EMJ17104

Analog
Electronics
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS
Chapter Outline

1. THE ATOM 2. MATERIAL USED 3. CURRENT IN 4. N-TYPE & P-TYPE 5. THE PN

IN ELECTRONICS SEMICONDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTORS JUNCTION
The Atom

Nucleus – protons
Atom – smallest (positive charge) & Electrons –
particle neutrons negative charge
(uncharged)
The Atom
The Bohr model of an atom
The Atom
Two simple atoms
The Atom
•The atomic number is the number of protons
in the nucleus.

•The outermost occupied shell is called the

valence shell and electrons that occupy this
shell are called valence electrons.

•Ionization – process of losing a valence

electron

•Free electron – escaped valence electron

Periodic Table
of the
Elements
Materials used in Electronics
•Materials can be classified by their ability to
conduct electricity. This ability is related to
the valence electrons.

•3 types – insulators, conductors,

semiconductors.
Materials used in Electronics
(Insulator)
•An insulator is a material that does not
conduct electrical current under normal
conditions.

•Valence electrons are tightly bound to the

atoms; Therefore, there are very few free
electrons in an insulator.

•Examples of insulators – rubber, glass, mica,

plastics.
Materials used in Electronics
(Conductor)
•A conductor is a material that easily
conducts electrical current.

•The best conductors are single-elements

materials (copper, silver, gold, aluminum),
which are characterized by atoms with only
one valence electron very loosely bound to
the atom.
Materials used in Electronics
(Semiconductor)
•A semiconductor is a material that is
between conductors and insulators in its
ability to conduct electrical current.
•A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state
is neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator.
•The most common single-element
semiconductors are silicon, germanium and
carbon (the single-element semiconductors
are characterized by atoms with four valence
electron).
 Materials used in Electronics
(Semiconductor)
• When an electron acquires enough additional
energy, it can leave the valence shell, become free
electron, and exist in what is known as the
conduction band.
• The different in energy between the valence band
and the conduction band is called an energy gap
(band gap).
• This is the amount of energy that a valence electron
must have in order to jump from the valence band to
the conduction band.
• Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to
move throughout the material and is not tied to any
given atom.
Materials used
in Electronics
Materials used
in Electronics
 Materials used in Electronics
• Atom with 4 valence electron is not stable and it try to
complete it from 4 to 8 by sharing valence electron with
other atoms.

• The sharing valence electron is called covalent bond.

• This will make the atom stable, and the bond is strong.

• At absolute zero temperature all electron is in valence

band, and it will act as insulator.

• At room temperature, many electron have sufficient

energy to move to conduction band and it will act as
conductor.

• Silicon absorbs more heat than germanium before it

acts as conductor, so it’s more popular.
Materials used in Electronics
•The figure shows how each silicon atom
positions itself with four adjacent silicon
atoms to form a silicon crystal.
•This effectively creates eight shared valence
electrons for each atom and produces a
state of chemical stability.
•The centre silicon atom shares an electrons
with each of four surrounding silicon atoms,
creating a covalent bond with each. The
surrounding atom are in turn bonded to
other atoms and so on.
Current in Semiconductors
•When an intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal
covalent bond interrupted by heat (thermal)
energy, valence electrons can jump the gap
from valence band to conduction band,
becoming free electrons (conduction
electrons).

•A vacancy is left in the valence band and it

is called hole.
Current in Semiconductors
 Current in Semiconductors
•When a voltage is applied across a piece of
intrinsic silicon, free electrons are generated in
the conduction band (easily attracted toward
the positive end).
•The movement of these free electrons is one
type of current in a semiconductive materials,
called electron current.
•Another type of current occurs in the valence
band, where the holes created by the free
electrons exist.
•Electrons remaining in the valence band are
still attached to their atoms and are not free to
move randomly as the free electrons.
 Current in Semiconductors
•However, a valence electron can move into a
nearby hole with little change in its energy
electrons, thus leaving another hole where it
came from.
•Effectively the hole has moved from one place
to another in the crystal structure.
•This is called hole current even though the
current in the valence band is produced by
valence electrons.
•When a valence electron moves left to right to
fill a hole while leaving another hole behind,
the hole has effectively move from right to left.
Current in
Semiconductors
N-Type and P-Type
Semiconductors
•Doping is a process which impurity atoms
are introduced to intrinsic semiconductor in
order to alter the balance between holes
and electron.

•There are two categories of impurities:

n-type and p-type
 N-Type Semiconductors
• To increase the number of conduction-band
electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent atom
(atoms with 5 valence electrons such as arsenic (As),
antimony (Sb)) are added.
• The figure shows a pentavalent impurity atom in a
silicon crystal structure. An antimony (Sb) impurity
atom is shown in the centre. The extra electron from
the Sb atom becomes a free electron.
• Each pentavalent atom (antimony) forms covalent
bond with four adjacent silicon atoms.
• Four of the antimony atom’s valence electron are
used to for the covalent bonds with silicon atoms,
leaving one extra electron (this is conduction
electron because not involved in bonding).
N-Type Semiconductors
•The pentavalent atom also called as donor
atom.
•The number of conduction electrons can be
controlled by the number of pentavalent
impurity atoms added to the silicon.
•The electrons are called the majority carriers in
n-type materials.
•There are also a few holes created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated
and holes in n-type material are called minority
carriers.
 P-Type Semiconductors
• To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon,
trivalent atom (atoms with 3 valence electrons such
as boron (B), indium (In)) are added.

• The figure shows trivalent impurity atom in a silicon

crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity atom is shown
in the centre.

• Each trivalent atom (boron) forms covalent bond with

four adjacent silicon atoms.

• 3 of the boron atom’s valence electron are used in

the covalent bonds and since 4 electrons are
required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is
added.
P-Type Semiconductors
•The trivalent atom also called as acceptor
atom (trivalent atom can take an electron).
•The number of holes can be controlled by the
number of trivalent impurity atoms added to
the silicon.
•The holes are called the majority carriers in
p-type materials.
•There are also a few conduction-band
electrons created when electron-hole pairs are
thermally generated and electrons in p-type
material are called minority carriers.
The PN Junction
•When a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so
that half is n-type and half is p-type, a
boundary between 2 regions called the pn
junction is formed (a basic diode is created).
•A diode is a device that conducts current in
only one direction.
•The basic diode structure at the instant of
junction formation showing only the majority
and minority carriers.
•The free electrons in n-region are randomly
drifting in all directions.
The PN Junction
•When the pn junction is formed, the n-region
loses free electrons as they diffuse across the
junction.
•This creates a layer of positive charges
(pentavalent ions) near junction.
•As the electrons move across the junction,
p-region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine.
•This creates a layer of negative charges
(trivalent ions) near junction.
 The PN Junction
•These two layers of positive and negative charges
form depletion region.

•The depletion region has expanded to a point

where equilibrium is established and there is no
further diffusion of electrons across the junction.

•The term depletion refers that the region near pn

junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons
and holes) due to diffusion across the junction.

•In the depletion region, there are many positive

and negative charges on opposite side of the pn
junction.
 The PN Junction
•This force form an electric field (illustrated by
arrow).
•The potential difference of electric field across
the depletion region is the amount of voltage
that is required to move the electrons through
the electric field.
•This potential difference is called the barrier
potential, VB.
•The typical VB for silicon is approximately 0.7V
and 0.3V for germanium.
The PN Junction
•The energy diagram for the n-region shows a
lower potential than for the p-region.

•The n-region tends to have filled valence

shells; conduction electrons are shielded by
these electrons, so they are further away
from the nucleus and have less energy.
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The End