SEMICONDUCTORS

• SEMICONDUCTORS CONDUCT LESS THAN METAL CONDUCTORS BUT MORE THAN

INSULATORS. SOME COMMON SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS ARE SILICON (SI),
GERMANIUM (GE), AND CARBON (C). SILICON IS THE MOST WIDELY USED
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL IN THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY. ALMOST ALL DIODES,
TRANSISTORS, AND ICS MANUFACTURED TODAY ARE MADE FROM SILICON
• INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ARE SEMICONDUCTORS IN THEIR PUREST FORM
• EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ARE SEMICONDUCTORS WITH OTHER ATOMS MIXED IN.
• THESE OTHER ATOMS ARE CALLED IMPURITY ATOMS. THE PROCESS OF ADDING IMPURITY
ATOMS IS CALLED DOPING. DOPING ALTERS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
SEMICONDUCTOR, MAINLY ITS CONDUCTIVITY.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SILICON AND GERMANIUM
• The outermost ring of an atom is
called the valence ring, and the
electrons in this ring are called
valence electrons.
• All semiconductors have four
valence electrons.
• The number of valence electrons
possessed by any atom determines
its electrical conductivity. The
number of valence electrons in an
atom also determines how it will
combine with other atoms.
• The best conductors have only one
valence electron, whereas the best
insulators have complete shells.
FORMING CRYSTALS
• When silicon atoms are grouped together, something very interesting
happens. Each silicon atom shares its four valence electrons with other
nearby atoms, thereby forming a solid crystalline structure.
• This sharing of valence electrons is called covalent bonding. The covalent
bonds between each silicon atom produce the solid crystalline structure.
 ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR

• All valence electrons of a silicon crystal at

absolute zero (-273˚C) remain locked in their
respective covalent bonds.
• Above absolute zero, however, some valence
electrons may gain enough energy from heat,
radiation, or other sources to escape from their
parent atoms. When an electron leaves its
covalent bond, it becomes a free electron that
can move freely in the material. This free
electron also produces a vacancy or hole in the
covalent bond structure that it left. Thermal
energy is the main cause for the creation of an
electron-hole pair.
 CONDUCTION ELECTRONS AND HOLES
Energy band diagram for a pure silicon
crystal with unexcited atoms. There are no
electrons in the conduction band
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the
valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole. For
every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there
is one hole left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron-
hole pair. Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Electrons in the
conduction band are free electrons
Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Free
electrons are being generated continuously
while some recombine with holes.
To summarize, a piece of intrinsic
silicon at room temperature has, at
any instant, a number of
conduction-band (free) electrons
that are unattached to any atom
and are essentially drifting
randomly throughout the material.
Also, an equal number of holes
are created in the valence band
when these electrons jump into the
conduction band
ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT

When a voltage is applied across a piece of silicon, as shown below, the thermally
generated free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move randomly in
the crystal structure, are now easily attracted toward the positive end. This
movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductive material and
is called electron current.

Free electron current in

intrinsic silicon is
produced by the
movement of thermally
generated free electrons
in the conduction band.
• Another type of current occurs at the valence level, where the holes created by the
free electrons exist.
• The effective movement of hole, although not physically, from one place to another
in the crystal structure, as illustrated in the diagram is called hole current.

Hole current in Silicon

 COMPARISON OF SEMICONDUCTORS TO
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
In an intrinsic semiconductor, there are
relatively few free electrons, so semiconductors
are not very useful in their intrinsic states. Pure
semiconductive materials are neither insulators
nor good conductors because current in a
material depends directly on the number of free
electrons.
The energy gap for an insulator is so wide that hardly
any electrons acquire enough energy to jump into the
conduction band. The valence band and the
conduction band in a conductor (such as copper)
overlap so that there are always many conduction
electrons, even without the application of external
energy. A semiconductor, as the diagram shows, has
an energy gap that is much narrower than that in an
insulator.
 DOPING

• Doping is a process that involves adding

impurity atoms to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Intrinsic semiconductors are
of limited use in the field of electronics.
• Intrinsic semiconductor materials such as
silicon or germanium are almost always
doped with impurity atoms to increase their
conductivity.
• An extrinsic semiconductor material, then,
is one that has been doped with impurity
atoms. EPO, or erythropoietin
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
A pentavalent atom is one that has five
valence electrons. Some examples are
antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), and phosphorous Doping a silicon crystal with a pentavalent impurity.
(P). A silicon crystal doped with a large Arsenic (As) is shown in this illustration, but other
pentavalent impurities such as antimony (Sb) or
number of pentavalent impurity atoms results
phosphorous (P) could also be used.
in many free electrons in the material.
Remember, only eight electrons can exist in the
outermost ring of any atom. Therefore, one of the
valence electrons in the pentavalent impurity atom is
not needed in the covalent bond structure and can
float through the material as a free electron

When millions of pentavalent impurity atoms are added to an

intrinsic silicon crystal, there are millions of free electrons that
can float through the material. Since the electron is the basic
particle of negative charge, we call this an n-type
semiconductor material.
• The net charge of the n-type semiconductor material is still neutral, however,
because there are equal number of electrons and protons.
• An n-type semiconductor also contains a few holes because thermal energy still
creates a few electron-hole pairs in the crystal. The few valence electrons that do
absorb enough energy to leave their respective covalent bonds increase further the
number of free electrons in the material.
• Since there are many more free electrons than holes in an n-type semiconductor
material, the electrons are called the majority current carriers and the holes are
called the minority current carriers.
• There are many positive ions in n-type semiconductor. (Why is this so?)
• The positive ions are fixed charges in the crystal that are unable to move.
 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
A trivalent atom is one that has only three valence
electrons. Some examples are aluminum (Al), boron
(B), and gallium (Ga). A silicon crystal doped with a
large number of trivalent impurity atoms results in
many holes, or vacancies, in the covalent bond
structure of the material
Doping a silicon crystal with a trivalent
impurity. Aluminum (Al) is shown in this
illustration, but other trivalent impurities
such as boron (B) or gallium (Ga) could
also be used.

This happens because one more valence electron is

needed at the location of each trivalent atom in the
crystal to obtain the maximum electrical stability with
eight electrons.

When millions of trivalent impurities are added to an

intrinsic semiconductor material, millions of holes are
created throughout the material. Since a hole exhibits
a positive charge, we call this a p-type semiconductor
material.
• The net charge of the p-type material is still neutral, however, since the
total number of electrons is equal to the total number of protons.

• A p-type semiconductor also contains a few free electrons because

thermal energy still produces a few electron-hole pairs. Electrons are
the minority carriers in p-type semiconductor material, whereas holes
are the majority current carriers.
 THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE
• Diodes are among the oldest and most widely used of
electronic devices.
• When a junction is formed between N-type and P– type
semiconductor materials, the resulting device is called a
diode.
• There is no movement of electrons (current) through a diode
at equilibrium. The primary usefulness of the diode is its
ability to allow current in only one direction and to prevent
current in the other direction as determined by the bias.
• In electronics, bias refers to the use of a dc voltage to
establish certain operating conditions for an electronic
device. There are two practical bias conditions for a diode:
forward and reverse. Either of these conditions is created by
application of a sufficient external voltage of the proper
polarity across the pn junction.
 DEPLETION REGION
A diode consists of an n region and a p region separated by a pn junction, as illustrated in the Figure
below. The n region has many conduction electrons, and the p region has many holes. With no external
voltage, the conduction electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all directions. At the instant of
junction formation, some of the electrons near the junction drift across into the p region and recombine
with holes near the junction, as shown in part (a).

Formation of
Depletion Region
In a Diode
• For each electron that crosses the junction and
recombines with a hole, a pentavalent atom is
left with a net positive charge in the n region
near the junction, making it a positive ion. Also,
when the electron recombines with a hole in the
p region, a trivalent atom acquires net negative
charge, making it a negative ion.
• These two layers of positive and negative
charges form the depletion region, as shown
in Figure on the right.
• The term depletion refers to the fact that the
region near the pn junction is depleted of
charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to
diffusion across the junction.
 UNBIASED P-N JUNCTION DIODE
Integrating electric field with
respect to with respect to
distance determines the
electric potential 𝑽. This
would also equal the built in
voltage ∆𝑽.

𝑽 = න 𝑬𝒅𝒙 = ∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝑩

For Silicon ∆𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽
For Germanium ∆𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝑽

The barrier potential, 𝑽𝑩 , cannot be measured externally with a voltmeter, but it

does exist at the p-n junction. The barrier potential stops the diffusion of current
carriers.
 FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION DIODE
The application of an external voltage to the terminals of a p - n junction diode
is called biasing.

Forward-biased p -n junction. (a) External voltage forces free electrons from

the n side across the depletion zone to the p side where the electrons fall into
a hole. Once on the p side, the electrons jump from hole to hole in the
valence band. (b) Electron flow is against the arrow, whereas conventional
current is in the same direction as the arrow.
• Forward bias is the condition that permits current through a diode.
• The negative terminal of the bias-voltage source pushes the conduction-band
electrons in the n region toward the pn junction, while the positive terminal
pushes the holes in the p region also toward the pn junction. Recall that like
charges repel each other.

Forward-bias connection. The resistor limits

the forward current in order to prevent
damage to the diode.
REVERSED BIASED DIODE
Reverse-biased p -n junction. (a) External voltage pulls majority current carriers
away from the p -n junction. This widens the depletion zone. (b) Schematic
symbol showing how a diode is reverse-biased with the external voltage, V.
• Free electrons on the n side are attracted
away from the junction because of the
attraction of the positive terminal of the
voltage source, V. Likewise, holes in the p
side are attracted away from the junction
because of the attraction by the negative
terminal of the voltage source, V
• The result of reverse bias is that the diode
is in a nonconducting state and acts like an
open switch, ideally with infinite resistance
 REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT
• Reverse Saturation Current: Current flow in the reverse biased diode.

• The reverse saturation current, is the part of the reverse current in a

semiconductor diode caused by diffusion of minority carriers from the
neutral regions to the depletion region. This current is almost
independent of the reverse voltage and is generated thermally.

• This current is small in amplitude and is usually measured in 𝝁𝑨 or 𝒎𝑨.

• The reverse saturation current depends on temperature and not on

externally applied voltage.

• The saturation current doubles it’s value on every 𝟏𝟎˚𝑪 rise in

temperature.
 REVERSE BREAKDOWN
• If the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a large enough value, reverse
breakdown occurs.
• The following describes what happens:
Assume that one minority conduction-band electron acquires enough energy from the
external source to accelerate it toward the positive end of the diode. During its travel, it
collides with an atom and imparts enough energy to knock a valence electron into the
conduction band. There are now two conduction-band electrons. Each will collide with an
atom, knocking two more valence electrons into the conduction band. There are now four
conduction band electrons which, in turn, knock four more into the conduction band. This
rapid multiplication of conduction-band electrons, known as an avalanche effect, results
in a rapid buildup of reverse current.
• Most diodes normally are not operated in reverse breakdown and can be damaged if
they are. However, a particular type of diode known as a zener is specially designed
for reverse-breakdown operation.
IDEAL DIODE : EQUATION AND I-V CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
Diode Current Equation
From Solid State Physics, the general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be
defined by the following equation for forward and reverse bias:

𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆𝒒𝑽𝑫 Τ𝜼𝒌𝑻𝑲 − 𝟏 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆𝑽𝑫 Τ𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏

Where
𝑰𝑫 = 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝑺 = 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝝁𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝑨 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑽𝑫 = 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝜼 = 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑮𝒆 = 𝟏, 𝑺𝒊 = 𝟐 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒔 )
𝒒 = 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪
𝒌 = 𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝑱Τ𝑲)
𝑻𝑲 = 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑˚ 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐞 𝐣𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝑽𝑻 = 𝒌𝑻𝑲 Τ𝒒 = 𝑻𝑲 Τ𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
Under reverse bias condition: (Voltage is –ve)

𝟏
∴ 𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 −𝑽𝑫 Τ𝜼𝑽𝑻
−𝟏 𝒆−𝑽𝑫Τ𝜼𝑽𝑻 ⟺
𝒆𝑽Τ𝜼𝑽𝑻

𝑰𝒇 𝑽 ≫ 𝑽𝑻

⇒ 𝒆−𝑽𝑫Τ𝜼𝑽𝑻 ≪ 𝟏

∴ 𝑰 = 𝑰𝑺 [−𝟏]

⟹ 𝑰 = −𝑰𝑺  which is known as

reverse saturation current, and it’s
valid for external voltage before
breakdown voltage.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE I-V CHARACTERISTICS

𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆𝑽𝑫Τ𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏 1.4
BREAK-DOWN VOLTAGE, 𝑽𝑩𝑹
The lower left quadrant of the graph in the Figure
represents the reverse-bias condition. Notice that only a
very small current flows until the breakdown voltage,
VBR, is reached. The current that flows prior to breakdown
is mainly the result of thermally produced minority
current carriers. This current is called leakage current and
is usually designated IR. Leakage current increases
mainly with temperature and is relatively independent of
changes in reverse-bias voltage. The slight increase in
reverse current, IR, with increases in the reverse voltage,
VR, is a result of surface leakage current. Surface leakage
current exists because there are many holes on the edges
of a silicon crystal due to unfilled covalent bonds. These
holes provide a path for a few electrons along the
surfaces of the crystal.
 Avalanche occurs when the reverse-bias voltage, VR, becomes excessive. Thermally produced free
electrons on the p side are accelerated by the voltage source to very high speeds as they move through
the diode. These electrons collide with valence electrons in other orbits. These valence electrons are
also set free and accelerated to very high speeds, thereby dislodging even more valence electrons. The
process is cumulative; hence, we have an avalanche effect. When the breakdown voltage, VBR, is
reached, the reverse current, IR, increases sharply. Diodes should not be operated in the breakdown
region. Most rectifier diodes have breakdown voltages exceeding 50 V.
Example 1.1
If the surface-leakage current is 2 nA for a reverse voltage of 25 V, what is the
surface-leakage current for a reverse voltage of 35 V?
SOLUTION
There are two ways to solve this problem. First, calculate the
surface-leakage resistance:
𝟐𝟓𝑽
𝑹𝑺𝑳 = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝜴
𝟐𝒏𝑨
Then, calculate the surface leakage current as follows:
𝟑𝟓𝑽
𝑰𝑺𝑳 = = 𝟐. 𝟖𝐧𝐀
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓(𝟏𝟎𝟗 )𝜴
Here is a second method, since the surface leakage current is directly proportional to the reverse voltage:
𝟑𝟓𝑽
𝑰𝑺𝑳 = 𝟐𝒏𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝒏𝑨
𝟐𝟓𝑽