A Seminar Report On

Silicon IC- Fabrication Technology (VLSI)

Submitted for partial fulfillment Of

Bachelor of Engineering
In

Electronics & Communication Engineering

Submitted to Mr. Manish Tiwari Associate Professor

Submitted by Nitin Pancholi Roll # ! "II Semester

ai!ur Engineering College & "esearch Centre# ai!ur

Session# $%&& ' &$

&

$re%ace
Practical Trainin( is an important constituent of any curriculum and the ).T*+,. course is no e-ception to this (eneral rule. A practical trainin( helps a student in (ettin( ac.uainted with the manner in which his /nowled(e is bein( practically used outside his institute and this is normally different from what he has learnt from boo/s. ,ence0 when one switches from the process of learnin( to that of implementin( his /nowled(e he finds an abrupt chan(e. This is e-actly why Practical Trainin( session durin( the ).*. curriculum becomes all the more important. The duration of the Practical Trainin( period prescribed for awardin( the ).*. de(ree0 is 1% days in our colle(e. On my part I pursued four wee/ trainin( at S2M A+A2*M3 O4 I+ T*+,NO5O63. The trainin( in7ol7ed a study of 7arious departments per the time lo(ically scheduled and well planned (i7en to us and ac.uired hands8on e-perience on 7arious techni.ues in7ol7ed in fabrication of silicon.

Nitin Pancholi

&c'no(le)gement
4irst of all I wish to e-press my sincere than/s to the Ra9asthan Technical :ni7ersity0 which introduce the scheme of pro7idin( practical trainin( for technical student durin( the ;8 year course of ).*. I would li/e to e-press my sincere than/s to Mr. R.P.6:PTA for his super7ision and also for pro7idin( us the opportunity of ha7in( our practical trainin( at such an important establishment S2M A+A2*M3 O4 I+8T*+,NO5O63. At this trainin( center I had a (ood opportunity of ha7in( my trainin( under the e-pert (uidance of well /nown and technician MR. R.P.6:PTA . I am than/ful to him for their 7aluable (uidance0 inspiration0 encoura(ement and for (i7in( his precious time and help us in understandin( 7arious theoretical and practical aspect of our pro9ect.

Nitin Pancholi

Table *% Contents
Semicon)uctor +asics N8type Semiconductor )asics P8type Semiconductor )asics Energy ban) ga! conce!t 2irect and Indirect )and 6ap Semiconductors Semicon)uctor .e/ice 0ierarchy Electronic $ro!erties o% Si Intrinsic Silicon 2opin(<n type and P type= Summary Silicon IC- Fabrication Technology Introduction ,istory $4 .io)e unction Introduction Practical P8N >unction 2iode Structure 12 12 ,

13 1-

56

Silicon 7a%er Fabrication $rocess 51 2ifferent Methods of 4abrication )asic Materials0 +hemicals And *.uipment for the process +asic Ste!s o% Si I8C-Fabrication +hemical +leanin( of Silicon ?afer O-idation Photolitho(raphy O-ide *tchin( 2iffusion 59

 Fabrication o% Silicon $4 :unction )io)e +hemical cleanin( of silicon wafer O-idation Photolitho(raphy Silicon o-ide etchin( 2iffusion Thin film Metal <Aluminum= 2eposition Photolitho(raphy Metal *tchin( Semiconductor8Metal contact formation Testing 25 Conclusion 22 +ibliogra!hy 2; +ircuit dia(ram +onnection 2ia(ram Results

91

Semicon)uctor +asics
Semicon)uctors materials such as silicon <Si=0 (ermanium <6e= and (allium arsenide <6aAs=0 ha7e electrical properties somewhere in the middle0 between those of a AconductorA and an AinsulatorA. They are not (ood conductors nor (ood insulators <hence their name AsemiA8conductors=. They ha7e 7ery few Afee electronsA because their atoms are closely (rouped to(ether in a crystalline pattern called a Acrystal latticeA. ,owe7er0 their ability to conduct electricity can be (reatly impro7ed by addin( certain AimpuritiesA to this crystalline structure thereby0 producin( more free electrons than holes or 7ice 7ersa. )y controllin( the amount of impurities added to the semiconductor material it is possible to control its conducti7ity. These impurities are called donors or acceptors dependin( on whether they produce electrons or holes respecti7ely. This process of addin( impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms <the order of & impurity atom per &% million <or more= atoms of the semiconductor= is called .o!ing8 The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four 7alence electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its nei(hbourin( silicon atoms to form full orbitalBs of ei(ht electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its nei(hbour ma/in( the bond 7ery stable. As there are 7ery few free electrons a7ailable to mo7e around the silicon crystal0 crystals of pure silicon <or (ermanium= are therefore (ood insulators0 or at the 7ery least 7ery hi(h 7alue resistors. Silicon atoms are arran(ed in a definite symmetrical pattern ma/in( them a crystalline solid structure. A crystal of pure silica <silicon dio-ide or (lass= is (enerally said to be an intrinsic crystal <it has no impurities= and therefore has no free electrons. )ut simply connectin( a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enou(h to e-tract an electric current from it. To do that we need to create a Apositi7eA and a Ane(ati7eA pole within the silicon allowin( electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are created by dopin( the silicon with certain impurities.

The dia(ram abo7e shows the structure and lattice of a BnormalB pure crystal of Silicon. C

4-ty!e Semicon)uctor +asics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity0 we need to introduce an impurity atom such as Arsenic0 Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure ma/in( it e-trinsic <impurities are added=. These atoms ha7e fi7e outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with nei(hbourin( atoms and are commonly called APenta7alentA impurities. This allows four out of the fi7e orbital electrons to bond with its nei(hbourin( silicon atoms lea7in( one Afree electronA to become mobile when an electrical 7olta(e is applied <electron flow=. As each impurity atom AdonatesA one electron0 penta7alent atoms are (enerally /nown as AdonorsA. &ntimony <symbol Sb= or $hos!horus <symbol P=0 are fre.uently used as a penta7alent additi7e as they ha7e @& electrons arran(ed in fi7e shells around their nucleus with the outermost orbital ha7in( fi7e electrons. The resultin( semiconductor basics material has an e-cess of current8carryin( electrons0 each with a ne(ati7e char(e0 and is therefore referred to as an A4-ty!eA material with the electrons called AMa9ority +arriersA while the resultin( holes are called AMinority +arriersA. ?hen stimulated by an e-ternal power source0 the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this stimulation are .uic/ly replaced by the free electrons a7ailable from the doped Antimony atoms. )ut this action still lea7es an e-tra electron <the freed electron= floatin( around the doped crystal ma/in( it ne(ati7ely char(ed. Then a semiconductor material is classed as N8type when its donor density is (reater than its acceptor density0 in other words0 it has more electrons than holes thereby creatin( a ne(ati7e pole.

The dia(ram abo7e shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

$-Ty!e Semicon)uctor +asics

If we (o the other way0 and introduce a ATri7alentA <18electron= impurity into the crystalline structure0 such as Aluminium0 )oron or Indium0 which ha7e only three 7alence electrons a7ailable in their outermost orbital0 the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore0 a complete connection is not possible0 (i7in( the semiconductor material

an abundance of positi7ely char(ed carriers /nown as AholesA in the structure of the crystal where electrons are effecti7ely missin(. As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal0 a nei(hbourin( electron is attracted to it and will try to mo7e into the hole to fill it. ,owe7er0 the electron fillin( the hole lea7es another hole behind it as it mo7es. This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it0 and so forth (i7in( the appearance that the holes are mo7in( as a positi7e char(e throu(h the crystal structure <con7entional current flow=. This mo7ement of holes results in a shorta(e of electrons in the silicon turnin( the entire doped crystal into a positi7e pole. As each impurity atom (enerates a hole0 tri7alent impurities are (enerally /nown as A&cce!torsA as they are continually Aacceptin(A e-tra or free electrons. +oron <symbol )= is commonly used as a tri7alent additi7e as it has only fi7e electrons arran(ed in three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital ha7in( only three electrons. The dopin( of )oron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positi7e char(e carriers resultin( in a A$-ty!eA material with the positi7e holes bein( called AMa9ority +arriersA while the free electrons are called AMinority +arriersA. Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P8type when its acceptor density is (reater than its donor density. Therefore0 a P8type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

The dia(ram abo7e shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom )oron.

Energy ban) ga! conce!t

. Single &tom to T(o Interacting &toms<?hen two atoms are brou(ht close to(ether0 their ener(y le7els split

The ener(y splittin( 2* becomes lar(er as the atoms come closer.

& soli)< =any interacting atoms

?hen atoms are brou(ht to(ether as in a solid0 the ener(y le7els splittin( is ne(li(ibly small0 which leads to a continuum of ener(y le7els0 called the energy bands

+lo(u! o% one energy ban)

An ener(y band of a finite siEed periodic crystal consists of infinitesimally closely spaced ener(y le7els.

The total number of ener(y le7els depends on the siEe of the crystal.The )and ?idth F?G of each band is finite but there are infinitely many bands.

>uantum numbers o% a soli)

The .uantum number of an atom are# ' Principal .uantum numbers <nH&0 $0 10 I= ' Orbital .uantum numbers <l H %0 &0 $0 10 In8&= ' Ma(netic .uantum number <mH8l0 8<l8&=0 I%0 I0 <l8&=0 l= ' &s0 $s0 $p and so on Juantum numbers of a solid refer to Fband inde-G and Fwa7e 7ector G <?a7e 7ector is $pKl0 where l is the electronLs wa7e len(th=

&%

The wa7e 7ector is a .uantum number that represents the tra7elin( wa7e nature of e7ery electron in a periodic crystal.

Free !article (electron)< E?am!le o% E(')

E=

$ $ k $m

*ner(y increase .uadratically with wa7e 7ector /0 </H$pKl0 where l is the electronLs wa7e len(th / 7aries from Eero to infinityM * 7aries from Eero to infinity In comparison to the free electron case0 in a periodic crystal# / 7aries o7er a finite ran(e of 7alues *</= in each band has a finite ener(y bandwidth.

.irect an) In)irect +an) @a! Semicon)uctors<

The band (ap represents the minimum ener(y difference between the top of the 7alence band and the bottom of the conduction band. In a 2IR*+T )AN2 6AP semiconductor0 the top of the 7alence band and the bottom of the conduction band occur at the same 7alue of momentum0 as in the schematic below.

&&

In an Indirect )and (ap semiconductor0 the ma-imum ener(y of the 7alence band occurs at a different 7alue of momentum to the minimum in the conduction band ener(y#

The difference between 2IR*+T and IN2IR*+T )and 6ap Semiconductors is most important in optical de7ices

&$

70A .I"ECT @&$ SE=IC*4.BCT*"S %or *!tical $rocesses<

A photon can pro7ide the ener(y to produce an electron8hole pair.*ach photon of ener(y * has momentum p H *Kc 0 * is of the order of &%'&D >0 and0 7elocity of li(ht c H1 N &%! ms'&0 Thus a typical photon has a 7ery small amount of momentum.A photon of ener(y of semiconductor 6AP ener(y *(0 can produce anelectron8hole pair in a direct band (ap semiconductor .uite easily0 because the electron does not need to be (i7en 7ery much momentum. ,owe7er0 an electron must also under(o a si(nificant chan(e in its momentum for a photon of ener(y *( to produce an electron8hole pair in an indirect band (ap semiconductor. This is possible0 but it re.uires such an electron to interact not only with the photon to (ain ener(y0 but also with a lattice 7ibration called a phonon in order to either (ain or lose momentum. Therefore0 indirect process proceeds at a much slower rate0 as it re.uires three entities to intersect in order to proceed# an electron0 a photon and a phonon. This is analo(ous to a chemical reaction0 where0 in a particular reaction step0a reaction between two molecules will proceed at a much (reater Rate than a process which in7ol7es three molecules. The same principle applies to recombination of electrons and holes to produce photons. The recombination process is much more efficient for a direct band (ap semiconductor than for an indirect band (ap semiconductor0 where the process must be mediated by a phonon. As a result of such considerations0 (allium arsenide and other direct band (ap semiconductors are used to ma/e optical de7ices such as 5*2s and semiconductor lasers0 whereas silicon0 which is an indirect band (ap semiconductor0 is not.

Ty!ical /alues o% +an)ga!s

O O O O O O O O O Silicon P &.&$ e" 6ermanium P %.CC e" 6allium Arsenide P &.;$ e" 6allium Nitride <6aN= P 1.;; e" +arbon 8 2iamond P @.@ e" <insulator= +arbon ' +arbon Nanotube <&%0%= P & e" +arbon ' 6raphite <Pencil lead= P &%% me" Silicon 2io-ide P D e" <insulator= Silicon +arbide P $.D e" +rystalline Semiconductors <structurally= are used for I+ de7ices. Non8crystalline semiconductors ha7e also become commercially 7ery important. Poly crystalline SO5AR +*55 5i(ht *mission from porousKpolycrystalline silico

&1

Semicon)uctor .e/ice 0ierarchy<

&. PN >unction# p8n diode Laser 5*2 Tunnel diode Solar +ell $. )ipolar 2e7ices# npnKpnp transistors0 thyristors. 1. 4I*52 *44*+T TRANSISTOR# MOS4*T M*S4*T MO24*T

Electronic $ro!erties o% Si
Silicon is a semiconductor material. Pure Si has a relati7ely hi(h electrical resisti7ity at room temperature. There are $ types of mobile char(e8carriers in Si# * Conduction electrons are ne(ati7ely char(e. * Holes are positi7ely char(ed. The concentration <#Kcm1= of conduction electrons Q holes in a semiconductor can be modulated in se7eral ways# &. by addin( special impurity atoms < dopants = $. by applyin( an electric field 1. by chan(in( the temperature by irradiation

&T*=IC ST"BCTB"E o% SILIC*4

O Atomic Radius# &.;C A &;

O O O

+rystal Structure# +ubic face centered *lectron +onfi(uration# &s$ $s$pC 1s$p$ *lectrons per *ner(y 5e7el# $0!0; Shell modal

Si is most abundant element0comprises $@R of the earthBs crust. Annual world production# e8(rade @%%% Q metallur(ical (rade# ;!%0%%% tons. Austria0 Italy0 India0 South Africa0 Australia0 +anada0 :SA0 )raEil.

Intrinsic Silicon<
Atomic density# @ - &%$$ atomsKcm1 Si has four 7alence electrons. Therefore0 it can form co7alent bonds with four of its nearest nei(hbors. ?hen temperature (oes up0 electrons can become free to mo7e about the Si lattice.

O O .

Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor0 also called an undoped semiconductor ori8semiconductor. Number of char(e carriers is properties of the material only. SNumber of electrons <in conduction band= and holes <in 7alence band= are e.ual i.e. n H p. S+onducti7ity can be due to crystal defects or thermal e-citation.

&@

Electron-0ole $air @eneration<

?hen a conduction electron is thermally (enerated0 a FholeG is also (enerated. A hole is associated with a positi7e char(e0 and is free to mo7e about the Si lattice as well

Carrier Concentrations in Intrinsic Si<

The Fband8(ap ener(yG Eg is the amount of ener(y needed to remo7e an electron from a co7alent bond. The concentration of conduction electrons in intrinsic silicon0 ni0 depends e-ponentially on Eg and the absolute temperature <T=#
ni = @.$ &%&@ T 1 K $ e-p Eg $kT electrons K cm1

ni &&%&% electrons K cm1 at 1%%T ni &&%&@ electrons K cm1 at C%%T

ni H $-&%&1 electronsKcm1 at 1%%T for 6e <*(H%.CC e"= ni H $-&%C electronsKcm1 at 1%%T for 6aAs <*(H&.;$ e"=

.*$I4@ in Semicon)uctors<
To change in carrier concentration in semicon)uctors< +arrier concentration in semiconductors is altered to alter conducti7ity of the material0 to obtain a desired electronic property or a de7ice. This is achie7ed by dopin( i.e by introducin( atoms of an element that has either more or less number of 7alence electrons than that of host semiconductor material. In silicon0 which is tetra 7alent <i.e an element of (roup I"=0 atoms of a III (roup element <to alter concentration of ,O5*S= or a " (roup element <to alter concentration of *5*+RONS= are doped to alter concentration of free carriers. 6enerally nearest nei(hbor (roup elements are preferred to match siEe of host material atoms. &C

.o!ing (4 ty!e)
?hen Si is doped with a " (roup element e.( phosphorus<P=0 each P atom can contribute a conduction electron0 so that the Si lattice has more electrons than holes0 i.e. it becomes FN typeG#

. . O O

C2oped atoms donate electrons and so called 2ONORS <@Th (roup elements e.( . P0 As0 Sb0etc in Si lattice. S4ifth donor atom electron is wea/ly bound to the atom and can easily be e-cited . into the conduction band at room temperature and responsible for conduction. In n8type nUU p <e8 ma9ority Q p8minority carriers=. *lectrically neutral0 No. of free electronHNo. of Vi7e donors.

.o!ing ($ ty!e)
?hen Si is doped with anelement of 6roup III0 e.( )oron <)=0 each ) atom can contribute a hole0 so that the Si lattice has more holes than electrons0 i.e. it becomes FP typeG#

O O O O

2oped atom accepts an electron from the lattice atom Q called A++*PTOR. The semiconductor atom that ha7e lost an electron from one of its normal co7alent bond is /nown as ,O5* <absence of electron in the co7alent bond= In p8type0 pUUn <p8ma9ority Qn8 minority carriers=. *lectrically neutral0 No. of free holesHNo. of '7e acceptors8

&

Summary
O The band (ap ener(y is the ener(y re.uired to free an electron from a co7alent bond8 Eg for Si at 1%%T H &.&$e" In a pure Si conduction electrons and holes are formed in pairs. ,oles can be considered as positi7ely char(ed mobile particles which e-ist inside a semiconductor. )oth holes and electrons can conduct current. Substitutional dopants in Si# 6roup8" elements <donors= contribute conduction electrons 6roup8III elements <acceptors= contribute holes "ery low ioniEation ener(ies <W@% me"= +urrent flowin( in a semiconductor is comprised of drift and diffusion components

&!

Silicon IC- Fabrication Technology

Intro)uction#8
.e%inition<8 To realiEe Semiconductor 2*"I+*S or an INT*6RAT*2 +IR+:IT an
ade.uate set of technolo(ical steps is re.uired that allows the realiEation of the same on top surfaceKplane of a semiconductor wafer. Semicon)uctor )e/ice %abrication is the process used to create the inte(rated circuits that are present in e7eryday electrical and electronic de7ices. It is a multiple8step se.uence of photo(raphic and chemical processin( steps durin( which electronic circuits are (radually created on a wafer made of pure semiconductin( material Silicon is almost always used0 but 7arious compound semiconductors are used for specialiEed applications. The entire manufacturin( process0 from start to pac/a(ed chips ready for shipment0 ta/es sito ei(ht wee/s and is performed in hi(hly specialiEed facilities referred to as fabs.

0istory<- ?hen feature widths were far (reater than about &% micrometers0 purity was not
the issue that it is today in de7ice manufacturin(. As de7ices became more inte(rated0 clean rooms became e7en cleaner. Today0 the fabs are pressuriEed with filtered air to remo7e e7en the smallest particles0 which could come to rest on the wafers and contribute to defects. The wor/ers in a semiconductor fabrication facility are re.uired to wear clean room suits to protect the de7ices from human contamination.

7a%er<- A typical wafer is made out of e-tremely pure silicon that is (rown into mono8
crystalline cylindrical in(ots <boules= up to 1%% mm <sli(htly less than &$ inches= in diameter usin( the +Eochrals/i process. These in(ots are then sliced into wafers about %. @ mm thic/ and polished to obtain a 7ery re(ular and flat surface. Once the wafers are prepared0 many process steps are necessary to produce the desired semiconductor inte(rated circuit. In (eneral0 the steps can be (rouped into two ma9or parts#

4ront8end8of8line <4*O5= processin( )ac/8end8of8line <)*O5= processin(

&D

Front-en)-o%-line (FE*L) !rocessing<- FE*L !rocessing re%ers to the %ormation o% the transistors )irectly in the silicon8 The ra( (a%er is engineere) by the gro(th o% an ultra!ure# /irtually )e%ect-%ree silicon layer through e!ita?y8 In the most a)/ance) logic )e/ices# prior to the silicon e!ita?y ste!# tric's are !er%orme) to im!ro/e the !er%ormance o% the transistors to be built8 *ne metho) in/ol/es intro)ucing a straining step (herein a silicon /ariant such as silicon-germanium (Si@e) is )e!osite)8 *nce the e!ita?ial silicon is )e!osite)# the crystal lattice becomes stretche) some(hat# resulting in im!ro/e) electronic mobility8 &nother metho)# calle) silicon on insulator technology in/ol/es the insertion o% an insulating layer bet(een the ra( silicon (a%er an) the thin layer o% subseDuent silicon e!ita?y8 This metho) results in the creation o% transistors (ith re)uce) !arasitic e%%ects8 +ac'-en)-o%-line (+E*L) !rocessing<- *nce the /arious semicon)uctor )e/ices ha/e been create)# they must be interconnecte) to %orm the )esire) electrical circuits8 This occurs in a series o% (a%er !rocessing ste!s collecti/ely re%erre) to as +E*L (not to be con%use) (ith back end o% chi! %abrication (hich re%ers to the !ac'aging an) testing stages)8 +E*L !rocessing in/ol/es creating metal interconnecting (ires that are isolate) by )ielectric layers8 The insulating material (as tra)itionally a %orm o% Si* 5 or a silicate glass# but recently ne( lo( )ielectric constant materials are being use)8 These )ielectrics !resently ta'e the %orm o% Si*C an) ha/e )ielectric constants aroun) 58E (com!are) to 98- %or Si*5)# although materials (ith constants as lo( as 585 are being o%%ere) to chi!ma'ers8

$-4 unction .io)e

Intro)uction<
Most semiconductor de7ices contain at least one 9unction between P type and N type. Material <sometimes metal semiconductor=. This P8N 9unctions are the fundamental tothe performance of function such as rectification and switchin( in electronic circuits. ,ere the discussion is about how the P8N 9unction diodes are made. The technolo(y of 9unction fabrication is a broad sub9ect which includes the accumulated /nowled(e and e-perience of many research and manufacturin( (roups formin( 9unctions and ma/in( contacts to them in mountin(s suitable for de7ice. Impurities of one type may be introduced into re(ions of a crystal which was (rown by dopin( of the opposite type. In this case the dopin( is chan(ed at the 9unction there are no (ross chan(es in the lattice structure itself. 2epend in upon the manufacturin( process There are many types of 9unctions such as i= (ross 9unction ii= alloyed 9unction iii=diffused 9unctions. Amon( these 9unctions we made only diffused 9unction. The 9unction is formed by different technolo(y such as <i= diffusion <ii= ion implantation <iii=chemical 7apor deposition <+"2= <i7= Molecular beam epita-y. Amon( these techni.ues we ha7e used only diffusion technolo(y. A p'n 9unction is formed at the boundary between a P8type and N8 type semiconductor created in a sin(le crystal of semiconductor by dopin(0 for e-ample by ion implantation0 diffusion of dopants0 or by epita-y <(rowin( a layer of crystal doped $%

with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant=. If two separate pieces of material were used0 this would introduce a (rain boundary between the semiconductors which se7erely inhibits its utility by scatterin( the electrons and holes. P'N 9unctions are elementary Abuildin( bloc/sA of most semiconductor electronic de7ices such as diodes0 transistors0 solar cells0 5*2s0 and inte(rated circuitsM they are the acti7e sites where the electronic action of the de7ice ta/es place. 4or e-ample0 a common type of transistor0 the bipolar 9unction transistor0 consists of two p'n 9unctions in series0 in the form n'p'n or p'n'p.

Schematic dia(ram

+ircuit symbol

$ractical $-4 unction .io)e Structure<-

4or simplicity0 assume that the dopin( profile chan(es abruptly at the 9unction.

Silicon 7a%er Fabrication $rocess

$&

More than D%R of the earthBs crust is composed of Silica <SiO$= or Silicate0 ma/in( silicon the second most abundant element on earth. ?hen sand (litters in sunli(ht0 thatBs silica. Silicon is found in myriad compounds in nature and industry. Most importantly to technolo(y0 silicon is the principle platform for semiconductor de7ices. The most ad7anced semiconductor technolo(ies of today and tomorrow re.uire monocrystalline Silicon with precise uniform chemical characteristics0 for instance controlled dopant and o-y(en content. The process to transform raw silicon into a useable sin(le8crystal substrate for modern semiconductor processes be(ins by minin( for relati7ely pure Silicon 2io-ide. Most silicon now is made by reduction of SiO $ with +arbon in an electric furnace from &@%% to $%%%o+. ?ith carefully selected pure sand0 the result is commercial brown Metallur(ical 6rade Silicon of D R purity or better. This is the silicon e7entually used for semiconductors0 but it must be further purified to brin( impurities below the parts8per8billion le7el.

.i%%erent =etho)s o% Fabrication<0oriFontal gra)ient %reeFe metho) 8 (radient freeEe techni.ue is a static techni.ue
where the melt is (radually solidified by the mo7ement of a temperature (radient alon( the melt. In this techni.ue a sealed tube holds the startin( materials0 e.(. hi(hly pure 6a and As <both C8D Ds pure=. The 6a is placed in a .uartE crucible at one end of the furnace0 and the As is located at the other end. Separatin( the two substances is a porous barrier which will allow As 7apor to react with the 6a. The .uartE tube is placed in a two Eone furnace where the section containin( the As is held at about C$% o+0 while the section with 6a is ramped between &$1!o+ and &$ %o+. The temperature in the second furnace is ad9usted sli(htly to melt only a portion of the seed crystal. ?hen the crystal is formed0 it must be cooled slowly and e7enly to a7oid stress induced dislocations.

0oriFontal +ri)geman metho) 8 In this method the furnace is mo7ed alon( the len(th
of the .uartE tube such that the solidification of the melt startin( from the seed crystal is achie7ed as the seed mo7ed from the hotter to the colder section of the furnace. The shape of the crystal is constrained by the walls of the tube. The crystals are typically 28shaped and are seeded in the W&&&U direction. In (eneral0 si(nificantly lower thermal stresses can be obtained in horiEontal )rid(eman techni.ue than with the +X techni.ue. 2islocation densities also tendtobeless<PC%%cm8$=.

Vertical +ri)geman metho) 8 In 7ertical )rid(eman (rowth the .uartE or P)N crucible
contains the seed in a well at the bottom and polycrystalline material abo7e it. 4or (rowth to occur0 the initial char(e and a portion of the seed is melted and the crucible is lowered slowly into the bottom section of the furnace. Instead of mo7in( the crucible the furnace can be mo7edrelati7etothecrucible.

Vertical @ra)ient FreeFe 8 In 7ertical (radient freeEe <"64= techni.ue0 the crucible and
the furnace are /ept stationary and the (rowth is achie7ed y slowly coolin( the melt in an appropriate temperature (radient. One of the principal ad7anta(es of the "64 techni.ue is the reduced a-ial and radial temperature (radients which translate into low dislocation densitiesofP$%cm8$.

CFochrals'i $ulling =etho) 8 One of the most important techni.ues for the (rowth of
$$

lar(e round sin(le crystals. A seeded crystal is withdrawn from the melt and is rotated to maintain thermal (eometry and cylindrical (eometry. The seed is dipped into the melt whose temperature is lowered until a small amount of crystalline material is solidified. The seed is then slowly withdrawn from the melt at the rate of & to &% mm per hour. the melt temperature is lowered slowly and the diameter of the crystal increases. Once the desired diameter is reached0 the lowerin( of the temperature is stopped. 6rowth at a constant diameter is maintained till the desired len(th is (rown. +X techni.ue has difficulties when the melt is composed of different elements. 2ecomposition of the melt can occur. The li.uid encapsulation techni.ue can be utiliEed to pro7ide counter pressure to elements within the melt tryin( to e7aporate. The encapsulant must ha7e low 7apor pressure0 low 7iscosity0 density lower than that of the melt0 and should not mi- or react with the melt or the crucible0 and should melt before si(nificant decomposition of the poly material occurs. ) $O1 is commonly used as an encapsulant.

+asic =aterials# Chemicals &n) EDui!ment %or the !rocess

a) Silicon 7a%er <appropriately desi(ned silicon wafers ha7e been procured from abroad. ?afers of ; inch diameter and 1@% Ym thic/ness with resisti7ity %.@ Zcm orientation W&%%U is (i7en for Semiconductor 2iode 4abrication. b) The Tem$ress )i%%usion Furnace< The diffusion furnace has been fitted with .uartE tubes in the stac/s. The temperature rise and fall upto &$%% O+ ha7e been tested usin( the microprocessor based temperature controller. c) *?ygen an) 4itrogen @as <,i(hly pure o-y(en and nitro(en (as to(ether with cylinders0 7al7es and (as flow control ha7e been used. )) +ubbler < A water bubbler attach with the (as lines for wet (as deli7ery is used. e) +oron 4itri)e ca'es < )oron Nitride ca/es has been re.uired for P8 type dopent. %) .eGioniFe) (ater !lant < 2e'ioniEed water plant has been re.uired for production of &! MZ water usin( doubled distilled water as the input. g) Chemicals <Other necessary electronic (rade chemicals is re.uired. h) & )iamon) cutter < A 2iamond cutter is re.uired for chip seperation. i) =as's < Mas/s is re.uired to maintain appropriate siEe of the de7ice. :) Bltra-Sonic /ibrator < The ultra8sonic 7ibratior is re.uired for cleanin( purpose. ') The /accume coating unit < The 7accume coatin( unit with @ [ &%8C mm of ,( Pr. 7accume with electron beam e7aporation facility is used. l) .ryer < A dryer is re.uired. m) =as' &ligner # $hoto resist S!inner & +a'ing %urnace < A mas/ ali(ner and photo resist spinner and ba/in( furnace is re.uired for photo8litho(raphy. n) Tem!erature controlle) heater <A chemical bench temperature controlled heater is re.uired o) Voltmeter an) &mmeter < 7oltmeter and ammeter is re.uired for de7ice performance measurement. !) *thers essential items < Some other (eneral purpose thin(s is re.uires such as tweeEer0 Safety 6o((les0 +o7erin( dress for lab etc.

+asic Ste!s o% Si I8C-Fabrication

&. $. 1. ;. +hemical +leanin( of Silicon ?afer O-idation Photolitho(raphy O-ide *tchin( $1

@. 2iffusion Abo7e steps are performed more than once dependin( on comple-ity of the I.+ bein( fabricated. Subse.uently0 followin( steps are performed to accomplish the I.+ fabrication. C. Thin 4ilm Metal 2eposition . Photolitho(raphy !. Metal etchin( D. Annealin( &%.Testin(

18 Chemical Cleaning o% Silicon 7a%er

A se.uence of chemistries is typically used to clean silicon wafers. This se.uence was first de7eloped at the R+A laboratories0 and is therefore often referred to as the R+A process. This chemical se.uence does not attac/ the silicon material0 but selecti7ely remo7es the or(anic and inor(anic contamination that resides on the wafer surface. The followin( is a typical R+A processM many 7ariations to the orderin( of the se.uence and chemical ratios are used throu(hout the industry. O @eneral Clean# A (eneral cleanin( is accomplished by usin( a mi-ture of Sulfuric Acid and ,ydro(en Pero-ide. Mi-in( these chemicals is dan(erous and (enerates e-treme heat. This industry standard clean remo7es or(anic and inor(anic contamination from the wafer. $8&% minute clean is recommended. Stron( rinse in 2I water is re.uired after this cleanin( step. O $article "emo/al# A Me(asonic clean <at about % += in a @#&#& ratio mi-ture of 2I water# Ammonium ,ydro-ide # ,ydro(en Pero-ide will remo7e silica and silicon particles from the wafer0 as well as remo7e certain or(anic and metal surface contamination. $8&% minute clean is recommended. Stron( rinse in 2I water is re.uired after this cleanin( step. H *?i)e "emo/al# A &@8C% second dip in &#$% ,4#2I water will remo7e the nati7e o-ide layer and any contamination in the o-ide from the wafer surface. ,4 is e-tremely dan(erous and must be handled with (reat care. Stron( rinse in 2I water is re.uired after this cleanin( step. H =etal Contamination "emo/al# A Me(asonic clean <at about % += in a C#&#& ratio mi-ture of 2I water# ,+5 # ,ydro(en Pero-ide will remo7e certain ionic and metal surface contamination. $8&% minute clean is recommended. Stron( rinse in 2I water is re.uired after this cleanin( step. O S!in "inse .ry# ?afers should be rinsed and dried in a standard spin8rinse dryer. Me(a sonic a(itation is commonly used with the chemical bath and most commonly with the particle remo7al step. Also0 hea7y 2I rinse steps are used between each chemical treatment. 2I rinsin( may use dump8baths0 o7er8flow baths0 and spray8dump baths0 as well as combinations. Proper remo7al of all cleanin( chemistry with &!Me(aOhm 2I water is critical and needed after each chemical bath

$;

58

Thermal *?i)ation<-

In micro fabrication0 thermal o?i)ation is a way to produce a thin layer of o-ide <usually silicon dio-ide= on the surface of a wafer. The techni.ue forces an o-idiEin( a(ent to diffuse into the wafer at hi(h temperature and react with it. The rate of o-ide (rowth is often predicted by the 2eal86ro7e model. Thermal o-idation may be applied to different materials0 but this article will only consider o-idation of silicon substrates to produce silicon dio-ide.

$@

The chemical reaction Thermal o-idation of silicon is usually performed at a temperature between !%% and &$%%C0 resultin( in so called ,i(h Temperature O-ide layer <,TO=. It may use either water vapor <usually UHP steam= or molecular oxygen as the o-idantM it is conse.uently called either wet or dry o-idation. The reaction is one of the followin(#

The o-idiEin( ambient may also contain se7eral percent of hydrochloric acid <,+l=. The chlorine remo7es metal ions that may occur in the o-ide.Thermal o-ide incorporates silicon consumed from the substrate and o-y(en supplied from the ambient. Thus0 it (rows both down into the wafer and up out of it. 4or e7ery unit thic/ness of silicon consumed0 $.$ unit thic/nesses of o-ide will appear.[ ! +on7ersely0 if a bare silicon surface is o-idiEed0 ;CR of the o-ide thic/ness will lie below the ori(inal surface0 and @;R abo7e it.

Funace 98$hotolithogra!hy<$hotolithogra!hy <or Aoptical litho(raphyA= is a process used in microfabrication to selecti7ely remo7e parts of a thin film or the bul/ of a substrate. It uses li(ht to transfer a (eometric pattern from aphoto mas/ to a li(ht8sensiti7e chemical AphotoresistA0 or simply Aresist0A on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then either en(ra7es the e-posure $C

pattern into0 or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon0 the material underneath the photo resist. 4or e-ample0 in comple- inte(rated circuits0 a modern +MOS wafer will (o throu(h the photolitho(raphic cycle up to @% times. Photolithography shares some fundamental principles with photo(raphy in that the pattern in the etchin( resist is created by e-posin( it to li(ht0 either directly <without usin( a mas/= or with a pro9ected ima(e usin( an optical mas/. This procedure is comparable to a hi(h precision 7ersion of the method used to ma/e printed circuit boards. Subse.uent sta(es in the process ha7e more in common withetchin( than with litho(raphic printin(. It is used because it can create e-tremely small patterns <down to a few tens of nanometers in siEe=0 it affords e-act control o7er the shape and siEe of the ob9ects it creates0 and because it can create patterns o7er an entire surface cost8effecti7ely. Its main disad7anta(es are that it re.uires a flat substrate to start with0 it is not 7ery effecti7e at creatin( shapes that are not flat0 and it can re.uire e-tremely clean operatin( conditions.

$ositi/e an) 4egati/e $hotoresist

There are two types of photoresist# positi7e and ne(ati7e. 4or positi7e resists0 the resist is e-posed with :" li(ht where7er the underlyin( material is to be remo7ed. In these resists0 e-posure to the :" li(ht chan(es the chemical structure of the resist so that it becomes more soluble in the de7eloper. The e-posed resist is then washed away by the de7eloper solution0 lea7in( windows of the bare underlyin( material. In other words0 Awhate7er shows0 (oes.A The mas/0 therefore0 contains an e-act copy of the pattern which is to remain on the wafer. Ne(ati7e resists beha7e in 9ust the opposite manner. *-posure to the :" li(ht causes the ne(ati7e resist to become polymeriEed0 and more difficult to dissol7e. Therefore0 the ne(ati7e resist remains on the surface where7er it is e-posed0 and the de7eloper solution remo7es only the une-posed portions. Mas/s used for ne(ati7e photoresists0 therefore0 contain the in7erse <or photo(raphic Ane(ati7eA= of the pattern to be transferred. The fi(ure below shows the pattern differences (enerated from the use of positi7e and ne(ati7e resist.

=as' &lignment an) E?!osure

One of the most important steps in the photolitho(raphy process is mas/ ali(nment. A mas/ or Aphotomas/A is a s.uare (lass plate with a patterned emulsion of metal film on one side. The mas/ is ali(ned with the wafer0 so that the pattern can be transferred onto the wafer surface. *ach mas/ after the first one must be ali(ned to the pre7ious pattern. Once the mas/ has been accurately ali(ned with the pattern on the waferBs surface0 the photoresist is e-posed throu(h the pattern on the mas/ with a hi(h intensity ultra7iolet li(ht. There are three primary e-posure methods# contact0 pro-imity0 and pro9ection. They are shown in the fi(ure below.

+asic +loc' .iagram

4i(ure# )asic Photolitho(raphy Steps

28 .i%%usion
*lectrical characteristics of selected areas on the de7elopin( inte(rated circuit are chan(ed by implantin( ener(iEed ions <dopants= in the form of specific impurities $!

into areas not protected by resist or other layers. The dopants come to rest below the waferBs surface0 creatin( the positi7e and ne(ati7e areas on the wafer which encoura(e or discoura(e the flow of electrical current throu(hout the die. These basic steps are repeated for additional layers of polysilicon0 (lass0 and aluminum. Typical dopants include# )oron Arsenic Phosphorous These processes can be dama(in( to the wafer0 so a heatin( process /nown as annealin( is used to reduce any dama(e to the wafers.

.i%%usion
2iffusion is done in a furnace with a flow of (as runnin( o7er the wafers. This step0 li/e etch0 is no selecti7e so the photoresist and patternin( need to be done before this step. The best way to understand the processes of this step is to ima(ine o-idation. 2iffusion is 7ery similar to o-idation e-cept usin( adifferent (as other than o-y(en.

Ion Im!lantation
Ion implantation is different from diffusion. 2iffusion uses the natural state of (as (oin( to where there is no (as0 while ion implantation shoots the desired dopant ions into the wafer. Ion implantation has beenbest e.uated with firin( a machine (un into a wall. In this analo(y the wall is the wafer and the bullets arethe ions. The main disad7anta(e of ionimplantation is that it can only process a sin(le wafer at a time while a diffusion chamber is capable ofhandlin( many wafers.

4i( # Three Xone 4urnace used for O-idation and 2iffusion.

$D

;8 Thin Film =etal .e!osition (=etalliFation)

A thin film is a layer of material ran(in( from fractions of a nanometer <monolayer= se7eral micrometers inthic/ness. Electronic semicon)uctor de7ices coatings are the main applications benefitin( from thin film construction. and o!tical

A familiar application of thin films is household mirror which typically has a thin metal coatin( on the bac/ of a sheet of (lass to form a reflecti7e interface. The process of sil7erin( was once commonly used to produce mirrors. A 7ery thin film coatin( <less than a nanometer= is used to produce two8way mirrors. The performance of optical coatin(s <e.(. antireflecti7e0 or AR0 coatin(s= are typically enhanced when the thin film coatin( consists of multiple layers ha7in( 7aryin( thic/nesses and refracti7e indices. Similarly0 a periodic structure of alternatin( thin films of different materials may collecti7ely form a so8 called superlattice which e-ploits the phenomenon of .uantum confinement by restrictin( electronic phenomena to two8dimensions. ?or/ is bein( done with ferroma(netic and ferroelectric\&] thin films for use as computer memory. It is also bein( applied to pharmaceuticals0 7ia thin film dru( deli7ery. Thin8films are used to produce thin. Thin film application also be adopted on 2ye8sensitiEed solar cell. +eramic thin films are in wide use. The relati7ely hi(h hardness and inertness of ceramic materials ma/e this type of thin coatin( of interest for protection of substrate materials a(ainst corrosion0 o-idation and wear. In particular0 the use of such coatin(s on cuttin( tools can e-tend the life of these items by se7eral orders of ma(nitude. Research is bein( done on a new class of thin film inor(anic o-ide materials0called amorphous hea7y8metal cation multicomponent o-ide0 which could be used to ma/e transparent transistors that are ine-pensi7e0 stable0 and en7ironmentally beni(n.

.e!osition<
The act of applyin( a thin film to a surface is thin-film deposition 8 any techni.ue for depositin( a thin film of material onto a substrate or onto pre7iously deposited layers. AThinA is a relati7e term0 but most deposition techni.ues control layer thic/ness within a few tens of nanometers. Molecular beam epita-y allows a sin(le layer of atoms to be deposited at a time. It is useful in the manufacture of optics <for reflecti7e0 anti8reflecti7e coatin(s or self8 cleanin( (lass0 for instance=0 electronics <layers of insulators0 semiconductors0 1%

and conductors form inte(rated circuits=0 pac/a(in( <i.e.0 aluminum8coated P*T film=0 and in contemporary art <see the wor/ of 5arry )ell=. Similar processes are sometimes used where thic/ness is not important# for instance0 the purification of copper by electroplatin(0 and the deposition of silicon and enriched uranium by a +"28li/e process after (as8phase processin(. 2eposition techni.ues fall into two broad cate(ories0 dependin( on whether the process is primarily chemical or physical.

$hysical )e!osition<
$hysical )e!osition uses mechanical0 electromechanical or thermodynamic means to produce a thin film of solid. An e7eryday e-ample is the formation of frost. Since most en(ineerin( materials are held to(ether by relati7ely hi(h ener(ies0 and chemical reactions are not used to store these ener(ies0 commercial physical deposition systems tend to re.uire a low8pressure 7apor en7ironment to function properlyM most can be classified as !hysical /a!or )e!osition <P"2=. The material to be deposited is placed in an ener(etic0 entropic en7ironment0 so that particles of material escape its surface. 4acin( this source is a cooler surface which draws ener(y from these particles as they arri7e0 allowin( them to form a solid layer. The whole system is /ept in a 7acuum deposition chamber0 to allow the particles to tra7el as freely as possible. Since particles tend to follow a strai(ht path0 films deposited by physical means are commonly directional0 rather than conformal. *-amples of physical deposition include#

A thermal e/a!orator uses an electric resistance heater to melt the material and raise its 7apor pressure to a useful ran(e. This is done in a hi(h 7acuum0 both to allow the 7apor to reach the substrate without reactin( with or scatterin( a(ainst other (as8phase atoms in the chamber0 and reduce the incorporation of impurities from the residual (as in the 7acuum chamber. Ob7iously0 only materials with a much hi(her 7apor pressure than the heatin( element can be deposited without contamination of the film. Molecular beam epita-y is a particularly sophisticated form of thermal e7aporation.

1&

4i( .<"accume coatin( unit=

Fabrication o% Silicon $4 :unction )io)e

)asic steps for fabrication of &$@%% PN 9unction diode on & inch diameter and &mm thic/ness silicon wafer. &. +hemical cleanin( of silicon wafer $. O-idation 1. Photolitho(raphy ;. Silicon o-ide etchin( @. 2iffusion C. Thin film Metal <Aluminum= 2eposition . Photolitho(raphy !. Metal *tchin( D. Semiconductor8Metal contact formation 1$

18 Chemical cleaning o% silicon (a%er< ("C&-$rocess)

a)Remo7al of dust K(reaseKsol7ent# )oil in TRI+,5ORO*T,35*N* for 18@ min. followed by ultra8sonic a(itation $81 min. )oil in A+*TON* P1 min followed by ultra sonic a(itation $81 min. )oil in M*T,ANO5P1 min followed by ultr;a sonic a(itation $81 min ?ash in 2.I.water. b) Remo7al of Residual or(anicKIonic contamination# 2ip in @#&#&##N,;O,#,+5#,$O$ soln and heat upto P!% c for &% min . +leanin( in 2.I. water. c) Remo7al of ,ea7y metal ions# 2ip in C#&#&##,$O#,+5#,$O$. And heat upto !%+. ?ash in 2.I. water. )) Remo7al of nati7e o-ide# 2ip in &#@%##,4#,$O Soln for &% sec. ?ash in 2.I. water

Fig8<-

+hemically cleaned silicon wafer

58*?i)ation<
*?i)ation Cycle # 2R3888?*T88882R3 O-idation +ycle a=. 2R3 O-idation # Silicon wafer are heated in dry o-y(en ambience o-ide .uality is (ood Ko-ide (rowth rate is low. b= ?*T o-idation #silicon wafer are heated in wet o-y(en. O-ide (rowth rate is hi(h c=2ry o-idation # 2ry o-y(en treatment *?i)ation $roce)ure<
4urnace temp. set at a desired temp e.(. &%@%+. O-y(en (as is flow is stared in the tube. +leaned silicon wafer is loaded in a .uartE boat at end of tube. ?afer boat is slowely pushed in the center of the tube. The wafer is sub9ected to dry o-y(en ambient for $% min . ?hat of the o-idation flas/ is heated to about !%c8D%c. 11

Now o-y(en flow is switched throu(h hot water of flas/. ?et o-y(en flow is mainted for about C% min. After wet o-idation dry o-y(en is switched on into yhe furnace for $% min. Now wafer boat is pulled out slowly at the end of the tube and left there for some time to cool. O-idiEed wafer is ta/en out of furnace.

Fig <-Silicon ?afer with a 6rown Silicon dio-ide layer on top

98$hotolithogra!hy<
2ried wafer is put on a spinner 4ew drops of positi7e photo8resist is dropped to co7er the whole wafer. Immediately 0spinner is put on to rotate the wafer <1%%%8;%%% rpm=for appro-imately 1% seconds. Pre ba/e# the photo8resist coated wafer is put in an o7en set at D%+ for $% min. The ba/ed wafer is put on a mas/ ali(ner to e-pose it to ultra87iolet li(ht throu(h an appro-imately $ min and 1%8@% seconds. After e-posure the wafer is de7eloped in an appropriated time P& min followed by dip in water and water rinsin(. After de7elopment and dryin( the wafer 0wafer surface is inspected under a microscope to e-amine the patterns of mas/ transferred in the photo8resist. Post ba/e #the de7eloped wafer is put in the o7en set at &$%c for ;% min

Fig #8Spin +oat of Positi7e Photo Resist 1;

Fig #8 Photo Resist PolymeriEation on :." *-posure

Fig # )eeLs ?a- +oatin( on bac/ of the wafers

28Silicon o?i)e etching<

Post 'bac/ed wafer is put in buffer ,4 soln. to etch silicon o-ide .the wafers are obser7ed under a microscope continuously for completion of o-ide etchin( .the etchin( .the etchin( time depends on (rown o-ide thic/ness .typically from $ to @ min. 1@

After etchin( the wafer is thorou(hly cleaned in 2.I. water. Remo7al of photo resist #water cleaned wafer is boiled in A+*TON* two times to completely remo7e the photo8resist from the surface . ?afer is cleaned in 2.I.water. 2ip in dilute ,4 <few drops of ,4 in 2.I. water = for few seconds to remo7e o-ide layer in the re(ions etched in o-ide . Throu(h cleanin( in 2.I. water. 2ry the wafer with nitro(en blow. 2ry wafer is loaded in the furnace for diffusion.

Fig # Silicon O-ide *T+,IN6 in ),4

Fig #After Photo Remo7al

;8.i%%usion
As the (i7en wafer is N type so we need to diffuse P type impurity into the wafer to create P8N 9unction and we ta/e )oron <P type= impurity for diffusion. The entire diffusion is consistin( the followin( process. i) &cti/ation : Solid source of boron i. e. boron nitride (BN) is placed on a quartz boat and is very slowly pushed to the middle region of the furnace. The N wafer is activated in o!ygen (flow rate " lit#min ambient at "$$$ %&) for '$ minutes. (uring activation a s)in of B *%' is formed on the surface of BN wafer according to the following reaction. + BN , '%* - * B*%' , * N* 1C

ii) $re )e!osition o% +oron < The photolitho(raphic silicon wafer and the acti7ated )N are then placed in .uartE boat side by side within a spacin( of $ mm in between them. The .uartE boat and the silicon wafer is then pushed 7ery (ently into the middle Eone of the furnace0 maintained at a temperature of &%%% O+ in N$ ambient. Pre8deposition of boron was carried out for & hour. )oron wastransported to the silicon surface by the inert carrier (as <here nitro(en= at the diffusion temperature. 2iffusion of boron was performed accordin( to a reaction between )$O1 and silicon is $)$O1V 1 Si H 1 SiO$ V ;) iii) *?i)ation < The furnace maintained at a temperature of %% O+ in the O$ ambient with (as flow rate & litKmin with bubbler temp D% O+ . The diffused silicon wafer pushed into the furnace for &% to &@ minutes. i/) +orosilicate @lass "emo/al < 2urin( predeposition and o-idation process at temp &%%% O+ the )oro8Silicate86lass <)S6= becomes 7ery hard and acts as insulatin( layer. Presence of this layer pre7ents proper metalic contact with the chips. In o-idation step the wafer is placed on a .uartE boat inside a .uartE tube at temperature %% O+ and wet o-y(en is passed throu(h the tube for &% ' &@ minute. After o-idation the borosilicate (lass layer becomes softend which can be easily remo7ed from the surface by low concentrate <&%R= ,4 solution treatment. Now it is ready for metaliEation.

4i( # Impurity Atoms present in all *-posed surface durin( pre 2eposition

Remo7e )ac/ o-ide by etchin( in )uffer ,4

Remo7al of Photo Resist in Acetone

Remo7al of )orosilicate (lass in (lass etchant 1!

)oron dri7e in#

Fig <Pre8deposited wafer heated at ,i(h Temperature so impurity Mo7e into silicon.

,8 Thin %ilm =etal (&luminium) .e!osition

Metal is heated on throu(h a filament0 crucible0 or metal plate. The e7aporated metal is0 then0 condensed onto the substrate or wafer *7aporation ta/es place in a 7acuum0 i.e. "apors other than the source material are almost entirely remo7ed before the process be(ins. In hi(h 7acuum <with a lon( mean free path=0 e7aporated particles can tra7el directly to the deposition tar(et without collidin( with the bac/(round (as. <)y contrast0 in the boilin( pot e-ample0 the water 7apor pushes the air out of the pot before it can reach the lid.= At a typical pressure of &% 8; Pa0 an %.;8nm particle has a mean free path of C% m. ,ot ob9ects in the e7aporation chamber0 such as heatin( filaments0 produce unwanted 7apors that limit the .uality of the 7acuum. *7aporated atoms that collide with forei(n particles may react with themM for instance0 if aluminium is deposited in the presence of o-y(en0 it will form aluminium o-ide. They also reduce the amount of 7apor that reaches the substrate0 which ma/es the thic/ness difficult to control. *7aporated materials deposit nonuniformly if the substrate has a rou(h surface <as inte(rated circuits often do=. )ecause the e7aporated material attac/s the substrate mostly from a sin(le direction0 protrudin( features bloc/ the e7aporated material from some areas. This phenomenon is called Ashadowin(A or Astep co7era(e.A 1D

Purity of the deposited film depends on the .uality of the 7acuum0 and on the purity of the source material. The thic/ness of the film will 7ary due to the (eometry of the e7aporation chamber. +ollisions with residual (ases a((ra7ate nonuniformity of thic/ness. 4ilament and resisti7e e7aporation cannot deposit thic/ films0 because the siEe of the filament limits the amount of material that can be deposited. ,owe7er0 flash e7aporation and methods that use crucibles can deposit thic/ films. In order to deposit a material0 the e7aporation system must be able to melt it. This ma/es refractory materials such as tun(sten hard to deposit by methods that do not use electron8beam heatin(. *lectron8beam e7aporation allows ti(ht control of the e7aporation rate. Thus0 an electron8beam system with multiple beams and multiple sources can deposit a chemical compound or composite material of /nown composition. Step co7era(e

;%

Photolitho(raphy is re.uired for de7ice isolation many deices can be fabricated in a sin(le wafer. It is done by the same process as stated earlier photolitho(raphy process.

Etching
Aluminum etchin( is done on the selecti7e portion.

0ar)-!hotoresist remo/al
,ard photoresist is remo7ed by acetone.

Fig < .e/elo!ment to remo/e B8V E?!ose) $hoto resist

;&

+ac' si)e metalisation<

4i( # PN diode

;$

E)8

.e/ice-se!aration <

It is the process by which we can separate sin(le de7ice from the wafer <sin(le P8N 9unction diode from the wafer of many P8N 9unction diode=. In our case the diamond scriber is used for the separation of P8N 9unction diode.

3)8 Lea) contact <

It is done with the help of bondin( techni.ue or otherwise solderin( is re.uired. ,ere the solderin( techni.ue is used. A thin metallic ware is soldered on both side of the de7ice in our case.

Testing<
The basic circuit diagram of the voltage current characteristic of the .N /unction diode is given below.

Circuit .iagram
The basic circuit dia(ram of the 7olta(e current characteristic of the P8N 9unction diode is (i7en below.

4i( # +ircuit 2ia(ram for performance test

Connection .iagram#

;1

&!!aratus reDuire) %or measurement<

i. 2i(ital Multimeter as Ammeter. <Min step & YA in $%% YA ran(e= ii. 2i(ital Multimeter as "oltmeter. <Min step & m"0 Ran(e $%% " 2+= ii. "ariable 7olta(e source <%8;% "olt with course and fine control=.

"esults<
For(ar) +iasing "olta(e<7olt= %.% %.1 %.@ %. %.D &.& &.@ &. &.! $.% $.$ $.; $.C $. $.D 1.% +urrent<microam= % % % % 1 C &$ &C &! $% $! 1; ;% ;! @C C; "e/erse +iasing< "olta(e<7olt= %.% %.D &.@ $.$ 1.C @.@ !.% &%.% &@.$ &D.$ $%.1 $%.; $%.@ $%. $%.D $&.& +urrent<microamp= % % % % % % % % $ ; ! $% ;% ;$ @; CC

;;

Conclusion
This P8N 9unctions are the fundamental to the performance of function such as rectification and switchin( in electronic circuits. ,ere the discussion is about how the P8N 9unction diodes are made. The Technolo(y of 9unction fabrication is a broad sub9ect which includes the accumulated /nowled(e and e-perience of many research and manufacturin( (roups formin( 9unctions and ma/in( contacts to them in mountin(s suitable for de7ice. Most semiconductor de7ices contain at least one 9unction between P type and N type. Material <sometimes metal semiconductor=. The de7ice thou(h (i7es readin( of a diode but still this diode cannot be used for commercial application as the entire process for de7ice fabrication needs much more attention on cleanliness. The polishin( time should be increased for better de7ice performance and fabrication.

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+ibliogra!hy
National Semiconductor. http#KKwww.national.com No7ember $%0 &DDD. http#KKwww.csee.umbc.eduKPplus.uelK7lsiKslidesKchap$^&.html >ae(er0 R.+. Introduction to Microelectronic 4abrication. "ol.@0 *d. Second <$%%$=. Prentice ,all0 New >ersey. pp. C 8$$@. Plus.uellic0 >.0 MOS Transistor 2efinitions \online]

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