SEMICONDU

CTOR
 AT THE END OF THE LESSON, STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:-

1. Understand the characteristics and electrical properties of

semiconductors.
2. Explain the characteristics of N-type and P- type semiconductors.
3. Understand the characteristics of P-N junction and its reaction towards
voltage biasing.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that retains the characteristics of that element.
 All matters on earth made of atoms (made up of
elements or combination of elements).
 All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
 BOHR’S ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 According to Bohr, atoms
have a planetary structure
that consists of a central
nucleus, surrounded by
orbiting electrons.
 Nucleus contains protons
and neutrons.
 The ability of a material to conduct
current is based on its atomic structure. Electron valence
 The orbit paths of the electrons
surrounding the nucleus are called
shells.
 Each shell has a defined number of
electrons it will hold. (2 x n2)
Ex: Copper: 2.8.18.1 (electron valence)
 The outer shell is called the valence
shell and electrons at this layer are
called valence electrons.
 Maximum number of valence electron
The valence shell determines the ability of material to
conduct current.
• Copper atom has only 1 • Silicon atom has 4
electron in its valence ring. electrons in its valence
This makes it a good ring. This makes it a
conductor. semiconductor.
 CONDUCTOR
 An atom of a material carries 1 to 3 valence electrons.

 Any material that will support a generous flow of charge

when a voltage source is applied across its terminals.
 The atom has more tendency to lose its valence electrons
which become free electron (Copper, Aluminium)
 INSULATOR
 An atom of a material carries 5 to 8 valence electron

 A material that offers a very low level of conductivity

under pressure from an applied voltage source.
 The atom has more tendency to gain free electrons to
complete its shell. (Argon, Neon)
 SEMICONDUCTOR
 An atom of a material carries 4 valence electrons.

 A material that has a conductivity level somewhere

between a conductor and an insulator.
 It is not easy for the atom to lose or gain any electrons.
(Silicon, Germanium, Carbon)
 SEMICONDUCTOR ATOM
Shell valence consist Shell valence consist
of 4 electron valence of 4 electron valence

32
6
14

Germanium Carbon
Silicon
(32 electrons) (6 electrons)
(14 electrons)
Silicon is more commonly used that germanium in the
production of solid-state components for several reasons:

 Silicon is more tolerant of heat.

 Germanium oxide is water soluble, making germanium
more difficult to process that silicon.
 At a given value of reverse voltage, germanium allows
more leakage current than does silicon.
 COVALENT BOND
 In a pure silicon or germanium crystal, the four valence
electrons of one atom form a bonding arrangement with
four adjoining atoms.
 This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of
electrons, is called covalent bonding – a method by
which atoms complete their valence shell by sharing
valence electrons with other atoms
 COVALENT BOND
The atoms
Si
are
electrically
Si Si Si
stable
because their
valence
Si shells are
complete.

The center silicon atoms share an electron share each of the four
surrounding atoms creating covalent band with each
 CONDUCTOR IN
SEMICONDUCTOR
 When an intrinsic silicon crystal gains sufficient heat (thermal
energy), some valence electrons could break their covalent bonds
to jump the gap into conduction band, becoming free electrons.
 Free electrons are also called conduction electrons, (negative
charge).
 This vacancy in the valence band is called a hole (positive
charge).
 For every electron raised to
the conduction band, there is
1 hole in the valence band
creating – electron-hole
pair.
 When a conduction electron
loses energy and falls back
into a hole, this is called
recombination.
 With the existence of holes
and electrons, current can be
produced when a voltage is
 SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic Extrinsic

The pure form of the Semiconductors that

semiconductor. have been subjected to
doping process and no
longer pure.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor

 An extremely pure semiconductor is call Intrinsic

Semiconductor

 An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little

current even at room temperature, but it is not useful for
the preparation of various electronic devices. Thus, to
make it conductive a small amount of suitable impurity
is added to the material.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

Also known as Doping Semiconductor

Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to
intrinsic Si or Ge to improve the conductivity of the
semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the
extrinsic semiconductor may be classified as N-type and
P-type.
 N TYPE
 N-type is created by adding pentavalent impurity
atoms – Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi) into
a pure Si or Ge base.
 Pentavalent also known as donor atoms since they
donate electrons.
 Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with 4
adjacent Si atom
 Since only 4 electrons are needed to form a covalent
bond, leaving an extra electron – becomes a free
N TYPE Extra 1
electron

Si

Si P Si

Si
Since the free electrons outnumber the holes in an n-Type
semiconductor, the free electrons are called the majority carrier
and the holes are called the minority carriers
Conduction Through n-Type Semiconductor
 When a potential voltage is applied
across this type of semiconductor, the
free electrons are directed towards
the positive terminals. It carries an
electric current.
 As the flow of current through the
crystal is constituted by free electrons
which are carriers of negative charge,
therefore this type of conductivity is
known as negative or n-type
conductivity
 P TYPE
 P-type is created by adding Trivalent (with 3 valence
electrons) impurity atoms – Aluminium (Al), boron
(B), indium (In),gallium (Ga) into a pure Si or Ge base
through the doping process.
 Trivalent also known as a acceptor atom since they
accept electrons.
 Each trivalent atom forms covalent bond with 4
adjacent Si atom.
 Since 4 electrons are needed to form a covalent bond,
causes an existence of hole in the covalent bonding.
 It also causes a lack of valence electrons in the B
 P Shortage of
TYPE an electron

Si

Si Al Si

Si
Since holes outnumber free electrons, the holes are
referred to as the majority carriers and the free electrons
are known as the minority carriers
Conduction Through p-Type Semiconductor

 When a potential voltage is applied

across this type of semiconductor,
the free electrons are directed
towards the negative terminals .
 As the current flow through the
crystal is by holes which are carrier
of positive charge therefore this type
of conductivity is known as positive
or p-type conductivity.
 SUMMARY
N-Type P-Type
Doping Material

Role of Doping
Material

Majority Charge
Carrier

Minority Charge
Carrier
 P-N JUNCTION
 The PN Junction is formed when p‐type region is joined with
the n‐type region. This is a basic structure forms a
semiconductor diode.
 The n‐type region has many free electrons (majority carriers)
and only a few thermally generated holes.
 The p‐type region has many holes (majority carriers) and only
a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers)
 P-N JUNCTION

 With the formation of the p and n materials, holes from

p‐type will diffuse into the n‐type, and electrons from
n‐type will diffuse into the p‐type.
 Combination of electrons and holes at the junction takes
place.
 When equilibrium is reached, no further diffusion of
electrons and holes across the junction.
 The p‐region loses holes, and
become negatively charged
 The n‐region loses electrons,
and become positively charged
 This creates the depletion region
and has a barrier potential
 The depletion region is a region
depleted of any charge carriers
 An electric field oriented in the direction from the
(+) charge to the (-) charge will be created.
 Built-in Potential Barrier or Built-in Voltage (Vb )
is a potential difference across the depletion
region.
 Value of Vb for Germanium (0.3V) and Silicon
(0.7V)
 NO BIAS
 In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of
charge in any one direction for a p-n junction is zero.
 FORWARD BIAS CONDITION (VD > 0V)
 The p-type material is connected to the positive
terminal and the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal.
 Positive terminal of the battery will push the holes in the p-region
towards the junction.
 Hence, the recombination process occurs and the number of
negative ion in the p-region near the junction decreases.
 Negative terminal of the battery will push the free electron in the
n-region towards the junction and recombine with the positive ion.
 Hence, the number of positive ion decreases. As a result, the
number of uncovered ions is reduced and the width of the
depletion region will also reduce.
 Since, the barrier potential is now reduced; electrons in
n-type will be easily moved to the p-region.
 This is also assisted by the negative terminal which push
the electrons and positive terminal that pulls the
electron. Hence, a heavy majority carrier flows across
the junction
 REVERSE BIAS CONDITION (VD< 0V)

The p-type material is connected to the negative

terminal and the n-type is connected to the positive
terminal.
 The positive terminal of the battery extracts free electrons
from the n-region and the negative terminal extracts free holes
(positive ions) from the p-region.
 The number of uncovered positive ion in the n-region and
negative ions in the p-region will increase. Hence, the width of
 BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
 When a reverse-bias is applied to a p-n junction (diode), the
electric field in the depletion region increases.
 The electric field may become large enough that covalent
bonds are broken and electron hole pairs are created.
 Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are swept into
the p-region by the electric field, generating a large reverse
current. This phenomenon is called breakdown.
 This current can be limited by the external circuit. If this
current is not limited, a large Power can be dissipated in the
junction that may damage the device and cause burnout.