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Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese

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From Hayaloglu, A.A., 2015. Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese. Reference Module in Food
Sciences. Elsevier, pp. 1–11. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.00675-2
ISBN: 9780081005965
© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Academic Press
 Author's personal copy

Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese

AA Hayaloglu, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey
Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
Microbiology of Principal Cheese Varieties 1
Cheeses Ripened under Brine 1
Cheeses with Hard Texture Including Extra- and Semi-hard 3
Blue Cheeses 3
Surface-Ripened Cheeses by Molds 4
Surface-Ripened Cheeses by Bacteria (Smear-Ripened Cheeses) 4
Cheeses with Eye 5
Swiss-Type Cheeses 5
Dutch-Type Cheeses 6
Pasta-Filata Cheeses 6
Cheeses by Probiotic Bacteria 6
Microorganisms Important in Microbiology of Cheese 7
Starter Bacteria 7
Enterococci 7
Non-starter Lactic Acid Bacteria 7
Other (Secondary) Microorganisms in Ripening Cheese 8
Micrococci and Staphylococci 8
Coryneform Bacteria 8
Propionic Acid Bacteria (PAB) 8
Yeasts 9
Molds 9
Factors Affecting Microbial Growth 9
Water Activity 9
Salt 9
Oxidation–Reduction Potential 10
pH and Organic Acids 10
Nitrate 10
Temperature 10
Microbial Spoilage of Cheese 10
Further Reading 11
Change History 11

Introduction

Cheese is essentially a microbial fermentation of milk by selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB), whose major function is to produce
lactic acid from lactose, which, in turn, causes a certain decrease in the pH of the curd. It is a complex microbial ecosystem consisting
of bacteria and, in the case of smear- and mold-ripened cheese, yeasts and molds. The microbial flora of the cheeses are significantly
influenced by manufacturing and ripening methods, type of milk, water activity, salting methods and gross chemical composition of
the resultant cheeses. For the best evaluation of the microbiological status of several varieties of cheeses, the microbial flora, pH and
moisture contents of many varieties of cheeses are shown in Table 1. During ripening, the various microorganisms produce
enzymes, particularly proteinases and lipases, which hydrolyze the protein and fat, to amino acids and fatty acids, which, in
turn, are the precursors of the compounds that impart flavor to cheese. In this article, an overview of the general microbiological
status of cheese and different bacteria as primary or secondary starter cultures found in cheese and the factors controlling their
growth will be presented.

Microbiology of Principal Cheese Varieties

Cheeses Ripened under Brine
White-brined cheeses is produced and consumed in 15 or more countries e.g., Turkey, Egypt, Greece and, Balkan, Northern African
and Middle East countries. These countries have a border the Mediterranean Sea (in east) and belonging to Balkan countries. Feta,
Domiati, Halloumi and Beyaz peynir are well-known varieties in this group. White-brined cheeses are ripened under brine for long

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Microbiological and physical aspects of ripe cheeses

2
Table 1

Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese

Main cheese Cheese Cheese
family Cheese variety Characteristics Starter microorganisms Secondary microorganisms pH moisture, %

White-brined cheeses
Beyaz peynir, Domiati, Feta, Salty and acid taste, white in color, Mixtures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. – 4.5–4.8 55–60
Iranian white cheeses closed and semi-hard or semi soft lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris or
texture thermophilic lactic cultures including
Streptococcus thermophilus and
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus
Hard Cheeses
Hard and semi- Cheddar, Cheshire, Colby, Ras, Unifrom and close texture, yellow in Mixtures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. – 5.3–5.5 35–40
Reference Module in Food Science, First Edition, 2016, 1–11

hard-type Cantal, Idiazabal, Roncal, Mahon color, majority is dry-salted lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris
Extra hard-type Grana Padano, Permesan, Romano, Matures more than 2 years, very hard Thermophilic lactic cultures including – 5.4 25–30
Asiago, Permigiano-Reggiano and grainy texture, strong and Streptococcus thermophilus and
slightly ransid flavor L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus
and/or Lactobacillus helveticus
Cheeses with eye
Swiss-type Emmental, Gruyere, Maasdam, Characterized large eyes produced by Thermophilic lactic cultures including Propionibacterium freudenreichii 5.6 35
Comte, Beauford, Gruyere propionic acid bacteria, strong flavor Streptococcus thermophilus, subsp. shermanii
Lactobacillus helveticus and
L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis
Dutch-type Gouda, Edam Small eyes, semi-hard, colorful, sweet Lactococci Citrate positive lactococci and 5.8 42
and buttery flavor leuconostocs
Blue cheeses
Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, Characterized Penicillium roqueforti in Mixtures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. Penicillium roqueforti 6.3 40
Cabrales, Danablu fissures throughout the cheese, lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris
soft in texture and flavor with methyl
keteones
Surface mould cheeses
Camembert, Brie Grows white mould Penicillium Mixtures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. Penicillium camemberti, Geotrichum 7.0 50
camemberti on surface and complex lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris candidum
microflora, soft in texture
Smear cheeses
Tilsit, Comte, Trappist, Havarti, Soft in texture, red or orange in color, Mixtures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. Brevibacterium linens, Debaryomyces 6.5 42
Taleggio, Limburger, Munster mixed complex flora on their surface lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris hansenii, coryneform bacteria
Pasta-filata cheeses
Mozzarella, Provolene, Kaskaval, Heated and/or kneaded curd, closed Thermophilic lactic cultures including Non-starter lactic acid bacteria 5.3 45–50
Kashar texture, piquant taste, low salt Streptococcus thermophilus,
Lactobacillus helveticus and
L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis
Functional cheeses
Probiotic cheese Based on the selected cheese as Mixtures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. casei, – –
carrier lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris L. johnsonii, L. rhamnosus, L. reuteri,
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus,
Bifidobacterum bifidum, B. longum,
B. brevis, B. infantis or B animalis
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Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese 3

period in various concentrations of NaCl solution (10–18% NaCl), which the level of salt are selective for microbiota present in
these cheeses. There are different kinds of microorganisms including fungi in white-brined cheeses; however, high salt-tolerant
microorganisms are preferably present. More different microflora are present in white-brined cheeses when used unpasteurized
milk in production, non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) are predominant. The most common NSLAB in white-brined cheeses
are mesophilic lactobacilli, Pediococcus spp., Enterococcus spp. and Leuconostoc spp. However, the numbers of pediococci and entero-
cocci were low in white-brined cheeses. It was reported that Enterococcus durans and E. faecium improve the sensory properties of Feta
cheese. The counts for lactobacilli increases during the first stage of ripening and Lactobacillus plantarum, L. paracasei subsp. paracasei,
L. hilgardii, L. brevis, L. paraplantarum and L. pentosus were isolated from white-brined cheeses made by using small ruminant’s milk.
In general, raw milk cheese has higher bacterial counts than the cheeses from pasteurized milk at the first stage of ripening; however,
the counts are almost the same thereafter. Recently, pasteurized milk and starter culture have been used in the manufacture of large-
scale manufacture of white-brined cheese in well-mechanized cheese factories. In this context, the microflora of white-brined
cheeses changed to: Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, L. lactis subsp. cremoris, Lactobacillus casei, Enterococcus faecalis and Leuconostoc para-
mesenteroides. It is noticeable that these microorganisms should be resistant to high salt content in the cheese and also show the best
proteolytic activity.
Streptococci and some strains of yeasts are present in white brined cheeses and the yeasts growing on the surface of this type of
cheese rapidly decreased during ripening due to high salt, except for salt-tolerant yeasts. The most abundant yeasts in Feta were
Saccharomyces cerevisiae – but not predominant in the microflora-followed by Debaryomyces hansenii, Pichia farinosa, Candida versatilis
and Kluyveromyces marxianus. Almost the same yeasts were isolated from brine of Feta cheese. Yeasts contribute to the flavor devel-
opment and proteolysis in white-brined cheese; it was recommended as adjunct culture with normal starter culture in the manu-
facture of Teleme cheese. Yeast activity in white-brined cheese can cause gas blowing, unpleasant yeasty or ester-like odor, softening
in texture and increases in pH due to lactate fermentation. The changes in cheese acidity can stimulate the growth of some coliform
bacteria and potential pathogenic microorganisms. The presence of coliforms in white-brined cheese is responsible for the early
blowing and large gas holes in the cheese mass. Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus
and Listeria monocytogenes are also present in white-brined cheese as spoilage microorganisms. These bacteria can survive under
higher pHs and lower salt concentrations in the cheese, even under cold storage conditions. Some genera of fungi including Peni-
cillium, Mucor, Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Fusarium have been isolated from white-brined cheeses. It should be take into account
for toxin-producing capability for Penicillium cyclopium, P. viridicatum, Aspergillus flavus and A. ochraceus.

Cheeses with Hard Texture Including Extra- and Semi-hard

These have been internationally recognized cheese varieties and the most popular members are Cheddar, Chesire, Parmesan, Asiago,
Romano, Grana Padano, Permiggiano-Reggiano, Derby, Cantal, Ras, Kashkaval, Kefalotyri, Kashar, Mahon, Manchego, Roncal and
Idiazabal. The NSLAB constitute the major part of microbial population of the cheeses and mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria
are used as primary starters in these cheese varieties. Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, L. lactis subsp. lactis, Streptococcus thermophilus
and some mesophilic lactobacilli are commonly used as starters in these cheeses. In some studies, Pediococcus spp., Lactobacillus casei,
L. casei subsp. pseudoplantarum, L. paracasei subsp. paracasei, L. curvatus, L. brevis, L. plantarum, L. rhamnosus, L. pentosus and Leuconostoc
spp. have been used in the starter mixture of some hard-type cheese manufacture. The principal use of starter in cheese is due to
develop a desired amount of lactic acid; however, excessive production of lactic acid by action of starter bacteria can negatively affect
the cooking performance of curd in hard-type cheese. Also, starter action in cheese for a long time can cause production of bitter
peptides, consequently off-flavor. In Cheddar cheese, mesophilic staters, a mixtures of L. lactis subsp. cremoris, L. lactis subsp. lactis,
are used as starter and the others, i.e., lactobacilli may be an adjunct for only development of flavor and to accelerate ripening (e.g.,
by using L. helveticus, L. casei). Sometimes, S. thermophilus may be used for fast acidification. Undoubtedly, the main function of the
starters are to utilize lactose for acid development and also hydrolyze the proteins as nitrogen source to contribute ripening. For this
purpose, which starter (at genus or strain level) can be selected by considering the type or variety of cheese by experienced cheese-
makers. Some member of this group of cheeses (e.g., Kaskaval, Kefalotyri, Kashar) are stretched at high temperature; therefore, ther-
mophilic starters including S. thermophilus, L. helveticus, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus are used to able to achieve alive some cultures
after thermal process.

Blue Cheeses
Blue cheese has a complex microflora and it has primary (lactic acid bacteria) and secondary (Penicillium roqueforti) and other micro-
organisms including non-starter lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. This type of cheeses are characterized by the growth of P. roqueforti in
fissures, blue-veined appearance, soft in texture, lower acidity or high pH (over 6.0 in mature) and a flavor dominated with methyl
ketones generated by b-oxidation of free fatty acids. Butyric (C4) and caproic (C6) acids and 2-heptanone are the major compounds
responsible for the strong, piquant flavor of Blue cheeses. Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Stilton, Danablu, Cabrales and Bleu d’Auvergne
are internationally recognized members of this group. In the microbial flora of blue cheeses, mesophilic lactic acid bacteria (Lacto-
coccus lactis subsp. lactis, L. lactis subsp. cremoris and sometimes citþ lactococci and leuconostocs) are present. These bacteria produce
an open-textured curd through the production of CO2 from citrate, which helps the development of P. roqueforti. The cheeses also
contain thermophilic starters including Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus). The lactic acid
bacteria have localized in core of cheese and their numbers decreased (from 109 to 108–107 cfu g1) after salting toward the end

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4 Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese

of ripening; however, their numbers on the surface are stable during ripening. It was reported that a reverse development between
lactococci and lactobacilli are present; i.e., the number of lactococci decrease markedly on the surface layer, while lactobacilli
increase and began to dominate as ripening proceeded. One of the most common lactic acid bacteria in blue cheeses are Lactobacillus
plantarum, followed by L. casei. The counts for enterococci and micrococci increase towards the end of ripening the cheese core.
Proteases and lipases release by lysis of these lactic acid bacteria and these enzymes contribute to the cheese proteolysis and lipol-
ysis. The growth of lactic acid bacteria may be inhibited by P. roqueforti which synthesize penicillin as inhibitory substance. This is
called as negative interaction or antagonism to create an unfavorable microenvironment to have nutrients. Also, positive interaction
or synergism are present as mutual use and production of nutrients, create a favorable microenvironment and atmospheric condi-
tions and degradation of antimicrobial compounds. There are a few studies in these topic and needs to be investigated. P. roqueforti
has high tolerance for low levels of oxygen and can grows at presence of oxygen in range of 0.3–21% and 20–25% for carbon
dioxide. About more than 80% of the fungal flora of blue cheese is P. roqueforti; however, other genera of mold have been present
in blue-type cheeses which are ripened in caves or open-air environment and other flora come from the milk or from the caves
(Please see for detail Hayaloglu et al., 2008; Florez et al., 2007; and Cakmakci et al., 2012). Even if it is not present in primary
and secondary starter culture in cheese, yeasts are important component of many varieties of cheeses. Depending on the species
of these microorganisms, yeasts can have a negative impact on cheese quality via produced metabolites and they can change the
flavor, texture and appearance of blue cheeses. However, some yeast contribute positively the flavor of some cheeses, e.g., Cabrelas
and Gamoneu. Yeasts occur spontaneously in blue cheeses and develop during the manufacturing and ripening stages of blue
cheeses. The predominant yeast in blue cheeses are Debaryomyces hansenii, followed by Kluyveromyces marxianus, Yarrowia lipolitica,
Geotrichum candidum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida spp. and Pishia spp.

Surface-Ripened Cheeses by Molds

The best known example for this type of cheeses is Camembert, followed by Brie. The microflora of these cheeses is very complex
which consisting of an unknown combination of fungal and bacterial microflora. The microflora in this cheeses is less diverse
and lactococci and P. camemberti which added as starters are present when the cheese made using pasteurized milk. The main micro-
flora are consisting of yeasts (Kluyveromyces marxianus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Debaryomyces hansenii), mold (Geotrichum candidum
and Penicillium camemberti) and bacteria including Brevibacterium linens and coryneform bacteria (Arthrobacter, Micrococcus, Corynebac-
terium, etc.). Different combinations of B. linens, G. candidum, D. hansenii, and P. camemberti are deliberately added to the milk at the
same time as the starters. They are not considered starter cultures, as they have no role in acid production. These microorganisms are
responsible for some characteristics of the cheeses and contribute to appearance, color, texture, taste, aroma, antimicrobial activity
(antagonistic or synergetic interactions) and overall sensory changes. In this type of cheese, starter lactic acid bacteria (Lactococcus
spp.) develop an acid and it create a favorable environment for yeasts and molds (fungi). The fungi grow on the surface of cheese
by positive contribution of oxygen and stimulate the development of coryneform bacteria. A small differences are available between
lactate utilization of D. hansenii and K. marxianus. Although K. marxianus consumes firstly lactose and thereafter lactate, D. hansenii is
able to utilize simultaneously the both. The yeasts breakdown fat and proteins and this encourage the growth of P. camemberti. After
a week of ripening, P. camemberti grow in fast and cover the surface of cheese with a white felt. It changes the surface pH (increase)
within 2–3 days and produces large amount of carbon dioxide which give a gaseous structure of the surface. The lactic acid catabol-
ised by P. camemberti within 15–20 days and the acid-sensitive bacteria become predominant. Although the pH of the surface of
cheese is near 4.7 at the beginning of ripening, the changes in microbial population have increase the pH over 7.5 by consuming
lactate for their growth within ca. 10 days. The same rate of pH changes are not observed in cheese core a pH and salt gradient
may be observed in the inside of cheeses as shown Figure 1. Camembert and Brie cheeses soften from the outside to the inside,
and originally it was thought that this was due mainly to the proteolytic activity of P. camemberti. Nowadays, it is felt that the softening
of these cheeses is due principally to the increase in pH on the surface early in ripening, which causes the curd to solubilize and soften.
The level of pH (over 7.5) in cheese core can be observed after 60 days of ripening. The micro-environment and water activity of the
cheese is favor for the growth of staphylococci and coryneforms. These cheeses are then ripened at 10–15  C to promote microbial
growth and activity, and at a high relative humidity to prevent loss of moisture from the cheese surface.

Surface-Ripened Cheeses by Bacteria (Smear-Ripened Cheeses)

One of the most famous member of these group of cheese are Tilsit, Comte, Trappist, Limburger, Munster etc. The cheeses have
a sparkled surface, with high moisture, soft in texture and characteristically red in color. Mesophilic strains are used as starters
for the majority of these cheeses and also different combinations of complex commercial preparations including B. linens, D. han-
senii and/or Geotrichum candidum. Some countries, especially in Germany, young cheeses are smeared or washed with smears from
older cheeses and the young cheeses gain all microorganisms from old cheeses required for surface ripening and desired microflora
to compete undesired microorganisms. The cheeses (e.g., Tilsit, Munster, and Limburger) are dipped, sprayed, or brushed with
aqueous suspensions of different combinations of B. linens, D. hansenii, and G. candidum soon after the cheeses are removed
from the brine. Although variations are present between the types of smear cheeses, the yeast flora of the cheeses are generally con-
sisting from D. hansenii, G. candidum, Y. lipolytica and Candida spp. The yeasts grown on the surface stimulate the growth of smear
bacteria by de-acidification (catabolism of lactate, deamination of amino acids and formation of ammonia) and some metabolites
(e.g., some vitamins for the growth of B. linens) formed by the action of yeasts. As a results, pH of the surface changed from ca. 5.0 to

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Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese 5

Figure 1 A representative demonstration of pH gradient, lactate metabolism and texture changes in a Camembert-type cheese. From Özer, B.H.,
Akdemir-Evrendilek, G., 2014. Dairy Microbiology and Biochemistry. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group LLC, Boca Raton, FL, USA.

6.5 and an increasing pH gradient occurs from core to surface similar in surface mold ripened cheeses (Figure 1). Brevibacterium
linens does not grow at a pH value below 6.0. The modified surface can stimulate the growth of desired microorganisms and
contains various enzymes which positively contribute the rheology, texture and flavor of the cheese. Coryneform bacteria are the
major constituents of bacterial flora of smear cheeses, followed by staphylococci and micrococci which can grow in the presence
of 10% NaCl. Staphylococci is more important genera than micrococci and the most known member of staphylococci are Staphy-
lococcus equorum, S. saprophyticus, S. caseolyticus (now Macrococcus caseolyticus) and S. xylosus. Several species of coryneform bacteria are
present in the surface flora of smear cheeses and the most important microorganisms are Arthrobacter spp., Brachybacterium spp.,
Brevibacterium spp., Corynebacterium spp., Microbacterium spp. and Rhodococcus spp. Brevibacterium linens which is represent about
30% of the surface bacteria and is a great importance for smear cheeses. The final ripening characteristics of the cheese are formed
by the action of proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes from B. linens. This bacteria also produce different bacteriocins, pigments for color
development on the cheese and contribute to flavor development and ripening changes by producing soluble nitrogen fractions.
Coryneforms are the major part of smear flora of smear cheeses and the most isolated species are Arthrobacter spp., Corynebacterium
ammoniagenes and Corynebacterium spp. Some new species are present isolated from smear cheeses and these are Corynebacterium
casei, C. mooreparkense, Brachybacterium tyrofermentans, B. alimentarium and Microbacterium gubeenense.

Cheeses with Eye

Swiss-Type Cheeses
The most known members of this varieties of cheese are Emmental, Comte, Maasdam and Beauford which are characterized by large
eyes produced by propionic acid bacteria. Thermophilic lactic cultures are used as starter and these are Streptococcus thermophilus,
Lactobacillus helveticus and L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis. After pH decrease by S. thermophilus, L. helveticus begin to grow and the protein-
ases and peptidases of lactobacilli play an important role in the breakdown of casein (streptococci’s role is minor in proteolysis)
during cheese ripening. S. thermophilus and L. helveticus (or Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus) have a synergistic relationship,
such that growth of one organism promotes growth of the other. In this type of cheese, S. thermophilus growth is stimulated by amino
acids and peptides released from caseins via L. helveticus proteinases. Some other lactic acid bacteria which are L. casei and
L. rhamnosus contribute to the cheese proteolysis and these are originated from raw milk. After several weeks of ripening at low
temperature (5–15  C), the cheese contains a certain levels of lactic acid and the cheese is transferred to warm (about 20  C) to
grow propionic acid bacteria for eye formation. This is a crucial step in this type of cheese and propionic acid bacteria transform
the lactate to propionate, acetate and carbon dioxide. The Swiss-type cheese’s curd is rubbery and is able to trap carbon dioxide.
Although propionic acid bacteria come from raw milk in traditional production, they are normally added to the cheese milk in
industrial production. Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii used for this purpose and it produces characteristic eyes
and nutty flavor. This bacterium is present at low levels (about 102–103 cfu ml1) in milk and during lactic acid fermentation, it
began to grow in fast when the cheese transferred into warm room and it reaches about 109 cfu g1 at consumption stage of the
cheese. Metabolic pathway for utilization of lactate by propionic acid bacteria are illustrated Figure 2. The lactate is oxidized to
pyruvate and two molecules of propionate, one molecule of acetate and carbon dioxide are formed. These acids dissolved in

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6 Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese

lactate

pyruvate PEP oxaloacetate malate fumarate

acetyl CoA
propionyl CoA succinate
CO2
acetyl-P methylmalonyl CoA
ADP
ATP succinyl CoA
propionate
acetate

Figure 2 The mechanism of propionic acid production by propionic acid bacteria. From Hutkins, R.W., 2006. Microbiology and Technology of Fer-
mented Foods. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa USA.

but, carbon dioxide accumulate in cheese mass and forms characteristic eyes. P. freudenreichii subsp. shermanii is not only respon-
sible for lactate catabolism, it also contribute to cheese ripening by the action of its peptidase activity and generalizing nutty flavor
which is characteristic for Swiss-type cheeses.

Dutch-Type Cheeses
Gouda and Edam are the most known cheeses in this group and these cheeses characterized by sweet, mild and buttery flavor, color-
ful and with small spherical eyes. In industrial production, acid forming lactococci (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp.
cremoris) are used and the characteristic flavor can be formed by contribution of starter bacteria and citrate utilizing bacteria (citrate
positive strans of lactococci and Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and Leuconostoc lactis). The later bacterial group are called
DL-starter and the eyes inside of cheese are formed by these bacteria, in addition to flavor development (diacetyl, which formed by
citrate fermentation, is major compound in flavor). These microorganisms produce lactic and acetic acids, ethanol and carbon
dioxide and diacetyl. Butyric acid fermentation via catabolism of lactate by Clostridium tyrobutyricum causes ‘late gas blowing’
and also ‘off-flavor’ by accumulation of butyric acid. So, nitrate may be added to the cheese milk to prevent the growth of
C. tyrobutyricum, which also produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide gases.

Pasta-Filata Cheeses
The cheeses are semi-hard in texture and their curds are stretched over 55  C and mechanically shaped in manufacture. After this
process, the curd gains a fibrous structure and it uses on pizza and toasts (in some countries) due to good meltability. The origin
of these cheeses is Mediterranean and Balkan countries under the names of Mozzarella, Provolene, Kasseri, Cacciocavallo, Kashkaval
and Kashar. The most famous member is Mozzarella or Pizza which is originally manufactured from buffalo milk in southeast Italy.
The cheese is one of the most producing and consuming cheeses in US. Some Cheddar cheese companies converted their operation
to Mozzarella manufacturing in 1980s. Recently, pasteurized cow’s milk has been used in its manufacture and thermophilic starters
including S. thermophilus and L. helveticus (or Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus) are used for acidification. The lactic acid and
proteolytic enzymes produced by these microorganisms are essential for stretching and functionality of the cheese. These microor-
ganisms ferment glucose portion of lactose, but not ferment galactose. Undesired brown pigments may be appeared on pizza during
baking of cheese due to a reaction between reducing sugar (galactose) and amino acids (via non-enzymatic Maillard reaction). It is
reported that galactose-fermenting strains of lactococci, L. helveticus or S. thermophilus can be used for this purpose. Provolene, Cac-
ciocavallo, Kashkaval and Kashar are the another members of these group and the thermophilic starters (in industrial production)
are used their production methods (note that there are some local differences in their manufacture). The last three cheeses are
produced from raw milk and without starter culture in traditional production. Indigenous milk enzymes and bacteria play major
role in the microbiology of these cheeses; thermo-stabil (or thermoduric) bacteria contribute proteolysis, lipolysis and flavor devel-
opment in the cheeses. Indeed, majority of starters used in production and enzymes are inactivated during stretching (ca. 80  C for
5–10 min) and environmental flora (presumptive non-starter lactic acid bacteria) become predominant in these cheeses.

Cheeses by Probiotic Bacteria

In the last two decades, probiotics are very popular due to health benefits in human consumption and fermented milks which are
good carrier for this purpose. Some studies showed that cheese is an alternative carrier for probiotics for delivery in human body.
The buffering capacity of cheese creates an advantageous condition against acidic media in gastrointestinal track. Cheese has also
lower red-ox potential than fermented milks and is more protective structure for probiotics. The most common probiotic bacteria
used in cheese-making are Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. casei, L. johnsonii, L. rhamnosus, L. reuteri, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Bifido-
bacterum bifidum, B. longum, B. brevis, B. infantis or B. animalis. The major problem in this type of cheese during cheese ripening is the

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survival of probiotics which are too sensitive to oxygen tension, high salt and low pH. These bacteria do not produce desired levels
of acids or proteolytic agents and has shorter shelf-life in the products. Therefore, it is good idea to use it in fresh cheeses with
accompanying normal starters. Also, the vacuum-sealing of cheese blocks or microencapsulated forms of these bacteria are one
of the best way to protect the probiotics against acid and oxygen stresses.

Microorganisms Important in Microbiology of Cheese

Starter Bacteria
In most cheeses, selected strains of LAB, are previously grown in milk or another medium and added deliberately to the milk at the
beginning of cheese manufacture. They are called ‘starters’ because they start lactic acid production and are divided into two types:
mesophilic and thermophilic.
Mesophilic starters comprise lactococci and sometimes leuconostocs, and thermophilic cultures comprise Streptococcus thermo-
philus and thermophilic lactobacilli. Mesophilic starters are used in Cheddar, soft and most Dutch-type cheeses. The cultures are
generally selected for their ability to produce lactic acid at a rate appropriate for the cheese being made, to resist attack by bacterio-
phage, and to produce a cheese with the desirable flavor. Some artisanal cheeses in Europe are made without the deliberate addition
of a starter. In these cheeses, lactococci, which are present in milk as natural contaminants, also make up the major part of the micro-
flora at the beginning of ripening. Nowadays, mixtures of mesophilic and thermophilic cultures, particularly S. thermophilus, are
used in, Cheddar cheese, which in the past was made solely with mesophilic cultures.
The initial number of starter bacteria in cheese milk ranges from 105 to 107 cfu mL1, depending on the cheese type and they
rapidly reach numbers of 109 cfu g1 in almost all cheeses within a few hours of being added to the milk. Therefore, starter
bacteria are the dominant organisms in cheese at the beginning of ripening.
Most of the starter bacteria lyse relatively rapidly during ripening, releasing their intracellular enzymes, which, together with chy-
mosin, help the development of cheese flavor. Faster-lysing strains generally produce cheese that develop flavor more rapidly than
slower-lysing strains. Lysis is caused by an intracellular muraminidase that hydrolyzes the bacterial cell wall. Generally, Lactococcus
lactis subsp. cremoris strains lyse faster than Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains, which partly explains why the former organism is
thought to produce a better flavored cheese than the latter. Lysis is influenced by several factors, including the level of salt in cheese
and the presence of prophages in the starter bacteria, which are induced by the high cooking temperature used during the manu-
facture of some cheeses. The presence of a small number of lytic phage is also likely to play a role in lysis, though this aspect has not
been studied extensively.

Enterococci
Enterococci are found at high numbers (>107 g1) in many artisanal cheeses and these bacteria may originated from cheese milk or
deliberately added to the milk for cheese making like probiotic cultures. For this reason, they are often considered to be starter
cultures and attempts were made to use enterococci (E. faecalis and E. faecium) in the starter combinations of different European
cheeses such as Mozzarella, Feta, Venaco and Cebreiro. Some cheeses in which they are found are made from raw milk, but they
are also found in cheeses made from pasteurized milk, as they withstand pasteurization. Most of the evidence suggests that they
play a significant role in flavor development in the cheeses in which they are found.

Non-starter Lactic Acid Bacteria

All cheeses ripened for any length of time, with exception of unripened cheeses, contain non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB).
They mainly comprise facultatively heterofermentative lactobacilli, especially Lactobacillus casei and L. paracasei, but Pediococcus
spp. and obligately heterofermentative Lactobacillus spp., for example, Lactobacillus brevis and L. fermentum, are occasionally found.
Raw milk and/or the factory environment are the major sources of NSLAB in cheese. Small numbers of lactobacilli survive pasteur-
ization and the high cooking temperature (52  C) used in making some hard cheeses, like Emmental, which is traditionally made
from raw milk. Most NSLAB are salt-and acid-tolerant, facultative anaerobes and therefore grow quite well in cheese. They need
a fermentable carbohydrate for energy production and growth, but the energy source used by them in cheese is unclear, since at
the time of exponential growth of NSLAB, no lactose is present. A likely source is the sugars present in the glycoproteins of the
milk fat globule. Other suggested sources include citrate and amino acids, but the evidence for this is not strong.
In contrast to the starter, the initial number of NSLAB in cheese is relatively low (100 cfu g1), but they grow relatively quickly
to high numbers (108 cfu g1), within the first few days of ripening (Figure 3). Their growth rate depends primarily on the partic-
ular strains present, the ripening temperature, and the moisture content of the cheese. Growth will be more rapid in high-moisture
than in low-moisture cheeses. The generation time of the NSLAB in the cheese in Figure 3 was 8.5 days.
Despite extensive studies, the role of NSLAB in the development of cheese flavor is not clear. There is considerable interest in
inoculating cheese milk with carefully selected mesophilic lactobacilli with the objective of accelerating ripening and/or intensifying
flavor. In contrast to starter cells, NSLAB die off very slowly in hard cheese and their intracellular enzymes are probably not released
into the cheese matrix. Nevertheless, cells of NSLAB are viable and, at the high cell densities found in cheese, have considerable
metabolic activity, for example, in transforming L-lactate to D-lactate.

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8 Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese

1.0E+10

1.0E+09

1.0E+08

1.0E+07

cfu g–1
1.0E+06

1.0E+05

1.0E+04

1.0E+03
NSLAB
1.0E+02
Starter
1.0E+01
0 10 20 30 40
Ripening time (days)

Figure 3 Growth of starters and non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) in Cheddar cheese ripened at 6  C.

Other (Secondary) Microorganisms in Ripening Cheese

Many cheese varieties contain a secondary (non-lactic acid bacteria) microflora of other bacteria, yeasts, and or molds, the function
of which is to produce some specific characteristic changes in the cheese. Examples include smear- and mold-ripened and Swiss-type
cheeses. In these cheeses, flavor development is dominated by the metabolic activity of the secondary flora and, except in Swiss- and
Blue (mold)-type cheese, the activity is confined to the surface of the cheese. The secondary flora also produces proteinases, pepti-
dases, and lipases; the lipases are especially important in Blue cheese.

Micrococci and Staphylococci

Micrococcus and Staphylococcus are found in large numbers (>106 cfu g1) on the surface of hard, semi-hard, and soft smear-ripened
cheeses. Microscopically they are very similar, but they are phylogenetically unrelated to each other. Staphylococcus has a low GC
content (30–39%) and occurs in the clostridial branch of Gram-positive bacteria, whereas Micrococcus has a high GC content
(65–75%) and occurs in the actinomycete branch of the Gram-positive bacteria. They are easily distinguishable from each other;
for instance, staphylococci produce acid aerobically and anaerobically from glucose, and are oxidase-negative and sensitive to lysos-
taphin, whereas micrococci produce acid only aerobically from glucose, when they do it at all, and are oxidase-positive and resistant
to lysostaphin. These genera were probably confused with each other in the past, and it is often unclear whether cheese isolates were
genuinely staphylococci or micrococci. The dominant staphylococci in cheese are Staphylococcus saprophyticus, S. equorum, S. vitulus,
and S. xylosus, all of which are coagulase-negative.
Recently, the genus Micrococcus has been split into five genera, Kocuria, Nesterenkonia, Kytococcus, Dermacoccus, and Micrococcus,
and the strains isolated from the surface of cheese include Kocuria rosea, Kocuria varians, Dermacoccus sedantarius, Micrococcus lylae and
M. luteus.

Coryneform Bacteria
Coryneform bacteria are mainly found on the surface of smear-ripened cheeses and, for a long time, Brevibacterium linens was
thought to be the most important one, being responsible for the red or orange color on the surface. For this reason, it is often delib-
erately inoculated onto the surface of the cheese after brining. Recent evidence shows that other coryneform bacteria are also impor-
tant, including Arthrobacter, Agrococcus, Brachybacterium, Corynebacterium, and Microbacterium spp. Generally, the staphylococci are
the first to grow on the surface of the cheese, followed by the coryneforms. The sources of these bacteria include the brine and
shelving; manual handling of cheeses is also an important source, as coryneforms, micrococci, and staphylococci are a major
part of the skin microflora.

Propionic Acid Bacteria (PAB)

The major function of the PAB is to metabolize the lactate produced by the starter bacteria to propionate, acetate, and carbon
dioxide in Swiss-type cheeses, e.g., Emmental and Comté.
Propionibacterium freudenreichii is the most important species. PAB, although catalase-positive, are essentially anaerobes and grow
only within the cheese. Traditionally, natural contamination of the milk was relied upon as the source of PAB in the case of

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Emmental and Comté cheeses, but, nowadays, selected strains are generally deliberately added to the milk with the starter culture.
Development of PAB in Italian cheeses, for example, Parmigiano-Reggiano and Grana, is considered to be a defect.

Yeasts
Yeasts form a large part of the surface flora of smear- and mold-ripened cheeses, for example, Comté, Tilsit, Limburger, Blue, and
Camembert. They are very tolerant of the low pH and high salt concentrations on the surface of the cheese and, during the early days
of ripening, grow rapidly to perhaps 106–107 cfu g1. Simultaneously, they oxidize lactate to carbon dioxide and water, and
produce ammonia by deaminating amino acids, both of which result in an increase in pH from an initial value of 5.0 to
>7.5. This process is called deacidification and the increase in pH also promotes the growth of bacteria, which are much less tolerant
of low pH values.
A diverse group of species are involved. The most common ones are Debaryomyces hansenii, Geotrichum candidum, Kluyveromyces
lactis, K. marxianus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Yarrowia lipolytica. Generally, yeasts are considered to be adventitious contaminants
though some of them, particularly the first two mentioned above, are often deliberately inoculated onto the surface of smear-
ripened cheese after brining.
Geotrichum candidum has characteristics of both yeasts and molds and, in the past, was often called a yeast-like fungus; it is
commonly known as the dairy mold. Its natural habitat is soil, where it is involved in the decay of organic matter. G. candidum
can grow at pH values in the range 2.5–8.1 and in environments with low levels of oxygen.

Molds
The dominant molds in cheese are Penicillium roqueforti in Blue cheeses (e.g., Stilton, Roquefort, and Gorgonzola) and Penicillium
camemberti in surface mold-ripened cheeses (e.g., Camembert and Brie). P. roqueforti grows in the air spaces between the incom-
pletely fused curd particles and is responsible for the blue veins that run throughout Blue cheese, whereas P. camemberti grows
as a compact, fluffy mass on the surface of Camembert and Brie cheese. Molds are obligate aerobes and, therefore, require oxygen
for growth. P. roqueforti grows well at much lower oxygen levels than those required by other molds, and, for this reason, Blue
cheeses are generally pierced after brining to allow a small amount of oxygen to diffuse into the center of the cheese to promote
mold development.
Yeasts and molds grow much better than bacteria at the pH of cheese, and for this reason they are the first microorganisms to
grow on the cheese surface. The low pH of freshly made cheese is therefore partially selective for the growth of yeasts and molds.
Yeasts and molds are generally heat-sensitive and are killed by pasteurization.

Factors Affecting Microbial Growth

The factors controlling the growth of microorganisms in cheese include water activity, concentration of salt, oxidation–reduction
potential, pH, NO3  , temperature, and, perhaps, the production of bacteriocins by some microorganisms. These factors are called
‘hurdles.’ The effect of the individual hurdles may not be significant, but all of them acting together lead to considerable control.
Other compounds produced during curd manufacture and ripening, for example, water and fatty acids, also inhibit microbial growth,
but the concentrations of these produced by the starters in cheese are not sufficiently high to have a significant effect on the bacteria.

Water Activity
All microorganisms require water for growth, but it is the availability of the water, rather than the total amount present, that is the
important factor. Water availability is measured by water activity (aw), which is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure over the
cheese to the vapor pressure of pure water at that temperature. NaCl and organic acids (lactate, acetate, and propionate) dissolve in
the moisture in the cheese and reduce the vapor pressure. The greater the concentration of these compounds, the lower the aw.
Cheese, unless vacuum packed, loses moisture by evaporation during ripening. This results in a gradient in the aw of the cheese
(lower on the outside than on the inside). The aw gradient is generally much greater in large cheeses than in small ones. Proteins in
cheese are hydrated, and this ‘bound’ water is not available for bacterial growth (aw >0.92). The limit for most yeasts is 0.83,
whereas that for molds is 0.75; osmophilic yeasts grow at aw values < 0.60. An aw value of <0.92 is equivalent to a salt concen-
tration of 12.4%. Hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids and peptides and lipids to acylglycerols and fatty acids during ripening
reduces the availability of water, as one molecule of water is added at each bond hydrolyzed.

Salt
The action of salt is intimately connected with the reduction in aw that occurs when salt (or any solute) gets dissolved in water. In
cheese, the salt concentration varies from perhaps 0.4% in Emmental cheese to 5% in Blue cheese. In calculating the inhibitory effect
of salt in cheese, it is the amount of salt dissolved in the water (SM) of the cheese, rather than the actual concentration of salt, that is
the important parameter. The SM in Cheddar cheese varies from 4 to 6%.

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Most cheeses are brine-salted – Cheddar is an exception and is dry-salted. In brine-salted cheeses, a salt gradient (outside higher,
inside lower) exists at the beginning of ripening, which decreases relatively slowly during ripening. All brined cheeses contain a high
level of salt in the surface layers; therefore, the secondary microorganisms growing on the surface must be salt-tolerant. Most coryn-
eforms, micrococci, and staphylococci can grow in the presence of 10–15% NaCl. The growth of P. camemberti is largely unaffected
by 10% NaCl, and some strains of P. roqueforti can tolerate 20% NaCl. Geotrichum candidum is quite sensitive to salt. In the presence
of 1% NaCl, its growth may reduce at 1% NaCl and it is completely inhibited at 6%. Therefore, too much brining will prevent its
growth on the cheese surface. Its intolerance to salt may explain why G. candidum is generally deliberately added in the manufacture
of surface-ripened cheeses, the hope being that some cells will grow.

Oxidation–Reduction Potential
Oxidation–reduction potential (Eh) is a measure of the ability of chemical/biochemical systems to oxidize (lose electrons) or reduce
(gain electrons). The Eh of milk is about þ150 mV and that of cheese is about 250 mV. The exact mechanism of the lowering of Eh
when cheese is produced from milk is not clear but is probably related to the fermentation of lactose to lactic acid by the starter
during growth. At the low Eh, cheese is essentially an anaerobic system, in which only facultatively or obligately anaerobic micro-
organisms can grow. Therefore, obligate aerobes, like Brevibacterium and Micrococcus spp., do not grow within the cheese, even when
other conditions for growth are favorable.

pH and Organic Acids

Most bacteria require a neutral pH value for optimum growth and exhibit poor growth at pH values < 5.0. The pH of cheese curd
after manufacture generally lies within the range of 4.5–5.3, so the pH is a significant factor in controlling bacterial growth in cheese.
LAB, especially lactobacilli, generally have a pH optimum below 7, and Lactobacillus spp. can grow at pH values of 4.0; most yeasts
and molds have an optimum pH of 5–7 but can grow at pH values < 3.0. Coryneforms and micrococci are thought to be unable to
grow below pH 5.5 or 6.0.
The efficacy of organic acids as inhibitors of microbial growth is thought to depend on the amount of undissociated acid present
and therefore on the dissociation constant (pKa) and pH. The principal acids found in cheese are propionic, acetic, and lactic, and
these have pKa values of 4.87, 4.75, and 3.08, respectively, so that at the same concentration lactic acid is the least and propionic the
most effective inhibitor. However, the concentration of the acid is also important and, in cheese, lactate is invariably present in
young cheese curd at much greater concentrations than those of the other two acids. The pH of many soft cheeses characteristically
increases during ripening, particularly on the surface, and this will reduce the inhibitory properties of the surface. Propionic acid is
very effective at repressing the growth of molds.

Nitrate
Nitrate (NO3  ), as KNO3 (saltpeter) or NaNO3, is added to the milk (20 g 100 l1) for some cheeses, especially Dutch-type cheeses
like Gouda and Edam, to prevent early and late production of gases by coliforms and Clostridium tyrobutyricum, respectively. The real
inhibitor is NO2  , which is formed from NO3  by xanthine oxidoreductase in the milk or curd. The exact mechanism by which
NO2  prevents microbial growth is not clear. NO2  is an effective inhibitor for clostridia, but it does not inhibit coliforms.

Temperature
Higher temperatures promote faster ripening by the starter and non-starter microorganisms but also allow the growth of spoilage
and pathogenic bacteria. Generally, Cheddar cheese is ripened at 6–8  C, whereas mold- and smear-ripened cheeses are ripened at
10–15  C. Emmental cheese is ripened initially for 2–3 weeks at a low temperature (12  C), after which the temperature is
increased to 20–24  C and maintained for 2–4 weeks to promote the growth of PAB and the fermentation of lactate to propionate
and acetate; the temperature is then reduced again to 4  C. For soft cheeses, the humidity of the environment is also controlled to
prevent excess evaporation of moisture from the cheese surface.

Microbial Spoilage of Cheese

The most common microbial defects of cheese are the development of early and late gas, but these problems were overcame by
better hygiene in milk production and better quality control in cheese plants.
Early gas formation generally occurs within 1 or 2 days after manufacture. It is characterized by the appearance of many small gas
holes in the cheese inside and is caused by coliform bacteria and/or yeasts. The gas produced by coliforms is mainly H2, whereas that
produced by yeasts is CO2; both are produced from lactose. Early gas production is more problematic in soft and semi-soft cheeses
than in hard cheeses because of the higher aw of the soft cheeses. An effective way of controlling early gas formation is to add nitrate
to the milk.

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Late gas formation, also called ‘late blowing,’ does not occur until late in ripening and is due to fermentation of lactate to buty-
rate, CO2, and H2 by Cl. tyrobutyricum and Clostridium butyricum. The butyrate is responsible for off-flavor development, and the
gases, for the production of large holes in the cheese. Late gas production can be particularly prevalent in Swiss-type cheese, as clos-
tridia can grow during the hot-room ripening period. Silage is a potent source of these bacteria and, in Switzerland, it is forbidden to
feed it to cows whose milk is used for cheese making. In addition, many thermophilic cultures stimulate the growth of clostridia,
through the production of peptides and amino acids. Late gas production can be controlled by NO3  or by bactofugation of the
milk to remove the clostridium spores, but the latter can result in inferior quality cheese. Increasing the level of salt, lowering the pH
of the cheese rapidly through the use of an active starter, addition of NO3  , and addition of lysozyme are also effective in preventing
late gas production. Lysozyme, which occurs naturally in milk, saliva, tears, and other body fluids, hydrolyzes the cell walls of sensi-
tive bacteria, like C. tyrobutyricum, causing them to lyse. It is commonly used in Italian cheeses and is added to the milk with the
starter at a level of 25 mg l1.
The bacteriocin, nisin, produced by some strains of Lc. lactis subsp. lactis is effective in controlling the growth of clostridia and
is used for this purpose in processed cheese. However, it is not suitable for use in natural cheese because many starters are sensitive
to it.
Other microorganisms have occasionally been implicated in spoilage. Citrate-metabolizing lactobacilli have been incriminated
as the cause of open texture in Cheddar cheese owing to the production of carbon dioxide from citrate. The optimum pH for uptake
of citrate ranges from 4 to 5, and a significant metabolism of citrate occurs in the absence of an energy source at pH 5.2, the pH of
many semi-hard and hard cheeses. Enterococcus malodoratus, which, as its name implies, causes the production of bad flavors, has
been found in Gouda cheese. The surface of cheese, especially when it is moist, for example, an unwrapped soft or semisoft cheese,
is an ideal environment for the growth of molds and yeasts. These cause little damage to the cheese but are unsightly. They can be
washed off the cheese surface with a dilute brine solution.

Further Reading

Bintis, T., Papademas, P., 2002. Microbiological quality of white-brined cheeses: a review. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 55, 113–120.
Cakmakci, S., Cetin, B., Gurses, M., Dagdemir, E., Hayaloglu, A.A., 2012. Morphological, molecular, and mycotoxigenic identification of dominant filamentous fungi from moldy civil
cheese. J. Food Prot. 75, 2405–2409.
Eck, A., Gillis, A.C., 2000. Cheesemaking: From Science to Quality Assurance, second English ed. Lavoisier, Paris.
Fleet, G.H., 1990. Yeasts in dairy products, a review. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 68, 199–211.
Florez, A.B., Alvarez-Martin, P., Lopez-Diaz, T.M., Mayo, B., 2007. Morphotypic and molecular identification of filamentous fungi from Spanish blue-veined Cabrales cheese, and
typing of Penicillium roqueforti and Geotrichum candidum isolates. Int. Dairy J. 17, 350–357.
Fox, P.F., McSweeney, P.L.H., Cogan, T.M., Guinee, T.P., 2004. Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, vols. 1, 2. Elsevier Academic Press, London.
Fox, P.F., Guinee, T.P., Cogan, T.M., McSweeney, P.L.H., 2000. Fundamentals of Cheese Science. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD.
Franz, C.M.A.P., Holzapfel, W.H., Stiles, M.E., 1999. Enterococci at the crossroads of food safety? Int. J. Food Microbiol. 47, 1–24.
Hayaloglu, A.A., Brechany, E.Y., Deegan, K.C., McSweeney, P.L.H., 2008. Characterization of chemistry, biochemistry and volatile profiles of Kuflu cheese, a mould-ripened variety.
LWT Food Sci. Technol. 41, 1323–1334.
Hutkins, R.W., 2006. Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, USA.
Klein, G., 2003. Taxonomy, ecology and antibiotic resistance of enterococci from food and the gastro-intestinal tract. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 88, 123–131.
Leclercq-Perlat, M.N., Buono, F., Lambert, D., Latrille, E., Spinnler, H.E., Corrieu, G., 2004. Controlled production of Camembert-type cheeses. Part I: microbiological and
physicochemical evolutions. J. Dairy Res. 71, 346–354.
Özer, B.H., Akdemir-Evrendilek, G., 2014. Dairy Microbiology and Biochemistry. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group LLC, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Özer, B.H., Kirmaci, H.A., 2011. Technological and health aspects of probiotic cheese. In: Foster, R.D. (Ed.), Cheese: Types, Nutrition and Consumption. Nova Science Publishers,
Inc., Hauppauge, NY, USA, pp. 1–42.
Smit, G., Smit, B.A., Engels, W.J., 2005. Flavour formation by lactic acid bacteria and biochemical flavour profiling of cheese products. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 29, 591–610.

Change History

Update of: T.M. Cogan, Cheese: Microbiology of Cheese. Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, 2nd Edition, 2011, pages 625–631.
Change History: July 2015. A.A. Hayaloglu has updated the text and references. New figures and table have been added.

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