SEMICONDUCTOR

Moises B. Alvarez Jr., ECE

Insulators

► In an insulator, all of the electrons are either

tightly wrapped around the nuclei, or they are
locked into bonds between atoms.
► Since no electrons or ions can move, the material
is an insulator.
► Examples:
▪ Silicon dioxide
▪ Plastic
▪ Glass
Conductors

► Conductors have loosely bound electrons in their

outer shell.
► These large number of electrons are free to
move.
► These electrons require a small amount of energy
to free them for conduction.
 Semiconductor

►A material which has a resistance in between that

of a conductor and insulator.
► Semiconductor in its purest form is known as
Intrinsic Semiconductor.
► Semiconductor containing impurities is known as
Extrinsic Semiconductor.
► Theirelectrons are not free to move but a little
energy will free them for conduction
► The two most common semiconductors are silicon
and germanium
Semiconductor Materials

► Atom is consist of Nucleus which has positive

charges and electrons which have negative charge
and move around the nucleus in elliptical path
► Electrons in the outermost shell is known
asValence Electrons.
► Silicon has a valency of 4 i.e. 4 electrons in its
outer shell.
► Each Silicon atoms shares its four outer electrons
with four neighbouring atom.
 ► These shared
electrons – bonds
– are shown as
horizontal and
vertical lines
between the
atoms

(Shared Electrons)

(Valence Electrons)

Silicon Atomic Structure

 The Silicon, Si, Atom
Silicon has a valency of 4 This picture shows the
i.e. 4 electrons in its outer shared electrons
shell
Each silicon atom shares its
4 outer electrons with 4
neighbouring atoms
These shared electrons –
bonds – are shown as
horizontal and vertical lines
between the atoms

Slide 7
► If we extend this arrangement throughout a piece of silicon,
we will have the crystal lattice of silicon.
► The form of bond that holds the lattice together is called
covalent bond.
► It has no free electrons – it cannot conduct electricity –
therefore it behaves like an insulator
► It is possible for the Free electron
valence electrons to
absorb sufficient kinetic
energy from natural
causes to break the
covalent bond and
assume “free state”.
► Free electrons in the
material due to natural
causes are referred to as
“intrinsic carriers”.
► It is then available for
conduction and is free to
travel throughout the
material.
 • Free carriers at room temperature of certain
intrinsic materials

► SILICON = 1.5 x 10 10 carriers / cubic centimeter

► GERMANIUM = 2.5 x 10 13 carriers / cubic centimeter

▪ An increase in temperature of a semi-conductor can

result in a substantial increase in numbers of free
electrons.
 Electron Movement in Silicon
However, if we apply a
little heat to the silicon….

An electron may gain

enough energy to break
free of its bond…
It is then available for
conduction and is free to
travel throughout the
material

Slide
 Hole Movement in Silicon
Let’s take a closer look at
what the electron has left
behind

There is a gap in the

bond – what we call a
hole

Let’s give it a little more

character…

Slide
 Hole Movement in Silicon
This hole can also move…

An electron – in a nearby
bond – may jump into
this hole…
Effectively causing the
hole to move…
Like this…

Slide
 Heating Silicon
We have seen that, in
silicon, heat releases
electrons from their
bonds…

This creates electron-

hole pairs which are
then available for
conduction

Slide
 Intrinsic Conduction
Take a piece of silicon…

And apply a potential

difference across it…

This sets up an electric

field throughout the
silicon – seen here as
dashed lines

When heat is applied an electron is released

and…
Slide
 Intrinsic Conduction
The electron feels a force
and moves in the electric
field

It is attracted to the
positive electrode and re-
emitted by the negative
electrode

Slide
 Intrinsic Conduction
Now, let’s apply some
more heat…

Another electron breaks

free…
And moves in the electric
field.
We now have a greater
current than before…
And the silicon has less
resistance…

Slide
 Intrinsic Conduction
If more heat is applies
the process continues…

More heat…
More current…
Less resistance…
The silicon is acting as a
thermistor

Its resistance decreases with

temperature

Slide
 Extrinsic Materials

► Current induced in pure semiconductor are

relatively small. Conductivity of a semiconductor
can be greatly increased when small amount of
impurities are introduced into the crystal. This
process is called “DOPING”.
► There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable
importance to semiconductor device fabrication:
The N – type and P – type materials.
N – Type Material

► Created by introducing those impurity elements

that has five valence electrons (pentavalent), such
as antimony, arsenic and phosphorous.
► Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are
called donor atom.
► It is referred to as N-type material because the
majority charge carriers are negative electrons.
 Phosphorous Atom

Silicon Atom Doped w/

Phosphorous Atom

Doped Silicon Lattice

P – Type Material

► Created by introducing those impurity elements

that has three valence electrons (tetravalent),
such as boron, gallium and indium.
► Diffused impurities with three valence electrons
are called acceptor atom.
► It is referred to as P-type material because the
majority charge carriers are Positive holes.
 Boron Atom

Silicon Atom Doped w/

Boron Atom

Doped Silicon Lattice

 The P-N Junction

• Suppose we join a piece of p-type silicon to a

piece of n-type silicon, we get what is called the P-
N junction.
 The P-N Junction
Suppose we join a piece of p-type silicon to a
piece of n-type silicon

We get what is called a p-n junction

Remember – both pieces are electrically neutral
 The p-n Junction
When initially joined
electrons from the
n-type migrate into the p-
type – less electron density
there

When an electron fills a

hole – both the electron
and hole disappear as the
gap in the bond is filled

This leaves a region with no free charge carriers – the depletion layer – this layer
acts as an insulator
 The p-n Junction 0.7 V

As the p-type has gained

electrons – it is left with
an overall negative
charge…

As the n-type has lost

electrons – it is left with
an overall positive
charge…

Therefore there is a voltage across the junction – the junction voltage – for
silicon this is approximately 0.7 V
 The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction

Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type negative
n-type positive

Close the switch

The voltage sets up
an electric field
throughout the
junction
The junction is said to be reverse – biased
 The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons in
the n-type feel an
attractive force which
pulls them away from
the depletion layer

Positive holes in the p-

type also experience an
attractive force which
pulls them away from
the depletion layer

Thus, the depletion layer ( INSULATOR ) is widened

and no current flows through the
p-n junction
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction

Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type postitive
n-type negative

Close the switch

The voltage sets up
an electric field
throughout the
junction
The junction is said to be forward
– biased
 The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons in
the n-type feel a
repulsive force which
pushes them into the
depletion layer

Positive holes in the p-

type also experience a
repulsive force which
pushes them into the
depletion layer
Therefore, the depletion layer is eliminated and a
current flows through the p-n junction
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
At the junction
electrons fill holes

Both disappear as
they are no longer
free for conduction

They are replenished

by the external cell
and current flows

This continues as long as the external voltage is greater

than the junction voltage i.e. 0.7 V
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
If we apply a higher
voltage…

The electrons feel a

greater force and
move faster

The current will be

greater and will look
like

this….
The arrow shows the
The p-n junction is called a DIODE and is direction in which it
represented by the symbol… conducts current
 END

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