BASIC ELECTRONICS

21MAR2023

EEAC223
SEMICONDUCTORS
− is a substance which has resistivity (10−4 to 0.5Ωm) in-between conductors and insulators.
− is an element with electrical properties between those of a conductor and those of an insulator.

As being expected, the best semiconductors have four valence electrons:

e.g. germanium, silicon, selenium, carbon etc.

Comparison of resistivity of materials:

Two most Commonly Used Semiconductor materials:

1. Germanium, Ge
2. Silicon, Si

Why?
It is because the energy required to break their covalent bonds is very small; being about 0.7eV for germanium and
about 1.1eV for silicon.
 (i.e. very small energy required to release an electron from their valence bands)

Silicon Atom

Si atom: 2, 8, 4

An isolated silicon atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons. As shown in figure a, the first orbit contains two electrons
and the second orbit contains eight electrons. The four remaining electrons are in the valence orbit. In figure a, the
core has a net charge of +4 because it contains 14 protons in the nucleus and 10 electrons in the first two orbits.
In figure b shows the core diagram of a silicon atom. The four valence electrons tell us that silicon is a semiconductor.
Semiconductor Crystals
A substance in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in an orderly pattern is known as a crystal. All semi-
conductors have crystalline structure.

Ex.#1. Silicon Crystals

When silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they arrange themselves into an orderly pattern called a Silicon crystal.
Each silicon atom shares its four valence electrons with four neighboring atoms, thereby forming a solid crystalline
structure, in such a way as to have eight electrons in its valence orbit.

Bonding diagram of a silicon crystal

Each atom of the (5) five inner silicon atoms, as shown, has (8) eight valence electrons as a result of the electron
sharing, which is the amount required for maximum electrical stability.

This sharing of valence electrons is called covalent bonding. The covalent bonds between each silicon atom produce
the solid crystalline structure. In other word, the covalent bonds are bonds formed (chemically bonded) by sharing of
valence electrons.

An atom in crystal has four neighboring atoms; forming a covalent bonds.

In the formation of a covalent bond, each atom contributes equal number of valence electrons and the contributed
electrons are shared by the atoms engaged in the formation of the bond
Ex.#2. Germanium Crystals
 In figure below, each germanium atom positions itself between four other germanium atoms as shown. Each
neighbouring atom shares one valence electron with the central atom. The central atom completes its last orbit
by having 8 electrons revolving around the nucleus. In this way, the central atom sets up covalent bonds.

Illustration:

Covalent bond
− Is the inter-atomic linkage that results from the sharing of an electron pair between two or more atoms.

Facts:
 The covalent bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons.
 In the formation of covalent bond, each valence electron of an atom forms direct bond with the valence electron
of an adjacent atom

Properties of Semiconductors
1. The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a conductor.
2. Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance
That is;
 the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
For example;
 germanium is actually an insulator at low temperatures but it becomes a good conductor at
high temperatures.
3. When a suitable metallic impurity is “doped” or added to a semiconductor, it alters the electrical properties
& characteristic of a material.
e.g.
arsenic, gallium, boron etc.

Valence Saturation
semiconductor (silicon or germanium) crystal:
Each atom in a semiconductor (silicon or germanium) crystal has eight electrons in its valence orbit. These eight
electrons produce a chemical stability that results in a solid piece of silicon material.

When the valence orbit has eight electrons, it is saturated because no more electrons can fit into this orbit.
Stated as a law:
Valence saturation: n = 8

The valence orbit can hold up to eight valence electrons. Then, the eight valence electrons are called bound electrons
because they are tightly held by the atoms. Due to these bound electrons, a silicon or germanium crystal is almost a
perfect insulator at room temperature, approximately 25°C.
The Hole
The ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding air.
 When the ambient temperature is above absolute zero (-273°C), the heat energy in this air causes the atoms in a
silicon crystal (Si) to agitate. The higher the ambient temperature, the stronger the mechanical agitations of sub-
particles.
 When you pick up a warm object, the warmth you feel is the effect of the vibrating atoms.

In a semiconductor crystal, the vibrations of the atoms can occasionally dislodge an electron from the valence orbit.
When this happens, the released electron gains enough energy to go into a larger orbit, as shown in Figure (a). In this
larger orbit, the electron is a free electron. The departure of the electron creates a vacancy in the valence orbit called
a hole.
Illustration:

This hole behaves like a positive charge because the loss of the electron produces a positive ion. The hole will attract
and capture any electron in the immediate vicinity.

Recombination and Lifetime

In a pure silicon crystal, thermal / thermal energy creates an equal number of free electrons and holes. The free
electrons move randomly throughout the crystal. Occasionally, a free electron will approach a hole, feel its attraction,
and fall into it. Recombination is the merging of a free electron and a hole (refer to the figure (b) below).

The amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a free electron is called the lifetime. It varies from a
few nanoseconds to several microseconds, depending on how perfect the crystal is and other factors.
Thermally Generated Electron-Hole Pairs

All valence electrons of a silicon crystal at absolute zero ( ̶ 273OC) remain locked in their respective covalent bonds. It
means that no free electrons will be floating around in the silicon material. Above absolute zero, however, some
valence electrons may gain enough energy from heat, radiation, or other sources to escape from their parent atoms.

When an electron leaves its covalent bond, it becomes a free electron that can move freely in the material. This free
electron also produces a vacancy or hole in the covalent bond structure that it left. Thermal energy is the main cause
for the creation of an electron-hole pair, as shown below.
As the temperature increases, more thermally generated electron-hole pairs are created. In the given figure below,
the hole acts like a positive charge because it attracts a free electron passing through the crystal.

Thermal energy produces a free electron and a hole. This is often called an electron-hole pair.

It is important to note that intrinsic semiconductor materials have only a few thermally generated electron-hole pairs
at room temperature and therefore are still relatively good insulators.

Main Ideas
At any instant, the following is taking place inside a semiconductor (silicon or germanium) crystal:
1. Some free electrons and holes are being created by thermal energy.
2. Other free electrons and holes are recombining.
3. Some free electrons and holes exist temporarily, awaiting recombination.

Silicon vs. Germanium Semiconductor

 A silicon semiconductor material has fewer thermally generated electron-hole pairs than a germanium crystal at
the same temperature.
 This implies that a silicon crystal is more stable than a germanium crystal at higher temperatures.
 Its stability is the primary reason that silicon is the number one semiconductor material used in manufacturing
diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic semiconductor
 is a pure semiconductor.
 semiconductor in an extremely pure form

Example;
 A silicon crystal is an intrinsic semiconductor;
if every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom. At room temperature, a silicon crystal acts like an insulator
because it has only a few free electrons and holes produced by thermal energy.

At room temperature:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature;
 hole-electron pairs are created.

When electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, see illustration below. The current conduction takes
place by two processes, by namely ;
1. free electrons (electron flow)
2. Holes flow

Illustration:

 The free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some covalent bonds by thermal energy.
 Holes are created in the covalent bonds, at the same time.
 Under the influence of electric field ( E, external supply voltage), conduction through the semiconductor is
by both free electrons and holes flow.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The pure semiconductor crystal must be altered so as to significantly increase its conducting electrical properties
(changed its electrical characteristics, in order to be useful in the manufacturing of electronic devices).

This is achieved by adding or “doping” a small amount of suitable impurity to a semiconductor. It is then called
“impurity” or “extrinsic semiconductor”.

The amount and type of such impurities were closely controlled during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.
Generally, for 108 atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is added.
Doping a Semiconductor
Doping method is the one way to increase conductivity of a semiconductor. By “doping” or adding impurity atoms to
an intrinsic semiconductor crystal is to alter ( changed) its electrical characteristics (conductivity). A doped
semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor

Doping = means the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor.

The purpose of “doping “ or adding impurity:

 is to increase either the number of free electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal.

Two types of impurities (extrinsic) semiconductor

1. Pentavalent impurity
2. Trivalent impurity

Pentavalent impurity
 if a pentavalent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is added to the semiconductor, a large number of free
electrons are produced in the semiconductor.
 increasing the number of free electrons.
 A pentavalent atoms are added to the (molten) semiconductor.
 will donate an extra electron to the semiconductor crystal, so are often referred to as donor impurities.

The pentavalent impurities (elements) are, examples:

1. arsenic (As, At. No. 33)
2. antimony (Sb, At. No. 51).
3. Phosphorous (P, 15)

To increase the number of free electrons, the pentavalent atoms are “doped” or added to the semiconductor crystal.
Illustration:

Doping with pentavalent atoms is to get more number of free electrons; the resultant is what do we called
“n-type semiconductor material”

Each pentavalent or donor atom in a silicon crystal produces one free electron. This is how a manufacturer controls
the conductivity of a doped semiconductor. The more impurity that is added, the greater the conductivity.

In this case, a semiconductor may be lightly or heavily doped.

 A lightly doped semiconductor has a high resistance,
 a heavily doped semiconductor has a low resistance.
Trivalent impurity
 if a trivalent impurity (having 3 valence electrons) is added to the semiconductor, creates a large number of
holes in the semiconductor crystal.
 Increasing the number of Holes
 using a trivalent impurity, one whose atoms have only three valence electrons.
 Trivalent impurities will produce p-type semiconductor are known as acceptor impurities
 because the holes created can accept the free electrons during recombination.

The trivalent impurities (elements) are, examples:

1. aluminum, (Al, 13)
2. indium (In, At. No. 49)
3. Gallium (Ga, At. No. 31)
4. Boron (B, 5)

To increase the number of holes, the trivalent atoms are “doped” or added to the semiconductor crystal (silicon or
germanium).
Illustration:

Doping with trivalent atoms is to get more number of holes; the resultant is what do we called “p-type
semiconductor material”
Two types of extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two:
1. n-type semiconductor
2. p-type semiconductor

n-type Semiconductor
 A semiconductor crystal that has been doped with a pentavalent impurity is called an n-type semiconductor
 when a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor
 Where n - stands for negative.

Donor Impurity
 The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in the semiconductor crystal.
 Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductor are known as donor impurities because they donate or
provide free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.

The formation of n-type Semiconductor

Let’s consider; (example)
 pure germanium crystal doped with Arsenic
Illustration:

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity like arsenic (As) is added to germanium (Ge) crystal, a large number of
free electrons become available in the crystal. The reason is simple. Arsenic is pentavalent i.e. its atom has five
valence electrons. An arsenic atom fits in the germanium crystal in such a way that its four valence electrons form
covalent bonds with four germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron of arsenic(As) atom finds no place in covalent
bonds and that is thus free as shown in figure shown above. Therefore, for each arsenic atom added, one free electron
will be available in the germanium crystal.

n-Type Semiconductor (majority carriers and minority carriers)

n-type semiconductor material

To visualized:
A semiconductor crystal doped with pentavalent atom, forming an n-type semiconductor. Each circled plus sign
represents a pentavalent atom, and each minus sign is the free electron it contributes to the semiconductor.
An illustration of n-type semiconductor. Since the free electrons outnumber the holes in an n-type semiconductor,
the free electrons are called the majority carriers and the holes are called the minority carriers.
Illustration:

n-type semiconductor material has many free electrons

n-type conductivity.
The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons that is negative charges and it
is called n-type or electron type conductivity.
Illustration:

The n-type conductivity, see figure above.

When an external supply (battery) is applied across the n-type semiconductor, the free electrons (donated by impurity)
in the crystal will be directed towards the positive terminal, constituting an electric current. As the current flow
through the crystal is by free electrons which are carriers of negative charged, therefore, this type of conductivity is
called negative or n-type conductivity.
p-type Semiconductor
 A semiconductor crystal that has been doped with a trivalent impurity is called a p-type semicoductor.
 When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type
semiconductor.
 where the p - stands for positive.

the formation of p-type semiconductor,

Let’s consider; (example)
 a pure germanium crystal, when a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium is added to germanium crystal,
there exists a large number of holes in the crystal.
Illustration:

When a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium (Ga ) is added to germanium (Ge) crystal, there exists a large
number of holes in the crystal. The reason, Gallium is trivalent i.e. its atom has three valence electrons. Each atom of
gallium fits into the germanium crystal but now only three covalent bonds can be formed. It is because three valence
electrons of gallium atom can form only three single covalent bonds with three germanium atoms, as shown in Figure
above. In the fourth covalent bond, only germanium atom contributes one valence electron while gallium has no
valence electron to contribute as all its three valence electrons are already engaged in the covalent bonds with
neighbouring germanium atoms. In other words, fourth bond is incomplete; being short of one electron. This missing
electron is called a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole is created.

p-Type Semiconductor (majority carriers and minority carriers)

Illustration:

p-type semiconductor material

To visualized:
A semiconductor crystal doped with trivalent atom, forming a p-type semiconductor. Each circled minus sign is the
trivalent atom, and each plus sign is the hole in its valence orbit.

Since the holes outnumbered the free electrons, the holes are referred to as the majority carriers and the free
electrons are known as the minority carriers.

Illustration:

p-type semiconductor has many holes.

p-type conductivity.
The current conduction in p-type semiconductor is predominantly by holes i.e. positive charges and is called p-type or
hole-type conductivity.
Illustration:

p-type conductivity, refer to given figure above;

When potential difference (battery) is applied to the p-type semiconductor, the holes (donated by the impurity) are
shifted from one covalent bond to another. As the holes are positively charged, therefore, they are directed towards the
negative terminal, constituting what is known as hole current flow.
Majority and Minority Carriers

The effect of impurity,

 n-type material has a large number of free electrons

 p-type material has a large number of holes

n-type semiconductor material

 An n-type semiconductor material has its share of electron-hole pairs (released due to breaking of bonds at room
temperature) but in addition has a much larger quantity of free electrons due to the effect of impurity. These
impurity - caused free electrons are not associated with holes. Consequently, an n-type material has a large
number of free electrons and a small number of holes as shown in figure shown below. The free electrons in this
case are considered majority carriers — since the majority portion of current in n-type material is by the flow of
free electrons — and the holes are the minority carriers.

Illustration:

n-type material:
free electrons - are considered majority carriers
holes - are the minority carriers.

p-type semiconductor material

 a p-type material, holes outnumber the free electrons as shown in figure below, holes are the majority carriers
and free electrons are the minority carriers
Illustration:

p-type material:
free electrons - are the minority carriers
holes - are the majority carriers.
SUMMARY:
DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS:
− “doped semiconductor”: (also “impure”, “extrinsic”) = semiconductor with small admixture of trivalent or
pentavalent atoms;

donor (n-type) impurities:

 dopant is a 5 valence electrons (e.g. P, As, Sb)
⇒ 4 electrons used for covalent bonds with surrounding Si atoms, one electron “left over”;
⇒left over electron is only loosely bound,
⇒ free electron is the majority carrier
⇒ the resultant is the “n-type semiconductor material”

acceptor (p-type) impurities:

 dopant is a 3 valence electrons (e.g. B, Al, Ga, In)
⇒ only 3 of the 4 covalent bonds filled
⇒ vacancy in the fourth covalent bond
⇒ hole majority carriers
⇒it is the “p-type semiconductor material”

advantages of doped semiconductors:

 can”tune” conductivity by choice of doping fraction
 can choose “majority carrier” (electron or hole)
 can vary doping fraction and/or majority carrier within piece of semiconductor
 can make “p-n junctions” (diodes) and “transistors”

Points to Remember

Before manufacturers can “dope” a semiconductor, they must produce it as a pure crystal. Then, by controlling the
amount of impurity, they can precisely control the properties of the semiconductor. Historically, pure germanium
crystals were easier to produce than pure silicon crystals. This is why the earliest semiconductor devices were made of
germanium. Eventually, manufacturing techniques improved and pure silicon crystals became available. Because of its
advantages, silicon has become the most popular and useful semiconductor material.

Notice:
Each piece of semiconductor material is electrically neutral because the number of pluses and minuses is equal.
The pn-junction
The border between p-type and n-type is called the pn junction.
 when a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is called
pn-junction.

The Unbiased Diode

 When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn-
junction.

Or simply, the border between p-type and n-type is called the pn-junction.
 It is also called junction diode
 another name for a pn-crystal diode.
 The word diode is a contraction of two electrodes,
 where di - stands for “two.”

If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and the other part is p-type, a pn-junction forms at the
boundary between the two regions and a diode is created, as indicated below.

Illustration:
The pn-junction and formation of the depletion region.

The p-region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free
electrons (minority carriers). The n-region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and
only a few thermally generated holes (minority carriers).
The pn- junction diode
A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by joining p-type and n-type semiconductor materials, as
shown below. Notice that the doped regions meet to form a pn-junction. Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow
current to fl ow through them in only one direction.

Illustration: the diode

basic construction basic structure schematic symbol

The Depletion Layer

At the instant of pn-junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n-region begin to diffuse across
the junction into the p-region where they combine with holes near the junction. The result is that n-region loses free
electrons as they diffuse into the junction.

Illustration:

Each time an electron diffuses across a junction, it creates a pair of ions. When an electron leaves the n-region, it
leaves behind a pentavalent atom that is short one negative charged; this pentavalent atom becomes a positive ion.
After the migrating electron falls into a hole on the p-region, it makes a negative ion out of the trivalent atom that
captures it. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the electrons move across
the junction, the p-region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine.

The figure-a, below, shows these ions on each side of the junction. The circled plus signs are the positive ions, and
the circled minus signs are the negative ions. The ions are fixed in the crystal structure because of covalent bonding,
and they cannot move around like free electrons and holes.

Illustration:
Each pair of positive and negative ions at the junction is called a dipole. The creation of a dipole means that one free
electron and one hole have been taken out of circulation. As the number of dipoles builds up, the region near the
junction is emptied of carriers. We call this charge-empty region the depletion layer (or depletion region ), see
figure.b.
Illustration:

Fig.a fig.b
(a) Creation of ions at junction; (b) depletion layer.

Once pn-junction is formed and depletion layer be created, the diffusion of free electrons stops. The depletion region
acts as a barrier to the further movement of free electrons across the junction. The positive and negative charges set
up an electric field. This is shown in figure b above.

Barrier Potential
The electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n-region. There exists a potential difference across the
depletion layer and is called barrier potential and usually designated as VB. The barrier potential of a pn-junction
depends upon several factors including the type of semiconductor material, the amount of doping and temperature.

At 25oC, the typical barrier potential is approximately:

For silicon, VB = 0.7 V ;
For germanium, VB = 0.3 V

the barrier potential, VB / electrostatic field

Formation of pn junction.
In actual practice, the characteristic properties of pn-junction is just brought in contact with n-type material (block).
The pn-junction is fabricated by special techniques. One common method of making pn- junction is called alloying.
Biasing a pn Junction
(Applying D.C. Voltage Across pn-junction )

The term bias is defined as a control voltage or current. Or simply, refers to the use of dc voltage, VBias, to establish
certain operating conditions for an electronic device.

the two bias conditions of a pn-junction:

1. Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing

A crystal diode has two terminals. When it is connected in a circuit, one thing to decide is whether the diode is
forward biased configuration or reverse biased configuration.
 The diode is forward biased
 If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of the symbol
Illustration:

 The diode is reverse biased

 If the arrowhead of diode symbol is negative w.r.t. bar of the symbol.
Illustration:
1. Forward biasing.
 When external d.c. voltage (external source or battery) applied to the junction is in such a direction that it
cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called forward biasing.
 To bias a diode, you apply an external dc voltage (forward bias-voltage, VBias ) across it (pn-junction).

Illustration:

A diode connected for forward bias-voltage, VBias.

Forward bias.
With forward bias to the pn junction
i.e.
p-type connected to positive terminal and n-type connected to negative terminal, the potential barrier
is reduced. At some forward voltage (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge), the potential barrier is altogether
eliminated and current starts flowing in the circuit.

It shows a dc source across ( VBIAS) a diode. The negative source terminal is connected to the n-type material, and the
positive terminal is connected to the p-type material. This connection produces what is called forward bias-voltage,
VBIAS. Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn-junction.

As shown above, a dc voltage source (forward bias-voltage, VBias) connected by conductive material (contacts and
wire) across a diode in the direction to produce forward bias. This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS. The
resistor limits the forward current to a value that will not damage the diode.
The requirement to forward bias a pn-junction:
1. The negative terminal (battery) of VBIAS is connected to the n-region of the diode and the positive terminal
of the battery should be connected to the p-region.

2. The forward bias-voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential, VB.

The applied forward bias-potential, VBIAS, establishes an electric field which acts against the field due to potential
barrier, VB.. As potential barrier voltage is very small (0.1 to 0.3 V), therefore, a small forward voltage is sufficient to
completely eliminate the barrier.

 When the potential barrier , VB, is eliminated by the forward bias-voltage, VBias, the junction resistance becomes
almost zero and a low resistance path is established, The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the
free electrons to overcome the barrier potential , VB, of the depletion region and move on through into the p-
region.

A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers and

the voltage due to the barrier potential across the depletion region

 Once the free electrons enters in the p-region, these conduction of electrons have lost enough energy to
immediately combine with holes in the valence band.. Therefore, current flows in the circuit. This is called
forward current.

External voltage forces free electrons from the n-region Electron flow is against the arrow, whereas conventional .
crosses the depletion region to the p-region, where the current is in the same direction as the arrow.
free electrons fall into a hole. Once the free electrons on
the p-region, it (electrons) will jump from hole to hole
in the valence band.
The Effect of Forward Bias voltage on the Depletion Region
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced. As more holes effectively
flow into the depletion region on the other side of the pn-junction, the number of negative ions is reduced. This
reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion region to narrow,
Illustration:

At equilibrium (no bias) a forward bias-voltage narrows the depletion region and produces
a voltage drop across the pn-junction equal to the barrier potential.

The depletion region narrows and a voltage drop is produced across the pn-junction when the diode is forward-biased.

The Effect of the Barrier Potential During Forward Bias

When forward bias-voltage, VBias, is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias-
voltage source to overcome the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill” and cross the depletion
region. The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion region is equal to the barrier
potential, VB.

In other words, the electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the
depletion region. This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn-junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V
for Si; & 0.3V for Ge). An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions due to the internal
resistance of the material. For the doped semiconductive material, this resistance, called the dynamic resistance, RD,
is very small and can usually be neglected.
With forward bias-voltage to pn junction, the following points or conditions should be satisfied :
1.The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage (0.1 to 0.3 V), it is eliminated altogether.
2.The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, Rf ) to current flow.
3. Current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of low resistance path. The magnitude of current
depends upon the applied forward voltage.

Flow of Free Electrons

When the battery ( forward bias-voltage, VBias ) pushes holes and free electrons toward the junction. If the battery
voltage is less than the barrier potential, the free electrons do not have enough energy to get through the depletion
layer.

When the dc voltage source ( forward bias-voltage, VBias ) is greater than the barrier potential, VB, the battery again
pushes holes and free electrons toward the pn-junction. This time, the free electrons have enough energy to pass
through the depletion layer and recombine with the holes.

As long as, the external supply is in circuit, free electrons continuously enter the right end (n-region) of the diode and
holes are being continuously created at the left end (p-region), there is a continuous current through the diode.
Illustration:

THINGS to Remember
Current flows easily in a forward-biased diode. As long as the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential,
there will be a large continuous current in the circuit. In other words, if the source voltage is greater than 0.7V, a
silicon diode allows a continuous current in the forward direction
2. Reverse biasing.
When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that potential barrier is increased, it is
called reverse biasing.

To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type as shown in
figure below.
Circuit illustration:

Reverse bias.
With reverse bias to the pn junction
i.e.
p-type connected to negative terminal and n-type connected to positive terminal, potential barrier at
the junction is increased. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no
current flows through the circuit.

As a result field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased as shown. The increased potential
barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high resistance path is established for the
entire circuit and hence the current does not flow.

With reverse bias to pn-junction, the following points are worth noting :
1. The potential barrier is increased.
2. The junction offers very high resistance (called reverse resistance, Rr) to current flow.
3. No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of high resistance path.

Conclusion.
As it follows that with reverse bias to the pn-junction, a high resistance path is established and therefore no current
flow occurs within the component. On the other hand, with forward bias to the pn-junction, a low resistance path is
set up and there could have a current flows in the component.
Summary:

Forward and reverse bias characteristic curve of a diode

Table: diode bias

Important Terms:
1) Zero external voltage
2) breakdown voltage
3) Knee voltage
4) Bulk resistance, RB or forward resistance, Rf
5) Maximum DC forward current
6) Power dissipation

Volt-Ampere Characteristics of pn Junction

Volt-ampere or V-I characteristic of a pn junction (also called a crystal or semiconductor diode) is the curve between
voltage across the junction and the circuit current. Usually, voltage is taken along x-axis and current along y-axis.

the circuit arrangement for determining the V-I characteristics of a pn junction.

1.Zero external voltage.

When the external voltage is zero,
i.e.
The circuit is open (open contact at switch K), the potential barrier at the junction does not permit
current flow.

V-I characteristic curve

2.Breakdown voltage.
It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn-junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current.

Under normal reverse voltage, a very little reverse current flows through a pn-junction. However, if the reverse
voltage attains a high value, the junction may break down with sudden rise in reverse current.

a graph of diode current versus diode voltage for a silicon diode. The graph includes the diode current for both
forward- and reverse-bias voltages. The upper right quadrant of the graph represents the forward-bias condition

At large reverse voltage, these electrons acquire high enough velocities to dislodge valence electrons from
semiconductor atoms as shown above. The newly liberated electrons in turn free other valence electrons. In this way,
we get an avalanche of free electrons. Therefore, the pn junction conducts a very large reverse current.

Once the breakdown voltage is reached, the high reverse current may damage the junction. Therefore, care should
be taken that reverse voltage across a pn-junction is always less than the breakdown voltage.
3.Knee voltage.
Circuit illustration:

diode is forward biased.

Diode characteristic curve

In the diode forward bias condition

 when the diode is forward biased, there is no significant current until the diode voltage is greater than the
barrier potential
 the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the knee voltage of the diode
 It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase rapidly.
 knee voltage equals the barrier potential
 VB = VK

When a diode is forward biased, it conducts current very slowly until we overcome the potential barrier;
Diode (Silicon),
VB = VK ≈ 0.7V

Diode (germanium),
VB = VK ≈ 0.3V

Where:
VB = barrier potential
VK = knee voltage

Once the applied forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the current starts increasing rapidly. It may be added
here that in order to get useful current through a pn junction, the applied voltage must be more than the knee
voltage.
Bulk resistance, RB or forward resistance, Rf
Above the knee voltage, the diode current increases rapidly. This means that small increases in the diode voltage
cause large increases in diode current. After the barrier potential is overcome, all that impedes the current is the
ohmic resistance of the p and n regions.

The sum of the ohmic resistances is called the bulk resistance (forward resistance) of the diode. It is defined as:
RB = RP + RN
Where:
RB = is bulk resistance,
= sometimes called forward resistance, Rf
RP = resistance of p-region
RN = resistance of n-region

Maximum DC forward current (Ifmax)

If the current in a diode is too large, the excessive heat can destroy the diode. A manufacturer’s data sheet (MSDS)
specifies the maximum current a diode can safely handle without shortening its life or degrading its characteristics.

The maximum forward current is one of the maximum ratings given on a data sheet. This current may be listed as
Imax, IF(max), IO, etc., depending on the manufacturer.

For example,
A certain diode: 1N456
 has a maximum forward current rating of 135mA. This means that it can safely handle a continuous forward
current of 135 mA.

Power dissipation, PD
- is the product of diode voltage and current. As a formula:
PD = VD x ID

power rating
- is the maximum power the diode can safely dissipate without shortening its life or degrading its
properties. In symbols, the definition is:
Pmax = Vmax x Imax
Where:
Ifmax = maximum forward current
Vmax = maximum voltage that corresponds to Imax.
Pmax= maximum power rating
PD= power dissipated
VD= diode voltage
ID= diode current
Example:
1. if a diode has a maximum voltage and current of 1 V and 2 A, its power rating is ___?
Solution:
Given:
Vmax= 1V
Imax = 2A
From;
Pmax = Vmax x Imax
Pmax = (1V) x (2A)
Pmax = 2 W
Limitations in the Operating Conditions of pn-junction
The pn-junction has limiting values such:
1) maximum forward current,
2) peak inverse voltage and
3) maximum power rating.

Maximum forward current.

It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a pn-junction can conduct without damage to the junction.
Manufacturer’s data sheet (MSDS) usually specifies this rating. If the forward current in a pn-junction is more than
this rating, the junction will be destroyed due to overheating.

Peak inverse voltage (PIV).

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the pn-junction without damage to the junction. If the
reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its PIV, the junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat. The peak
inverse voltage is of particular importance in rectifier service.

A pn-junction
i.e.
a crystal diode is used as a rectifier to change alternating current into direct current. In such applications,
care should be taken that reverse voltage across the diode during negative half-cycle of a.c. does not
exceed the PIV of diode.

Maximum power rating.

It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without damaging it. The power dissipated at the
junction is equal to the product of junction current and the voltage across the junction. This is a very important
consideration and is invariably specified by the manufacturer in the data sheet.