POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders 4703

Characteristics of Milk Microbiological Aspects

Powders
Standards for Quality and Safety
M A Augustin, P T Clarke and H Craven, Food
Science Australia, Weribee, Victoria, Australia Milk powder is a microbiologically stable product. 0003

It has a water activity of 0.3–0.4, which is too low

Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Background
0001 Milk powders are used by consumers as a substitute
for fresh milk and as ingredients for the manufacture
of a range of processed food products. In order to be
acceptable to consumers and users of ingredients, it is
to support the growth of microorganisms. However,
after milk powder has been reconstituted, it is suscep-
tible to microbial growth and spoilage in a similar
manner to pasteurized milk. Provided milk powder is
protected from moisture contamination before use,
the numbers of microorganisms present generally de-
crease during storage, although the numbers of spores
may remain constant.
Although milk powder does not support the growth 0004

essential that milk powders are of a good quality.
Milk powders are manufactured to meet certain spe-
cifications and standards for composition. These have
been developed for milk powders by authorities such
as the American Dairy Products Institute, the Inter-
national Dairy Federation, the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations and national
food authorities in individual countries. In addition,
a range of other technical specifications have been
developed for the characterization of milk powders
to ensure that they have the required functional
of microorganisms, the microbiological content is an
important consideration in the subsequent use of the
powder. For this reason, government bodies and cus-
tomer groups have developed microbiological limits
or specifications that apply to certain groups of
microorganisms that may be present in milk powder.
These specifications may relate to expectations of raw
milk quality, hygiene during manufacture, microbial
safety, or compatibility with the intended use of the
milk powder.
Common end-product standards relate to the total 0005

performance in specific target applications. Milk
powders may be similar in composition but have
different functional properties.
0002 There are many types of milk powders in the
market place. This article focuses on the characteris-
tics of skim and full-cream milk powders, which are
the major types of milk powders produced. The
microbiological quality, physical and chemical attri-
butes of these milk powders, and their functional
properties are discussed. Aspects of deteriorative
changes that may occur in milk powders during
number of bacteria (mesophilic aerobes), coliforms,
Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus. Criteria may
also be applied for Bacillus cereus, Listeria, thermo-
philes, Enterobacteriaceae and spore-forming bac-
teria. The standards developed by the International
Dairy Federation, for example, are shown in Table 1.
Many countries have either adopted these standards
or developed their own local specifications based on
the principles of the International Commission on
Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF).
The microbiological count of milk powder is 0006

transport and distribution that have an impact on
the sensory properties of powders and their perform-
ance as food ingredients are included. The produc-
tion, composition, and applications of various
types of milk powders have been discussed else-
where. (See Powdered Milk: Milk Powders in the
Marketplace.)
influenced by both the numbers and types of micro-
organisms in the raw milk and the processing condi-
tions under which the milk powder is produced.
In powders subjected to a high heat treatment,
the microorganisms present will be predominantly
spore-formers, belonging to the genus Bacillus.
When heat treatment is less severe, vegetative cells

tbl0001 Table 1 Microbiological specifications for milk powder, as recommended by the International Dairy Federation

Criteriaa Total count (per gram) Salmonella (per 25 g) Coliforms (per gram) Staphylococcus aureus (per gram)

m 50 000 0 10 10
M 200 000 na 100 100
n 5 15 5 5
c 2 0 1 1
a
For a production batch, n ¼ number of samples that must be tested, c ¼ number of samples that may exceed the microbiological limit specified as m, and
M is the maximum allowable microbiological limit specified for any of the samples examined.
na ¼ not applicable.
 4704 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders
of thermoduric bacteria will be present, with their
proportion to spore-formers decreasing with the in-
tensity of the heat treatment applied. Vegetative cells
of pathogenic bacteria and Gram-negative milk spoil-
age bacteria are destroyed during the heat treatment.
0007 Coliforms, Salmonella, and other Enterobacteria-
ceae are killed when the milk is heated prior to evap-
oration; however, they may contaminate milk powder
if conditions are not sufficiently hygienic during
drying. These bacteria can enter the dryer through
the intake air from the factory environment, or the
equipment used to dry or transport the milk powder.
Cracks in dryers have been shown to be a particularly
significant source of Salmonella. Here, Salmonella are
harbored in the insulation material. Although dryers
operate at a high temperature, the concentrated milk
offers protection to the bacteria, and they will survive
heating at dryer air inlet and outlet temperatures. Sal-
monella spp. are significant pathogens, and several
notable outbreaks of illness have been attributed to
the presence of this organism in milk powder.
0008 Staphylococcus aureus is significant, as certain
strains can produce a heat-stable toxin that is not
destroyed during powder manufacture. Although
Staphylococcus aureus is common in raw milk, it
does not normally grow to produce toxin unless the
milk is stored at a high temperature prior to process-
ing. The risk of toxin production increases with tem-
perature and storage time. Although the bacteria will
be killed during the process, the toxin remains and
can be detected only through specific tests. Large
outbreaks of illness have been attributed to the pres-
ence of Staphylococcus aureus toxin in milk powder.
0009 Another bacterium of potential significance in milk
powder is Bacillus cereus. This is commonly found in
milk, and its spores may survive heat processing.
Specialty powders such as infant formula often have
specifications for this bacterium, owing to the poten-
tial risk of the growth of this organism in warmed
milk and sensitivity of the target group of consumers.
0010 Sometimes, yeasts and molds or their toxins, and
Listeria are included in powder specifications. Yeasts
and molds may be significant spoilage organisms if
powder is contaminated with moisture, and Listeria
may contaminate powder from the factory environ-
ment, especially if the environment is not kept dry.
0011 In the milk powder process, milk is subjected to
heat whilst concentrated under vacuum. Such condi-
tions are conductive to the growth of thermophilic
Bacillus species that may form biofilms in the process
lines. When this occurs, the product may be contam-
inated with thermophiles that can reach more than
106 per gram in long production runs. Thermophiles
may sporulate in the process, leading to the presence
of large numbers of thermophilic spores in the
powder. The spores can be extremely heat-resistant
and may not be completely destroyed when the recon-
stituted powder is used in ultrahigh-temperature
(UHT) processes. They are significant because they
may cause sterility failures or spoilage in other heated
products. If not properly cleaned from the plant be-
tween production runs, residues of thermophiles will
seed subsequent batches of milk powder.
Although milk powder is a microbiologically stable 0012
product, the microbial quality of the raw milk may
influence the shelf stability of the powder. Some bac-
teria present in raw milk, particularly Pseudomonas
species, produce heat-stable spoilage enzymes, in-
cluding proteases and lipases, that remain active in
milk powder over many months. Experience has
shown that lipase can act in full-cream milk powder
to degrade milk fat to cause rancidity and other ob-
jectionable flavors. Proteases retain activity in milk
powder and degrade milk proteins to cause objection-
able flavors after the milk powder has been reconsti-
tuted. Proteases and lipases may be particularly
detrimental in recombined milk products, or if milk
powder is used to prepare UHT milk. Here, very
low levels of protease and lipase may cause
spoilage during long storage periods. (See Bacillus:
Occurrence; Detection; Food Poisoning; Biofilms;
Listeria: Properties and Occurrence; Pasteurization:
Principles; Salmonella: Properties and Occurrence;
Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage; Fungi in Food – An
Overview; Molds in Spoilage; Yeasts in Spoilage;
Staphylococcus: Properties and Occurrence.)
Control of Microorganisms
The manufacture of microbiologically sound milk 0013
powder is dependent upon processing good-quality
raw milk under hygienic conditions. To ensure the
supply of good-quality milk, farm milk should be
tested regularly for microbial quality. Many countries
now use the total count test to monitor levels of
bacteria in farm supplies. Thermoduric counts are
sometimes used also. Raw milk ideally should be
stored at less than 5  C and used within 72 h of col-
lection to minimize bacterial growth.
The pasteurization of milk is important and is 0014
normally identified as a critical control point. An
example of process criteria for pasteurization would
be heating of the milk for at least 15 s at 72  C or 5 s
at 80  C.
Within the factory, application of good manufac- 0015
turing practice is essential to minimize the risk of milk
powder contamination with undesirable types or
levels of microorganisms. To achieve this, consider-
ation must be given to the design of the premises and
control of staff or vehicular movement to separate
raw materials from drying areas. Manufacturing
 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders
equipment and the processing environment must be
maintained, cleaned, and sanitized to ensure that
microbial build-up and spread are prevented. Staff
must be trained in practices to maintain high stand-
ards of hygiene. A supply of good-quality water and
air for the process is also essential. Many factories
now have ongoing monitoring systems for Salmonella
and Listeria in place. If these bacteria are detected in
the processing environment, special clean-up regimes
and extra product testing are implemented.
0016 The modern approach to ensuring that milk
powder is microbiologically safe involves preventa-
tive management to ensure manufacture under appro-
priate conditions of hygiene. Many factories now
either have in place, or are moving towards, the
hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)
system. Although end-product testing is still used to
verify compliance and to detect gross process failures,
it cannot be relied upon to ensure the safety of a batch
of product. Testing can be labor-intensive and time-
consuming, taking up to 7 days to obtain final results.
To overcome these problems, samples may be com-
posited and rapid techniques for detection of patho-
gens based on ELISA or DNA methods applied. These
methods have advanced efficiencies in testing, and
product can now be cleared in 24–48 h. (See Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point; Quality Assurance
and Quality Control.)
Physical Properties
0017 The physical properties of milk powders are governed
by process variables, the type of dryer, and the com-
position of the milk. The physical properties of milk
powders play an important role in their use as food
ingredients. Their ability to be readily incorporated
into products and to perform specific functions in a
food formulation can be influenced by many physical
properties. There are many physical attributes that
must be taken into account when either evaluating
a current product, setting specifications for new
products or designing or modifying a drying system.
Tighter and more demanding specifications have
meant that powders are now often manufactured on
specialist dryers designed specifically to produce the
best possible product of defined specification.
Moisture
0018 The final moisture content is critical for several
reasons and is therefore defined in all powder specifi-
cations. It can affect functionality and microbio-
logical quality, and is an economic consideration in
the manufacture of powders. There are several factors
during manufacture that can influence the moisture
content of powders. These include the characteristics
4705
of the concentrate fed into the dryer, the type of
atomization used, and the operating conditions
during drying.
Insolubility Index
The insolubility index of a powder is a measure of the 0019
degree to which it can be readily solubilized in water
prior to use. It is related to the amount of sediment
obtained under defined conditions of mixing milk
powders. The main reason for loss of solubility is
the temperature of the particles during the primary
stage of the drying process where the majority of the
moisture is removed. During this stage, an imperme-
able crust can form on the particle surface that
severely restricts water removal, leading to the pro-
duction of case-hardened particles and subsequent
loss of solubility.
Bulk Density and Particle Density
Bulk density is the amount of powder by weight that 0020
is present in a defined volume. It is usually expressed
as g ml1 and is obtained by measuring the volume of
a fixed weight of powder after it has been tapped for a
defined number of times. A high bulk density is very
important in packaging and transportation, and is
desirable as it can significantly reduce costs. The
bulk density is influenced by a range of factors.
These include the amount of air entrapped in the
powder particles (occluded air), the overall density
of the particle (determined by the composition), the
air between the individual powder particles (intersti-
tial air), the particle size distribution and the particle
shape. The bulk density of powders is influenced by
dryer design and configuration (Tables 2 and 3). Par-
ticle density is the density of the solids (determined by
the composition), which determines the particle dens-
ity, together with the amount of occluded air.
Particle Size Distribution
The individual particles produced during drying can 0021
vary greatly in size. The distribution of particle size
then can be further altered by the degree of agglomer-
ation or after grinding. An indication of the range of
particle sizes obtained from different dryer configur-
ations is given in Table 4.
Interstitial Air and Occluded Air
Interstitial air is the amount of air that exists between 0022
particles or agglomerates as well as the air inside
porous agglomerates. The sphericity of the particles,
the particle size distribution, and the degree of ag-
glomeration determine the amount of interstitial air.
To obtain minimum interstitial air, the particles need
to be smooth, have a range of particle sizes, and be in
compact agglomerates.
 4706 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders

tbl0002 Table 2 Ability of various spray dryers to manufacture nonagglomerated and agglomerated skim milk powder with low or high bulk
densities

Type of drying Chamber Postprimary treatment Atomizer type Nonagglomerated Agglomerated

process configuration skimmilk powder skimmilk powder
Low BDa High BDa Low BDa High BDa

Single stage Conventional None Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes No No

Tall form None Nozzle Yes Yes No No
Conventional Cooling bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes No Yes
Tall form Cooling bed Nozzle Yes Ideal No Yes
Two stage Conventional External bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes No Yes
Tall form External bed Nozzle Yes Ideal No Yes
Compact Integrated bed Rotary/nozzle Ideal Ideal No No
Three stage Compact Integrated bed þ external bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes No Yes
Multistage Integrated bed þ external bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes Ideal Ideal
Integrated belt Integrated belt Nozzle Ideal No Yes Yes
a
BD ¼ bulk density; nonagglomerated skim milk powder: low bulk density 0.72 g ml1; high bulk density 0.72 g ml1; agglomerated skim milk powder:
low bulk density 0.30–0.50 g ml1; high bulk density 0.45–0.55 g ml1.
Adapted from Pisecky J (1997) Handbook of Milk Powder Manufacture, p. 79. Copenhagen: Niro A/S.

tbl0003 Table 3 Ability of various spray dryers to manufacture nonagglomerated and agglomerated full-cream milk powder with low or high
bulk densities

Type of drying Chamber Postprimary treatment Atomizer type Nonagglomerated Agglomerated

process configuration full-creammilk powder full-creammilk powder
Low BDa High BDa Low BDa High BDa

Single stage Conventional None Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes No No

Tall form None Nozzle Yes Yes No No
Conventional Cooling Bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes No Yes
Tall form Cooling Bed Nozzle Yes Yes No Yes
Two stage Conventional External bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes Yes No
Tall form External bed Nozzle Yes No Ideal No
Compact Integrated bed Rotary/nozzle No Ideal Ideal No
Three stage Compact Integrated bed þ external bed Rotary/nozzle Yes Yes Yes No
Multistage Integrated bed þ external bed Rotary/nozzle Ideal Yes No Ideal
Integrated belt Integrated belt Nozzle Yes No No Yes
a
BD ¼ bulk density; nonagglomerated full-cream milk powder: low bulk density 0.63 g ml1; high bulk density 0.63 g ml1; agglomerated full-cream
milk powder: low bulk density 0.30–0.50 g ml1; high bulk density 0.45–0.55 g ml1.
Adapted from Pisecky J (1997) Handbook of Milk Powder Manufacture, p. 79. Copenhagen: Niro A/S.

tbl0004 Table 4 Mean particle size obtained from dryers of different Occluded air is the amount of air entrapped within 0023

configuration the powder particles. It is affected by the preheat

Powder characteristics Dryer configuration Particle size treatment of the original milk, with a higher pretreat-
(mm) ment of milk resulting in less occluded air, and the
amount of air incorporated in the concentrate.
Individual particles Concurrent with 20–200
Higher total solids generally result in lower occluded
pneumatic conveying
Tall form – tower 30–250 air. Powders atomized by a nozzle contain less air
Flakes Roller dryer 200–5000 than rotary atomized powders, despite improvements
Loose agglomerate Mixed flow with 100–400 to the modern rotary atomizers. Gentle drying also
integrated fluid bed reduces the level of occluded air, and therefore, the
– open structure Concurrent with 100–200
use of multistage dryers is recommended for the pro-
integrated fluid bed
Compact agglomerate Concurrent spray dryer 300–2000 duction of powders with low occluded air.
with integrated belt
– porous structure Mixed flow with 100–400 Flowability
integrated fluid bed
With the ever-increasing diversity of use of milk 0024

From personal communication (E. Refstrup), Niro A/S, Denmark. powders today, the need for properties such as
 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders 4707

flowability is increasing. Powders are used in applica-
tions ranging from dispensing machines through to
the large-scale recombining operations that utilize
mechanical handling and dosing. For both agglomer-
ated and nonagglomerated powders, a better flow-
ability can be obtained by producing larger powder
particles with smooth and rounded particle surfaces
within a narrow particle size distribution. Flowability
is also influenced by other factors such as total fat in
the powder and the amount of ‘free fat.’
‘Free Fat’
0025 ‘Free fat’ in powder is defined as the fat fraction that
include the mechanical stability of the powder, which
influences the degree of agglomeration breakdown
during transport and storage, hygroscopicity, which
is related to the degree of water attraction a powder
exhibits, and cakiness, an attribute that is a measure
of the extent to which a powder adheres to itself,
especially under compression. (See Agglomeration;
Drying: Spray Drying; Rheological Properties of
Food Materials.)
Chemical Characteristics
The chemical properties of milk powders are deter- 0029

is extractable by organic solvents under specific con-
ditions of solvent type, time, and temperature of ex-
traction. In most instances, ‘free fat’ is considered a
defect. The exception is where ‘free fat’ is required for
a specific application, e.g., chocolate manufacture.
One of the most critical influences of ‘free fat’ is the
moisture content of the powder. If the moisture is too
low (< 2.5%), ‘free fat’ increases and then decreases
as the moisture content is raised from 2.5 to 4–5%
but increases again if the moisture content is > 6–7%.
Instant Properties
0026 Very fine powder particles are difficult to handle and
have poor reconstitution properties. Agglomeration of
powders allows water to permeate the powder particles
more readily, breaking up the agglomerate and
allowing the individual powder particles to dissolve.
Instant milk powder is highly soluble and designed to
reconstitute completely in water at both hot and cold
temperatures. The other properties required in instant
powders are wettability and dispersibility. The wett-
ability of a powder is measured by determining the
time taken for a given amount of powder to pass
through the surface of water. Wettability may be en-
hanced by lecithination. The dispersibility of a powder
is a measure of how completely a powder dissolves
under controlled conditions. Other tests carried out
mined by the composition of the milk and the heat
treatment applied during powder manufacture.
Chemical Composition
Skim and full-cream milk powders are obtained by 0030
dehydration of skim milk and full-cream milk to
4% moisture. Full-cream milk is usually standard-
ized to a fat:solids-nonfat ratio of 1:2.67 to meet the
26% legal minimum fat content for this powder. The
protein content of skim milk powders may be stand-
ardized also. Variations in milk composition owing to
factors such as cow breed, feed, stage of lactation,
and season are reflected in the composition of milk
powders. The American Dairy Products Institute
standards for skim and full-cream milk powder com-
positions are as follows: skim milk powder should
have a maximum fat content of 1.25% and a max-
imum water content of 4.0%, whereas full-cream
milk powder should have a minimum fat content
of 26% and a maximum water content of 4.0%.
Control of the moisture content of milk powders to
a maximum of 4% is essential for good shelf-life
stability. Table 5 shows the range of values observed
in milk powder.
Table 5 Composition of milk powdersa tbl0005

on milk powders related to their instant properties Constituent Skim Full-cream

include slowly dispersible particles, coffee test, white milk powder milk powder
flecks number (minute particles that are seen on the
Moisture (g per 100 g) 3–5 2–4
surface of reconstituted milk), and the sludge test.
Fat (g per 100 g) 0.7–1.3 25–28
Color Crude protein (g per 100 g) 35–37 25–27
Lactose (g per 100 g) 49–52 36–38
0027 The color of a powder is determined by composition, Citric acid (g per 100 g) 1.8–2.1 1.3–1.4
preheat treatment, drying conditions, and particle Ash (g per 100 g) 7.5–8.0 6.0–7.0
Sodium (mg per 100 g) 400–550 370–420
size distribution. Scorched particles can be a visual
Potassium (mg per 100 g) 1550–1750 1150–1350
defect that will often show up as deposits on the Calcium (mg per 100 g) 1200–1300 900–1000
bottom of mixing vats and in strainers. Magnesium (mg per 100 g) 110–140 85–100
Phosphorus (mg per 100 g) 950–1050 700–770
Other Properties Chloride (mg per 100 g) 1100 750–800
0028 Apart from the properties described above, there are a
Adapted from Walstra P and Jenness R (1984) Dairy Chemistry and
others that influence a powder’s acceptability. These Physics, pp. 418–419. New York: John Wiley.
 4708 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders
0031 Another important indicator of milk powder qual-
ity is the titratable acidity of the reconstituted
powder. This is an indicator of the microbiological
quality of the milk. The American Dairy Products
Institute sets a maximum of 0.15% for titratable
acidity of skim milk powder.
Heat-treatment Classification
0032 The characteristics of milk powder can be influenced
by the heat treatment received by the milk powder
during manufacture. The time and temperature of the
preheat treatment affects the level of whey-protein
denaturation. The whey-protein nitrogen index,
which is a measure of the undenatured whey-protein
nitrogen in the powder and was developed by the
American Dairy Products Institute, is commonly
used to classify powders into low-heat, medium-heat
and high-heat milk powders. Typical preheat treat-
ments used for the manufacture of these powders are
listed in Table 6. As the composition of milk, includ-
ing the initial level of whey proteins in milk, can vary
with season, the same heat treatment can result in a
different whey-protein nitrogen index. Other
methods for heat classification of milk powders,
such as the heat number, cystine number, and thiol
number also may be used as a measure of the heat
treatment given to the milk during powder manufac-
ture. (See Heat Treatment: Ultra-high Temperature
(UHT) Treatments.)
Functional Properties of Milk Powders
0033 When milk powders are used as ingredients in food
applications, they contribute to the physical attri-
butes of the food. The ability of milk powders to
impart desirable properties to food is related primar-
ily to functional properties of milk-protein compon-
ents in the powders. These functional properties
include solubility, hydration, heat stability, viscosity,
gelling, foaming, and emulsifying. In milk powders,
tbl0006 Table 6 Heat classification of skim milk powder
Heat class Whey protein nitrogenindexa Preheat treatment
(milligrams of undenatured of milkb
whey protein Nper gram
of powder)
Low heat Not less than 6 72  C for 15 s
Medium heat 1.51–5.99 75  C for 3 min
High heat Not more than 1.5 90  C for 10 min
120  C for 2 min
a
From American Dairy Products Institute (1990) Standards for Grades of Dry
Milks including Methods of Analysis, Bulletin 916.
b
A range of other preheating conditions may be used to achieve a desired
whey protein nitrogen index.
the functional properties of the milk proteins may be
modulated by heat, ions, and other components. Heat
treatment of milk prior to concentration and drying is
the most common method used to alter the functional
properties of milk powders. Milk powders with the
same composition given different preheat treatments
prior to concentration and drying have different func-
tional attributes when used as ingredients.
Solubility
Solubility is a fundamental functional property that is 0034
a prerequisite for most other desired functionalities.
The solubility of milk powders is dependent on pH.
Proteins have a minimum solubility at the isoelectric
pH, and solubility is increased on the acid and alka-
line side of this pH. Caseins, the major proteins in
milk, are least soluble at pH 4.6.
Hydration
Hydration is related to the ability of the milk proteins 0035
to bind or entrap water. Caseins hold about 3.3 g of
water per gram, whereas undernatured whey proteins
hold 0.4 g of water per gram. Heat denaturation of
whey proteins increases the water holding to 2.5 g of
water per gram. Milk powder contains other com-
ponents, such as lactose, that bind water in addition
to the protein. Skim milk powders have a water sorp-
tion of 0.96–1.28 g water per gram, depending on the
conditions used during powder manufacture.
Heat Stability
Heat stability is an important property in certain 0036
applications such as the manufacture of recombined
evaporated milk. Single-strength milks made from
low-, medium- or high-heat milk powders have a
similar heat stability to fresh milk. They are heat-
stable at the pH of milk (pH 6.7), being able to
withstand coagulation for up to *20 min at 140  C.
However, for adequate heat stability of evaporated
milks under sterilization conditions (e.g., 120  C for
12 min), high-heat milk powders are necessary. Heat
stability is affected by the pH of the milk, mineral
content, and other components in the milk (e.g.,
lecithin, urea).
Viscosity
The viscosity of milks reconstituted from milk 0037
powders is dependent on their state of dispersion,
concentration of solids, and temperature. Increasing
the concentration of milk solids increases the viscos-
ity. Decreasing the temperature increases the vis-
cosity, but heating milk to a temperature that results
in denaturation of whey proteins also increases the
viscosity.
 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders 4709

Gelation Table 7 Functional requirements of milk powders in recom- tbl0007

bined dairy products and selected processed foods

0038 Milks reconstituted from milk powders have the abil-
Product Functionalproperties Heat treatment
ity to form gels under similar conditions to those
required inmilk of milk powder
required for the formation of gels from fresh milk, powder
i.e., by rennet action for formation of rennet gels and
by acidification of milk under quiescent conditions. Pasteurized milk Good flavor Low–medium heat
Emulsifying
UHT milk Good flavor Low–medium–high heat
Foaming and Emulsifying
Heat stability
0039 Milk powders can be used in applications where Emulsifying
Cream Good flavor Low–medium heat
foaming and emulsifying properties are required.
Emulsifying
The ability of milk proteins in the milk powders to Evaporated milk Heat stability High heat
stabilize foams and emulsions may be exploited when Viscosity
these properties are required. (See Aerated Foods; Sweetened Viscosity Low–medium heat
Emulsifiers: Uses in Processed Foods; Mixing of condensed
milk
Powders.)
Yogurt Water-binding Low heata
Viscosity
Gelling
Functional Requirements of Milk Powders Cheese Rennetability Low heat
in Major Food Applications Icecream Foaming/whipping Low–medium–high heat
Emulsifying
0040 For milk powders to have the desired performance in Confectionery Water-binding High heat
food applications, the functional characteristics of the Foaming/whipping
powders have to be matched to the application. This Emulsifying
requires an understanding of the required functional Heat stability
Bakery Water-binding High heat
properties of the milk powder ingredients in the target
Foaming/whipping
application. Emulsifying
Gelling
Milk Powders for Recombined Dairy Products
a
If a low-heat milk powder is used, the yogurt milk has to be given a high-
0041 A significant amount of milk powder is used in the heat treatment during yogurt manufacture. Alternatively, a high-heat milk
manufacture of reconstituted and recombined dairy powder may be used, in which case, the yogurt milk requires only a low-
heat treatment to pasteurize the milk during yogurt manufacture.
products. In these applications, the milk powders are
combined with water and milkfat to reestablish the
fat:solids-nonfat:water ratio of milk or other dairy
products. Some of the major applications of milk milk with the desired viscosity. A high-preheat treat-
powders in the recombination industry are for the ment improves the heat stability of a recombined milk
preparation of pasteurized fluid milk, UHT milk, concentrate (typically 26% total solids; 18% solids-
cream, evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk, nonfat: 8% fat) to in-can sterilization conditions used
yogurt and cultured dairy products, recombined in its manufacture. Additionally, high-heat powders
cheese, and icecream. Different functionalities of the are screened using heat-stability tests to ensure
milk powder ingredients are needed in these various that they withstand sterilization without excessive
recombined dairy products. Table 7 lists the major thickening or coagulation.
functional requirements of milk powders for recom-
bined dairy products. Sweetened condensed milk This is a traditional 0044

dairy product containing 74% total solids (20%

0042 Pasteurized milks and UHT milks These products
have a similar composition to fresh milk. For pasteur-
ized milks, low-heat or medium-heat powders are
used to obtain a flavor similar to milk and to minim-
ize heat-induced flavors. In the case of UHT milks,
any type of powder can be used, as single-strength
milks made from low-, medium-, or high-heat
powders are stable to UHT conditions.
0043 Evaporated milks It is essential to use high-heat
powders for this application to obtain evaporated
milk solids nonfat: 8% fat: 46% sucrose). The most
important physical attribute of this product is its
viscosity. Low- and medium-heat powders are used
in this application. Milk powders given a high-heat
treatment (e.g., 85  C for 30 min) cannot be easily
processed, because the high viscosity of concentrates
made from these powders also results in rapid age
thickening during storage of the product. There are
a number of viscosity tests that may be used as indi-
cators of suitability of powders for sweetened con-
densed milk manufacture.
 4710 POWDERED MILK/Characteristics of Milk Powders
0045 Yogurt Milk powders may be used as a partial or
total replacement for fresh milk in this application.
Viscosity development, gelling, and good water-
binding properties are necessary for the production
of high-quality yogurts. These properties are obtained
in yogurt by preheating the yogurt milk at a tempera-
ture that causes significant denaturation of whey
proteins (e.g., 90  C for 10 min). Low-heat milk
powder may be used if a high-heat treatment is
given during yogurt manufacture. If a high-heat
milk powder is used, the yogurt milk requires only a
low-heat pasteurization treatment during yogurt
manufacture.
0046 Cheese Only low-heat milk powders are suitable for
recombined cheese manufacture. This ensures good
rennetability of the reconstituted milk. With a high-
heat treatment of milk, there is association of the
denatured whey proteins with the casein, which
hinders the reaction of the rennet.
0047 Ice cream Milk powders contribute to the flavor
and texture of ice cream. The milk powder aids
in the emulsification of the ice cream mix and has a
role in the development of an aerated matrix. (See
Condensed Milk; Evaporation: Basic Principles;
Uses in the Food Industry; Recombined and Filled
Milks.)
Milk Powders for Selected Food Applications
0048 Milk powders are used as functional ingredients in a
number of processed foods.
0049 Chocolate and confectionery products Milk powders
contribute to the flavor, color, and texture develop-
ment in chocolate and confectionery applications.
The emulsifying properties of the milk proteins influ-
ence the miscibility of the ingredients used in choc-
olate and confectionery, hence influencing flow
properties and texture. In confectionery products
such as toffee, good water-binding properties of
milk proteins contribute to the texture of these prod-
ucts. The Maillard reaction, which is the reaction of
the amino groups of the proteins with reducing sugars
in the formulation, is responsible for color develop-
ment and for the production of caramelized flavors;
the lactose in milk powders participates in the Mail-
lard browning reactions.
0050 Bakery products High-heat milk powders are useful
in bakery applications. In addition to enhancing the
nutritive value of cereal-based baked goods, milk
powders contribute to the texture and flavor of these
products. Their emulsification and foam-stabilization
properties and their ability to participate in the
Maillard browning reaction are important require-
ments in bakery applications.
Other applications The functional properties of 0051
milk powders also make them useful in a number of
other applications, such as processed meat products,
soups, gravies, and dips.
Characteristics of Stored Milk Powders
The characteristics of milk powder are dependent on 0052
the quality and composition of the raw milk and the
manufacturing process used during its manufacture.
However, even if milk powders are manufactured to
meet the desired standards and specifications,
changes in the properties of milk powders may
occur during storage and distribution. The compos-
ition of the powder, the type of packaging material
used, and the conditions of handling and storage
influence the shelf-life of the powder.
Deterioration of milk powders resulting from 0053
Maillard browning, lactose crystallization, and
oxidation of fat may lead to flavor and physical
defects in the powder. It may also affect the function-
ality of the milk powder when it is used in a
food product. Some of the changes that may occur
during storage include the development of a
brown color, a reduction in pH, reduced solubility,
development of off-flavors, and reduced heat stability
of powders.
See also: Biofilms; Condensed Milk; Emulsifiers: Uses
in Processed Foods; Evaporation: Basic Principles; Uses
in the Food Industry; Heat Treatment: Ultra-high
Temperature (UHT) Treatments; Mixing of Powders;
Pasteurization: Principles; Rheological Properties of
Food Materials; Powdered Milk: Milk Powders in the
Marketplace; Quality Assurance and Quality Control;
Recombined and Filled Milks
Further Reading
American Dairy Products Institute (1990) Standards for
Grades of Dry Milks Including Methods of Analysis,
Bulletin 916, rev ed. Chicago, IL: ADPI.
Early R (1998) Milk concentrates and milk powders. In:
Early R (ed.) The Technology of Dairy Products, 2nd
edn, pp. 228–300. London: Blackie Academic & Profes-
sional.
International Commission on Microbiological Specifica-
tions for Foods (1998) Microorganisms in Foods 6,
Microbial Ecology of Food Commodities. London:
Blackie Academic & Professional.
International Dairy Federation (1984) General Code of
Hygienic Practice for the Dairy Industry and Advisory
Microbiological Criteria for Dried Milk, Edible Rennet
 POWER SUPPLIES/Use of Electricity in Food Technology
Casein and Food Grade Whey Powders, Bulletin No.
178. Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1990) Recombination of
Milk and Milk Products, Special Issue No. 9001. Brus-
sels: International Dairy Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1991) IDF Recommenda-
tions for the Hygienic Manufacture of Spray Dried Milk
Powders, Bulletin No. 267. Brussels: International Dairy
Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1999) 3rd International
Symposium on Recombined Milk and Milk Products,
Special Issue No. 9902. Brussels: International Dairy
Federation.
Knipschildt ME and Andersen GG (1994) Drying of milk
and milk products. In: Robinson KR (ed.) Modern Dairy
Technology, 2nd edn., vol. 1, pp. 159–254. London:
Chapman & Hall.
POWER SUPPLIES
Use of Electricity in Food
Technology
D Graham, R and D Enterprises, Walnut Creek, CA,
USA
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
0001 The food industry in the USA consumed 17.4 billion
kcal in 1999. Fifty-eight percent of total food industry
energy costs are from electricity. The industry pur-
chases 64.0 billion kWh of electricity annually at a
cost of $3.36 billion. Purchased energy is 1.3% of the
value of product shipments for the food industry
compared with 1.7% for the total US industry.
0002 Major uses of electricity include freezer and re-
frigeration compressors, conveyors, air handling,
pumping, lighting, process controllers and monitors,
and packaging forming and sealing. Natural gas is the
primary source of thermal energy for ovens, fryers,
dryers, evaporators, and boilers, with relative costs
being the main reason. Closely related uses of electri-
city in agricultural food production include crop
irrigation, pest control, produce disinfection, grain
harvesting and storage, weed reduction, livestock
waste management, and fish farming.
0003 Irradiation, ohmic heating, microwave processing,
ozonation, freeze concentration, nonthermal pasteur-
ization, and the use of heat pumps are examples of
relatively new electrotechnologies that the food indus-
try may apply increasingly in the future. Application of
4711
Masters K (1997) Spray dryers. In: Baker CGJ (ed.) Indus-
trial Drying of Foods, pp. 90–112. London: Blackie
Academic & Professional.
Mettler AE (1994) Present day requirements for effective
pathogen control in spray dried milk powder production.
Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology 47: 95–107.
Pisecky J (1986) Standards, specifications, and test methods
for dry milk products. In: MacCarthy D (ed.) Concen-
tration and Drying of Foods: Proceedings of the Kellogg
Foundation 2nd International Food Research Sympo-
sium (Cork: 1985), pp. 203–220. London: Elsevier
Applied Science.
Pisecky J (1997) Handbook of Milk Powder Manufacture.
Copenhagen: Niro A/S.
Walstra P and Jenness R (1984) Dairy Chemistry and Phys-
ics, pp. 418–419. New York: John Wiley.
these technologies provides opportunities for food
processors to improve operating efficiencies and
helps insure the quality and safety of processed food
products.
Electricity Use by Food Industry Sectors
Food energy costs rose steadily over the past two 0004
decades. In 1996, purchased electricity comprised
over half of the total energy used in food processing.
Electrical consumption by grain milling, meat pro-
cessing, preserved fruits and vegetables accounts for
23, 19, and 13%, respectively, of the total food indus-
try use of electricity. Some food processors operate
cogeneration facilities using surplus heat to produce
electricity, but approximately 92% of total electricity
used by the food industry in the USA is purchased
from utility companies. Approximately 87% of the
electricity is used by motor-driven equipment such
as compressors, pumps, mixers, grinders, fans, etc.
Table 1 compares the cost of electricity with total
energy costs in food processing. Electricity consump-
tion has increased approximately 3% annually from
48.9 billion kWh in 1986 to 69.1 billion kWh in
1999. Table 2 shows the trends in electric energy
cost from 1980 to 1996.
New Electrotechnologies for Food
Processing and Preservation
Electron beam irradiation, X-ray, microwave process- 0005
ing, membrane separation technology, ozonation,
ohmic heating, high pressure pasteurization, infrared