ECE 301: Electrical Engineering Materials Course Unit: 2

By Dr Ipinnimo .O

Module 1 Semiconductor processing

Introduction to Semiconductor
Semiconductor is a solid substance that has conductivity between that of an insulator and that of most
metals, either due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effects. Devices made of
semiconductors, notably silicon, are essential components of most electronic circuits.

Semiconductors are also used for other special properties. In fact, a solar cell is made of semiconductors
which are sensitive to light energy. The amount of light energy that hits the semiconductors will
determine the amount of electrical current generated by those semiconductors that make up the solar cells.

Purification of semiconductor

1|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
 Fig 1

Fig 1

(1)
Fig 1

Semiconductor Basics

2|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have electrical
properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor” and an “insulator”. They are not good
conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-conductors). They have very few “fee electrons” because
their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice”.

However, their ability to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by adding certain “impurities” to this
crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice versa.

By controlling the amount of impurities added to the semiconductor material it is possible to control its conductivity.
These impurities are called donors or acceptors depending on whether they produce electrons or holes respectively.

This process of adding impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom per 10 million (or
more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping.

The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far issilicon. Silicon has four valence electrons in its
outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to form full orbital’s of eight electrons. The
structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbour
making the bond very stable.

As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure silicon (or
germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors.

Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid structure. A crystal of
pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no impurities) and therefore has
no free electrons.

But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric current from it. To do
that we need to create a “positive” and a “negative” pole within the silicon allowing electrons and therefore electric
current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.

A Silicon Atom Structure

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a ‘normal’ pure crystal of Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as Arsenic,
Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are added). These atoms have
five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with neighbouring atoms and are commonly called
“Pentavalent” impurities.

3|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms leaving one “free
electron” to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each impurity atom “donates”
one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as “donors”.

Antimony (symbol Sb) or Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent additive to the silicon as
they have 51 electrons arranged in five shells around their nucleus with the outermost orbital having five electrons.
The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of current-carrying electrons, each with a negative
charge, and is therefore referred to as an N-typematerial with the electrons called “Majority Carriers” while the
resulting holes are called “Minority Carriers”.

When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this stimulation are
quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms. But this action still leaves an extra
electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal making it negatively charged.

Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its acceptor density, in
other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole as shown.

Antimony Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline structure, such as
Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons available in their outermost orbital, the
fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor
material an abundance of positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the crystal where electrons
are effectively missing.

As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and will try to move into the
hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This in turn attracts
another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it, and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are
moving as a positive charge through the crystal structure (conventional current flow).

This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped crystal into a
positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as “Acceptors” as
they are continually “accepting” extra or free electrons.

4|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged in three shells
around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The doping of Boron atoms causes
conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting in a P-typematerial with the positive holes being
called “Majority Carriers” while the free electrons are called “Minority Carriers”.

Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater than its donor density.
Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

Boron Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron.

Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)
These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by “electron” movement
and are therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.

In N-type semiconductors there are:

 1. The Donors are positively charged.

 2. There are a large number of free electrons.

 3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.

 4. Doping gives:

o positively charged donors.

o negatively charged free electrons.

 5. Supply of energy gives:

o negatively charged free electrons.

o positively charged holes.

5|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)
These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by “hole” movement and
are therefore called, P-type Semiconductors.

In these types of materials are:

 1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.

 2. There are a large number of holes.

 3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.

 4. Doping gives:

o negatively charged acceptors.

o positively charged holes.

 5. Supply of energy gives:

o positively charged holes.

o negatively charged free electrons.

and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.

Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are more feely available
compared to other types of materials. They are also classed as “metalloids”. However, the periodic table groups
together a number of other different chemical elements all with either three, or five electrons in their outermost
orbital shell making them suitable as a doping material.

These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a base material of either Silicon (S) or
Germanium (Ge) to produce different types of basic semiconductor materials for use in electronic semiconductor
components, microprocessor and solar cell applications.

Crystal growth
is a major stage of a crystallization process, and consists in the addition of new atoms, ions, or polymer
strings into the characteristic arrangement of a crystalline Bravais lattice

6|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Band Theory of Semiconductors
Valence Band
The band of energy where all of the valence electrons reside and are involved in the highest
energy molecular orbital.

Conduction Band
The band energy where positive or negative mobile charge carriers exist. Negative mobile charge
carriers are simply electrons that had enough energy to escape the valence band and jump to the
conduction band. Here, they move freely throughout the crystal lattice and are directly involved
in the conductivity of semiconductors. Positive mobile charge carriers are also referred to as
holes. Holes refer to the lack of an electron in the conduction band. In other words, a hole refers
to the fact that within the band there is a place where an electron can exist (ie. negative mobile
charge carrier), and yet the electron ceases to exist at that particular location. Because the
electron has the potential to be there and yet isn't there, it is referred to as positive mobile charge
carrier.

Fermi Level
This level refers to the highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. It is usually found at
the center between the valence and conduction bands. The particles in this state each have their
own quantum states and generally do not interact with each other. When the temperature begins
to rise above absolute zero, these particles will begin to occupy states above the Fermi level and
states below the Fermi level become unoccupied.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are defined to have conductivity in between an insulator and a conductor. Due to
this property, semiconductors are very common in every day electronics since they likely will
not short circuit like a conductor. They get their characteristic conductivity from their small band
gap. Having a band gap prevents short circuits since the electrons aren't continuously in the
conduction band. A small band gap allows for the solid to have a strong enough flow of electrons
from the valence to conduction bands in order to have some conductivity.

Electrons in the conduction band become free from the nuclear charge of the atom and thus can
move freely around the band. Thus, this free-moving electron is known as a negative charge
carrier since having the electron in this band causes electrical conductivity of the solid. When the
electron leaves the valence band, the state then becomes a positive charge carrier, or a hole.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure semiconductors in which its properties are solely based off of the material itself. Here, the
number of electrons in the conduction band equal the number of holes in the valence band.
Theses semiconductors are also known as i-types.

7|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Impure semiconductors that have been "doped" in order to enhance its conductivity. There are
two types of extrinsic semiconductors: p-type and n-type. A "dopant" atom is added to the lattice
in order to draw electrons from the valence band. This atom is referred to as an acceptor. As
more acceptors are added to the lattice, the number of holes will begin to exceed the number of
negative charge carriers, eventually leading to a p-type (positive type) semiconductor. N-type
semiconductors have a large number of donors, "dopant" atoms that donate electrons to the
conduction band.

Holes and Intrinsic Semiconductors

When electrons move into the conduction band, they leave behind vacancies in the valence band.
These vacancies are called holes. Because holes represent the absence of negative charges, it is
useful to think of them as positive charges.

Whereas the electrons move in a direction opposite to the applied electric field, the holes move
in the direction of the electric field.

A semiconductor in which there is a balance between the number of electrons in the conduction
band and the number of holes in the valence band is called an intrinsic semiconductor.

Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure carbon and germanium.

8|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Band Theory and Conductivity

According to the band theory, semiconductors will actually act as insulators at absolute zero. Above this
temperature and yet still staying below the melting point of the solid, the metal would act as a
semiconductor. Semiconductors are classified by the fully occupied valence band and unoccupied
conduction band. With the small band gap in between these two bands, it takes a certain amount of energy
to excite the electrons from the valence to conduction band. Thus it follows that the higher the
temperature, the more conductive the solid will be.

Band theory helps us understand what makes a conductor, insulator, or semiconductor.

Good conductors like copper can be understood using the free electron

It is also possible to make a conductor using a material with its highest band filled, in which case no
electron in that band can be considered free.

If this filled band overlaps with the next higher band, however (so that effectively there is no gap between
these two bands) then an applied electric field can make an electron from the filled band jump to the
higher level.

This allows conduction to take place, although typically with slightly higher resistance than in normal
metals. Such materials are known as semimetals.

Valence and Conduction Bands

The band structures of insulators and semiconductors resemble each other qualitatively. Normally there
exists in both insulators and semiconductors a filled energy band (referred to as the valence band)
separated from the next higher band (referred to as the conduction band) by an energy gap.

If this gap is at least several electron volts, the material is an insulator. It is too difficult for an applied
field to overcome that large an energy gap, and thermal excitations lack the energy to promote sufficient
numbers of electrons to the conduction band.

9|Page
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
10 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
An integrated circuit (ICs)

An integrated circuit (ICs) is an electronic device comprising numerous functional elements such as
transistors, resistors, condensers, etc. on a piece of silicon semiconductor substrate, and is sealed inside a
package with multiple terminals. At present, IC critical dimensions (or smallest dimensions of IC
elements) are in the order of 10 nanometers (nm: 10-9m), which is extremely small.

Transistor radios that fascinated boys in the old days consisted of a piece of printed board with discrete
transistors, resistors, condensers and diodes inserted, which were wired to each other. The current IC is
highly integrated and miniaturized, about 1/55000 of the size and 3 billionths of the area of the transistor
radio. Owing to their high integration, ICs with various functions embedded have dramatically enhanced
the performance of electronics.

In the manufacturing of ICs, many ICs are made on a silicon wafer and then cut (diced) into numerous IC
chips (dies). The IC chips are sealed inside packages because they are too small to be electrically bonded
to a printed circuit board, and also because IC chips would get broken if left unprotected.

If you open the cover of a personal computer, you will see objects with multiple legs sticking out. These
are the ICs hidden inside the packages.

Depending on the number of components, ICs are classified as LSI (large-scale integration), VLSI（very
large scale integration), and ULSI（ultra large scale integration）. Normally the “VLSI” term covers
"ULSI".

IC (integrated circuit) Fabrication Process

Integrated Circuits are the set of electronic circuits mounted on the small electronic chip. Large numbers
of devices, such as MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), transistors,
microcontrollers, computer processors, etc., are created with the help of the fabrication process. The most
preferred materials in the semiconductor industry for fabrication are silicon and germanium because of
their stable structure.

Other materials preferred in fabrication industries are carbon steel, silver, aluminum, magnesium, copper,
wood, thermoplastics, resins, etc.

Fabrication is the process of constructing an industrial product. We can also define it as a set of methods
to manufacture an electronic device or product. For example, silicon semiconductor chips, etc. In the case
of metals, fabrication is a process used to convert the raw materials into the finished product.

11 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
The basic fabrication processes of the Integrated Circuits are as follows:

Wafer Preparation

Oxidation

Diffusion

Ion Implantation

Chemical-Vapor Deposition

Photolithography

Metallization

Packaging

Let's discuss the above processes in detail.

Wafer Preparation

A wafer is a thin material used for making various Integrated circuits and transistors. Wafer acts as a base
for such devices. The material of a wafer is the semiconductor, especially crystalline silicon. The silicon
crystals used for the wafer manufacturing are highly pure. The process of extracting pure metal from the
melt is known as a boule. The impurities are further added to the molten state of the material in a specific
amount to make it n-type or p-type.

The wafer preparation is the first step for IC fabrication. It involves cutting, shaping, and polishing the
wafer material to make it suitable for further fabrication. Some wafers are modified because of their sharp
edges, irregular surface, and shape to convert them to the required wafer.

12 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Oxidation

Oxidation is the process of adding oxygen. In a semiconductor, the oxygen and the silicon react to form
silicon dioxide. The oxidation is carried out in furnaces at high temperatures upto 1250 degrees Celsius.
Oxidation is classified as wet oxidation or dry oxidation. Both processes are widely used and have their
own advantages and disadvantages. Wet oxidation is fast, while dry oxidation en has good electrical
properties.

Wet oxidation is also known as steam. Both types of oxidation have excellent electrical insulation
properties. The deposition of silicon dioxide on the silicon wafer protects from many impurities. The
dopants can be applied only to areas not covered with the SiO2. An example of oxide layer on the
substrate is shown below:

The oxidation process is one of the essential parts of the IC fabrication process and other VLSI (Very
Large Scale Integration) devices.

Diffusion

Diffusion is a process of adding impurities atoms from a region with high concentration to a region of low
concentration. The dopants or impurity atoms are added to the silicon (semiconductor material), which
changes its resistivity. The process of diffusion is highly dependent on the temperature. It is carried out in
high-temperature furnaces between 1000 degrees Celsius and 1200 degrees Celsius. The depth and width
of the impurities depend on the temperature range and the timings. The high doping concentration
improves the conductivity of a metal.

The dopants can be of any state, solid, liquid, or gas. The preferred dopants are pentavalent impurities or
n-type, such as antimony, phosphorous pentoxide, and arsine (gas). The trivalent impurities or p-type are
gallium, indium, boron, etc.

The diffusion cannot be used at the later stages. It is because the number of layers formed at the
successive stages of the fabrication process might not be able to resist such high temperatures.

For example,

The boron or indium (trivalent impurities) diffusion on the n-type substrate forms a p-n junction.

Ion Implantation

13 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
The ion implantation is a process of accelerating ions from the element to the solid target. The accelerated
ions on the solid can change its properties. The ions are applied at a low temperature and high energy.
The low temperature allows it to work at room temperature. But, the excess energy can also damage the
crystal structure of the solid.

Ion implantation introduces impurity atoms in the crystal (semiconductor material). The accelerated atom
gets embedded when it strikes the surface of the crystal. The energy and accelerating field voltage
determine the depth of the penetration of the ions. The quantity of dopants can be controlled by adjusting
the amount of ion concentration. Hence, ion implantation is more accurate due to the controlled current,
voltage, and energy. The process is generally used when an accurate amount of impurity atoms is
necessary for the device's operation.

Chemical-Vapor Deposition

CVD or Chemical Vapor deposition is used to produce high-quality solid materials. It produces thin films
in the semiconductor industry. The process is carried out at a pressure below the atmospheric pressure,
also known as vacuum deposition. The chemicals and vapors react to form solids on the surface of a
substrate. The protective layers on the substrate, such as silicon dioxide, polysilicon, and silicon nitride,
are deposited using the CVD process.

For example,

The reaction of silane gas, a molecule of silicon atom, with the oxygen on the surface of the silicon wafer
results in the formation of SiO2 or silicon dioxide. The CVD process is not good enough compared to the
thermally grown oxide but is enough to act as an insulator on the substrate. Its main advantage is the
faster deposition rate at a lower temperature.

CVD can be performed at very low pressures, low pressures, atmospheric pressures, sub-atomic
pressures, and ultra high pressures. It depends on the chemical reactions involved in the process. Tungsten
CVD is also used to create contacts or plugs on a semiconductor device.

14 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Photolithography

Photolithography is also known as optical lithography, using light to produce thin films. It is used to
pattern thin films on the substrate, such as silicon wafers. It protects certain areas during successive
fabrication processes (deposition, ion implantation, etc.). The types of light used to introduce mask
patterns on the silicon wafer include UV light, X-rays, and extreme UV that emits at different
frequencies. The most used type of light to produce the film is Ultra-Violet light.

The silicon wafer or the substrate is first coated with a photoresist. On the photoresist layer, a mask
pattern with the help of photolithography is applied to the silicon wafer. The exposed areas of the wafer
become soft and can be removed. It creates a pattern on the wafer. The wavelength of each type of light
determines the feature size impressed on the photoresist.

Photolithography is somewhat similar to photography because the exposed area is patterned with help of
the light. The incident light can be direct or projected through the lens.

UV or Ultra-Violet Light

UV light is exposed on the wafer with the help of a mask. It transfers the geometric design from the mask
to the surface of the wafer coated with a photoresist. When the UV light falls on the exposed area on the
substrate, the photoresist either breaks or hardens. The softened parts of the coating are further removed
using the specific solvent.

Photolithography is commonly used for the fabrication of microprocessors and solid-state devices. It can
create a pattern of different sizes as small as nanometers. It is a quick, low-cost, and efficient method to
create a substrate pattern in a single step. But, it is not ideal for irregular surfaces. In the case of complex
IC circuits, the fabrication cycle can extend upto 50 times due to the microscopic structures.

The light falling on the substrate can be UV or X-rays, as shown below:

15 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Metallization

Metallization is defined as the process of coating a metal layer on the metallic surface or non-metallic
surface. The coating can be of aluminum, zinc, or silver. The metal coating in CMOS fabrication is
aluminum, which protects the surface from external environmental factors, as dust, air, water, etc.

Metallization is also used to interconnect various components that form an Integrated circuit. The
components can be resistors, capacitors, transistors, relays, etc. The metal layer is first deposited on the
surface of the silicon wafer, as discussed above. After that, the required pattern or area for interconnected
is etched, as shown below:

The metallization process uses chamber to apply metal layer. The wafer is placed inside the chamber,
which coats the entire surface inside it. The thickness of the metal layer can vary depending on the
requirements.

Packaging

Packaging is the last stage of the IC fabrication process. The finished silicon wafer or chips of various
sizes with number of small components are tested electrically to recheck their working. The testing is
performed using an automatic probing station. It is a cost effective testing machine that includes
microwave and radio-frequency testing. The default circuits are separated from all the circuits. The good
circuits are sent for packaging or headers.

16 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Packaging also assembles the ICs with other devices. IC is a component of a device. The external
connections with the IC are packed together to form a device. We can also say that packaging is a
connection between the manufacturing and end use of a device. It makes a product suitable for its end use.

The package is finally sealed with epoxy or plastic to prevent it from atmospheric dust. It is performed
under vacuum or an inert atmosphere, which prevents the material from oxygen that may get trap in the
packaging.

Magnetic Materials

17 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Magnetic moment
The magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that determines the torque it will experience in
an external magnetic field. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron (revolving
around a nucleus), a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments.

The magnetic moment may be considered to be a vector having a magnitude and direction. The
direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north Pole of the magnet. The
magnetic field produced by the magnet is proportional to its magnetic moment. More precisely,
the term magnetic moment normally refers to a system's magnetic dipole moment, which
produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a general magnetic field. The dipole
component of an object's magnetic field is symmetric about the direction of its magnetic dipole
moment, and decreases as the inverse cube of the distance from the object.

The magnetic moment is defined as a vector relating the aligning torque on the object from an externally
applied magnetic field to the field vector itself. The relationship is given by

where is the torque acting on the dipole and is the external magnetic field, and is the magnetic
moment.

18 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Two representations of the cause of the magnetic moment
In magnetic materials, the cause of the magnetic moment are the spin and orbital angular
momentum states of the electrons, and whether atoms in one region are aligned with atoms in
another.

Magnetic pole representation

The sources of magnetic moments in materials can be represented by poles in analogy to
electrostatics. Consider a bar magnet which has magnetic poles of equal magnitude but opposite
polarity. Each pole is the source of magnetic force which weakens with distance. Since magnetic
poles always come in pairs, their forces partially cancel each other because while one pole pulls,
the other repels. This cancellation is greatest when the poles are close to each other i.e. when the
bar magnet is short. The magnetic force produced by a bar magnet, at a given point in space,
therefore depends on two factors: the strength p of its poles (magnetic pole strength), and the
vector ℓ separating them. The moment is related to the fictitious poles as

Integral representation

We start from the definition of the differential magnetic moment pseudovector :

where × is the vector cross product, r is the position vector, and j is the electric current density. It is very
similar to the differential angular momentum, defined as:

where ρ is the mass density and v is the velocity vector. Like in every pseudovector, by convention the
direction of the cross product is given by the right hand grip rule. [3] Practitioners using the current loop model
generally represent the magnetic field by the solenoidal field B, analogous to the electrostatic field D.

19 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
 The integral magnetic moment of a charge distribution is therefore:

Let us start with a point particle; in this simple situation the magnetic moment is:

where r is the position of the electric charge q relative to the center of the circle and v is the instantaneous
velocity of the charge, giving an electric current density j.

On the other hand for a point particle the angular momentum is defined as:

and in the planar case:

by defining the electric current with a vector area S (x, y, and z coordinates of this vector are the areas of
projections of the loop onto the yz, zx, and xy planes):

Then by Stokes' theorem, integral magnetic moment then becomes expressible as:

The factor 1/2 in our definition above is only due to historical reason: the old definition of the magnetic
moment was this last integral equation. If one had started from a differential definition:

then the coherent integral expression would have been:

Magnetic dipole
Magnetic dipole, generally a tiny magnet of microscopic to subatomic dimensions, equivalent to
a flow of electric charge around a loop. Electrons circulating around atomic nuclei, electrons
spinning on their axes, and rotating positively charged atomic nuclei all are magnetic dipoles.
The sum of these effects may cancel so that a given type of atom may not be a magnetic dipole.
If they do not fully cancel, the atom is a permanent magnetic dipole, as are iron atoms. Many
millions of iron atoms spontaneously locked into the same alignment to form a ferromagnetic
domain also constitute a magnetic dipole. Magnetic compass needles and bar magnets are
examples of macroscopic magnetic dipoles.

20 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
The strength of a magnetic dipole, called the magnetic dipole moment, may be thought of as a
measure of a dipole’s ability to turn itself into alignment with a given external magnetic field. In
a uniform magnetic field, the magnitude of the dipole moment is proportional to the maximum
amount of torque on the dipole, which occurs when the dipole is at right angles to the magnetic
field. The magnetic dipole moment, often simply called the magnetic moment, may be defined
then as the maximum amount of torque caused by magnetic force on a dipole that arises per unit
value of surrounding magnetic field in vacuum.

When a magnetic dipole is considered as a current loop, the magnitude of the dipole moment is
proportional to the current multiplied by the size of the enclosed area. The direction of the dipole
moment, which may be represented mathematically as a vector, is perpendicularly away from the
side of the surface enclosed by the counterclockwise path of positive charge flow. Considering
the current loop as a tiny magnet, this vector corresponds to the direction from the south to the
north pole. When free to rotate, dipoles align themselves so that their moments point
predominantly in the direction of the external magnetic field. Nuclear and electron magnetic
moments are quantized, which means that they may be oriented in space at only certain discrete
angles with respect to the direction of the external field.

Magnetic dipole moments have dimensions of current times area or energy divided by magnetic
flux density. In the metre–kilogram– second–ampere and SI systems, the specific unit for dipole
moment is ampere-square metre. In the centimetre–gram–second electromagnetic system, the
unit is the erg (unit of energy) per gauss (unit of magnetic flux density). One thousand ergs per
gauss equal one ampere-square metre. A convenient unit for the magnetic dipole moment of
electrons is the Bohr magneton (equivalent to 9.27 × 10−24 ampere–square metre). A similar
unit for magnetic moments of nuclei, protons, and neutrons is the nuclear magneton (equivalent
to 5.051 × 10−27 ampere–square metre).

DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM

Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only while
an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of electrons due
to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is extremely small,
and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Thus, the relative permeability is less than
unity (however, only very slightly), and the magnetic susceptibility µr is negative; that is, the
magnitude of the B field within a diamagnetic solid is less than that in a vacuum. The volume
susceptibility xm for diamagnetic solid materials is on the order of – 10 -5 When placed between
the poles of a strong electromagnet, diamagnetic materials are attracted toward regions where the
field is weak.

21 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
FERROMAGNETISM

Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an external
field, and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the characteristics of
ferromagnetism.

ANTIFERROMAGNETISM AND FERRIMAGNETISM

22 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
23 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR

24 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS

25 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
26 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
27 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022
Dielectrics
A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity, but an efficient
supporter of electrostatic field s. If the flow of current between opposite electric charge poles is
kept to a minimum while the electrostatic lines of flux are not impeded or interrupted, an
electrostatic field can store energy. This property is useful in capacitor s, especially at radio
frequencies. Dielectric materials are also used in the construction of radio-frequency
transmission lines.

In practice, most dielectric materials are solid. Examples include porcelain (ceramic), mica,
glass, plastics, and the oxides of various metals. Some liquids and gases can serve as good
dielectric materials. Dry air is an excellent dielectric, and is used in variable capacitors and some
types of transmission lines. Distilled water is a fair dielectric. A vacuum is an exceptionally
efficient dielectric.

An important property of a dielectric is its ability to support an electrostatic field while

dissipating minimal energy in the form of heat. The lower the dielectric loss (the proportion of
energy lost as heat), the more effective is a dielectric material. Another consideration is the
dielectric constant , the extent to which a substance concentrates the electrostatic lines of flux.
Substances with a low dielectric constant include a perfect vacuum, dry air, and most pure, dry
gases such as helium and nitrogen. Materials with moderate dielectric constants include
ceramics, distilled water, paper, mica, polyethylene, and glass. Metal oxides, in general, have
high dielectric constants.

The prime asset of high-dielectric-constant substances, such as aluminum oxide, is the fact that
they make possible the manufacture of high-value capacitors with small physical volume. But
these materials are generally not able to withstand electrostatic fields as intense as low-dielectric-
constant substances such as air. If the voltage across a dielectric material becomes too great --
that is, if the electrostatic field becomes too intense -- the material will suddenly begin to
conduct current. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown . In components that use gases
or liquids as the dielectric medium, this condition reverses itself if the voltage decreases below
the critical point. But in components containing solid dielectrics, dielectric breakdown usually
results in permanent damage.

Electric Charge; Coulomb’s Law

Pls check the pfd named Electric Charge; Coulomb’s Law

28 | P a g e
By Dr Ipinnimo .O © 2022