.1, 7.2, 7.8
quantum phys|cs 0.1, 7.1
rac|sm b.1, b.2
rad|o thoory
la|no, Adr|an 0.1, 7.1
lamachandran, v||ayanur
rat|ona| vs omot|ona| systom b.1, b.2
roa||t|os, d|ttoront
roa|-t|mo toodback, |mag|ng
roason
pract|ca| roasonors
rat|ona| vs omot|ona| systom b.1, b.2
roc|d|v|sm
roduct|on|sm 7.1, 7.2, 7.8, 7.4
rohab|||tat|on 0.1, 0.2, 0.8, 0.4, 7.1
lo|chonbach, |ans
lop|n, l|ya
ropt|||an bra|n
rotrospoct|vo tabr|cat|on ot stor|os
r|spor|dono
lob|nson, Eugono
robots (art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco) 4.1, b.1, b.2
lyan, lo|an,
3apo|sky, lobort 0.1, 7.1
3arma, Karth|k
3carpa, Ango|a 0.1, 7.1
sch|zophron|a
socrots
so|t-know|odgo 7.1, 7.2
so|t-rot|oct|on 0.1, 0.2
sonsory tactors
b|ond|ngs (synosthos|a)
toodback 2.1, 2.2
|nput 2.1, 2.2
subst|tut|on
sontonc|ng
ov|donco-basod
mod|t|ab|||ty and 0.1, 7.1
soroton|n 7.1, 7.2
sortra||no
3oward, W||||am
3hormor, V|chao|
3horr|ngton, 3|r Char|os
3hostov, lov
3h|||or, lobort
5loorlos Nooclos (Ga|||oo)
3|ngor, Wo|t
s|oopwa|k|ng 0.1, 0.2
smo|| 4.1, 4.2
soc|a| tactors
attachmont
|ntoract|on
po||cy 7.1, 7.2
7bo 5ocloty oí Vloo (V|nsky)
soc|oty-ot-m|nd b.1, b.2
somnambu||sm
hom|c|da|
sou|
spoc|a||zat|on b.1, b.2
noura| 4.1, 4.2
spood
3porry, logor
sp||t-bra|n pat|onts b.1, b.2, 0.1, 0.2
storo|d rago
stor|os, rotrospoct|vo tabr|cat|on
3troop |ntortoronco
3uom|, 3tophon
synosthos|a
spat|a| soquonco,
1ac|tus
toam ot r|va|s tramowork
art|t|c|a| |nto|||gonco 4.1, b.1
bra|n hom|sphoros b.1, b.2
consc|ousnoss, ro|o ot
domocracy ot m|nd
dua|-procoss modo|
Vo| G|bson (oxamp|o)
ovor|app|ng doma|ns b.1, b.2
rat|ona| vs omot|ona| systom b.1, b.2
rotrospoct|vo tabr|cat|on ot stor|os
robustnoss
socrots
soc|oty-ot-m|nd b.1, b.2
U|yssos contracts b.1, 7.1
tomptat|ons b.1, 0.1, 7.1
tostostorono 4.1, 7.1
thoughts 1.1, 4.1
boauty
consc|ous/unconsc|ous boundary
gonot|cs
|nst|nct
th|nk|ng t|mo
umwo|t (onv|ronmont)
unconsc|ous 1.1, 7.1
t|mo
durat|on
porcopt|on ot
rat|ona| vs omot|ona| systoms
U|yssos contracts b.1, 7.1
7bo 7lmo 7okoo Up by Corobro| Oporotloos (Catto||)
1ooby, 1ohn 4.1, 4.2, 4.8
1ourotto's syndromo
1rano|, 0an|o|
tr|a|-and-orror toodback
tro||oy d||omma
7bo 7romoo 5bow(mov|o) 4.1, 4.2
truth b.1, b.2
|||us|on-ot-truth ottoct
1svang|ra|, Vorgan
tumors, bra|n
1vorsky, Amos
7bo 7wl|lgbt Zooo
Uoxkü||, 1acob von
U|yssos contracts b.1, 7.1
umgobung 4.1, 4.2
umwo|t (onv|ronmont)
unconsc|ous
|roud and
|ntoronco
|nt|uonco ot consc|ous
|oarn|ng
thoughts 1.1, 7.1
Ao Uooxpoctoo Vlsltor (l|ya lop|n)
vasopross|n 4.1, 7.1
v|g||ant|sm
v|rtuo
v|rusos 7.1, 7.2
v|s|on 2.1, 2.2
boundar|os ot
dopth ot 2.1, 2.2
|||us|ons 2.1, 2.2, 2.8, 2.4, 2.b, 7.1
|ntorna| act|v|ty
|oarn|ng to soo
sonsory subst|tut|on
v|sua| cortox 2.1, 2.2
watorta|| |||us|on
Watson, 1amos
Wobor, Ernst |o|nr|ch
Wo|honmayor, Er|c 2.1, 2.2
Wh|tman, Char|os 1.1, 0.1, 0.2, 0.8
Wh|tman, Wa|t b.1, b.2, b.8
W||||ams, Edward |.
W||||ams syndromo,
X| 1|np|ng,
Y chromosomo 0.1, 7.1
Yarbus, A|trod
Yarv|tz, V|ko
Yoor Brolo ls (A|most) Poríoct (Vontaguo)
zomb|o systoms b.1, b.2, b.8, b.4, 0.1, 0.2, 0.8