Electronics and Logic Circuits

ECE 231
Academic Year (2021-2022)

El-Shorouk Academy
The Higher Institute of Engineering
Communications and Computers Engineering Department
 Part I: Electronics

• Instructor: Prof. Dr. Salah El-Agooz

Dr. Sameh Fathy
• E-mail: s.elagooz@sha.edu.eg & s.fathy@sha.edu.eg
• Lecture Time: Monday, (12:45 – 2:10 PM),
Wednesday, (12:45 – 2:10 PM)

Useful Part II: Logic Circuits

• Instructor: Prof. Dr. Salah El-Agooz

Information Dr. Emad Abd-Elaty
• E-mail: s.elagooz@sha.edu.eg & e.abdelaty@sha.edu.eg
• Lecture Time: Monday, (2:20 – 3:20 PM),
Wednesday, (2:20 – 3:20 PM)

Teaching Assistants (TAs):

• Assistant Lecturer: Nancy Wadie

• Assistant Lecturer: Eman Samir
• Assistant Lecturer: Khalil ElKhamisy
 Tentative Assessment System:
• Attendance and Reports
• Attendance (4)
Useful • Reports (6)
• Quizzes
Information
• Quiz (1): (10)
• Quiz (2): (10)
• Mid-Term Exam (20)
• Final Exam (75)
Reports and hand-ins shall be handed-in before deadline;
late assignments may be accepted (with strong reason) with
a late penalty of 10% per delay day.
Useful Information

References:
1. Course notes: Lecture Notes after each Lecture.
2. Required books:
Electronic Devices – 9th Edition Thomas L. Floyd
3. Recommended books:
4. Periodicals, Web sites, … etc.:
EKB (https://www.ekb.eg),
IEEE (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore),
Elsevier (https://www.elsevier.com),
Springer (https://www.springer.com),… etc.
 Toward the end of the course part I
students will be familiar with;
– Semiconductor Basics.
– Diode Applications.
Course – Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs).
Objective – BJT Amplifiers.
– Field-Effect Transistors (FETs).
– FET Amplifiers.
– MOSFETs and CMOS Transistors.
 Toward the end of the lecture 1
students will be familiar with;
Lecture 1 – The Atom.
Semiconductor – Materials Used in Electronics.
Basics
– Current in Semiconductors.
– N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors.
 The Atom
• All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons
except normal hydrogen, which does not have a
neutron.
• Niels Bohr: proposed “Bohr Model” in which the
electrons in an atom circle the nucleus “which
consists of protons and neutrons” in different obits,
similar to the way planets orbit the sun in our solar
system.

(a) Hydrogen atom (b) Helium atom

Two simple atoms, hydrogen and helium

 The Atom Cont.
The atomic number: is the number of protons in the nucleus.

The outermost occupied shell is called the

valence shell and electrons that occupy this
shell are called valence electrons.

A neutral Silicon( Si ) atom is shown. The

atomic number is 14, There are 4 electrons
in the valence shell.
 The Atom Cont.
Energy Levels:
❑ Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in more
distant orbits.
❑ Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of electron
energies exist within atomic structures.
❑ In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels known as
shells.
❑ A given atom has a fixed number of shells. Each shell has a
fixed maximum number of electrons. The shells (energy levels)
are designated 1, 2, 3, and so on, with 1 being closest to the
nucleus.
❑ The Maximum Number of Electrons in Each Shell: N e = 2n 2
 The Atom Cont.
Ionization:
❑ If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy,
called ionization energy, it can actually escape from the outer
shell and the atom’s influence.
❑ The departure of a valence electron leaves a previously neutral
atom with an excess of positive charge (more protons than
electrons).
❑ The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization,
and the resulting positively charged atom is called a positive
ion. The escaped valence electron is called a free electron.
❑ The reverse process can occur in certain atoms when a free
electron collides with the atom and is captured, releasing
energy. The atom that has acquired the extra electron is called
a negative ion.
 Materials Used In Electronics
Insulators:
❑ An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical
current under normal conditions.
❑ Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-
element materials and have very high resistivities.
❑ Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore,
there are very few free electrons in an insulator.
❑ Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and
quartz.
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Conductors:
❑ A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical
current.
❑ Most metals are good conductors.
❑ The best conductors are single-element materials, such as
copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which
are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very
loosely bound to the atom.
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Semiconductors:
❑ A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and
insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.
❑ A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator.
❑ Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As),
boron (B), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge).
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Energy Gap:
❑ The valence shell of an atom represents a band of energy
levels and that the valence electrons are confined to that band.
❑ When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can
leave the valence shell, become a free electron, and exist in
what is known as the conduction band.
❑ The difference in energy between the valence band and the
conduction band is called an energy gap or band gap.
❑ This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have
in order to jump from the valence band to the conduction
band. Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to
move throughout the material and is not tied to any given
atom.
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Energy Gap:

Energy diagrams for the three types of materials.

Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom:
❑ Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a conductor. Bohr
diagrams of the silicon atom and the copper atom are shown in
the Figure.

❑ The core of the silicon atom has a net charge of +4 (14 protons -
10 electrons). The core of the copper atom has a net charge of
+1 (29 protons - 28 electrons).
❑ Note: the core includes everything except the valence electrons.
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Silicon and Germanium:

Diagrams of the silicon and germanium atoms.

Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Silicon and Germanium:
❑ Both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four
valence electrons.
❑ The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell
while those in silicon are in the third shell, closer to the nucleus.
❑ The germanium valence electrons are at higher energy levels
than those in silicon and, therefore, require a smaller amount of
additional energy to escape from the atom.
❑ Germanium more unstable at high temperatures and results in
excessive reverse current. This is why silicon is a more widely
used semiconductive material.
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Covalent Bonds:
❑ Illustration of covalent bonds in silicon.

The center silicon atom shares an

Bonding diagram. The red
electron with each of the four
negative signs represent the
surrounding silicon atoms, creating a
shared valence electrons.
covalent bond with each.
Materials Used In Electronics Cont.
Covalent Bonds:
❑ Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal.
 Current In Semiconductors
❑ The energy band diagram for an unexcited (no external energy
such as heat) atom in a pure silicon crystal. This condition
occurs only at a temperature of absolute 0 Kelvin.
 Current In Semiconductors Cont.
Conduction Electrons and Holes:
❑ Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Electrons in
the conduction band are free electrons.
 Current In Semiconductors Cont.
Conduction Electrons and Holes:
❑ An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has
sufficient heat (thermal) energy for some valence electrons to
jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction band,
becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also called
conduction electrons.
❑ When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy
(hole) is left in the valence band within the crystal.
❑ For every electron raised to the conduction band by external
energy, there is one hole left in the valence band, creating what
is called an electron-hole pair.
❑ Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
 Current In Semiconductors Cont.
Electron and Hole Current:
❑ When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon.

1. Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the movement

of thermally generated free electrons.
 Current In Semiconductors Cont.
Electron and Hole Current:

2. Although current in the valence band is produced by valence

electrons, it is called hole current to distinguish it from electron
current in the conduction band.
N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
❑ Doping: Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors,
their conductivity can be increased by the controlled addition of
impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductive material.
❑ This process increases the number of current carriers (electrons
or holes).
❑ The two categories of impurities are:
▪ n-type
▪ p-type
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
N-Type Semiconductors:
❑ To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in
intrinsic silicon, pentavalent impurity atoms (doner atoms) are
added. These are atoms with five valence electrons such as
arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb).
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
N-Type Semiconductors:

𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷
Example:
Consider an n-type silicon in which the doping
𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 concentration is 1017 /𝑐𝑚3 .
Find the free electron and hole concentrations
𝑛𝑖2
𝑝≈ given that 𝑛𝑖 =1.5× 1010 /𝑐𝑚3
𝑁𝐷
Solution :
𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷 = 1017 /𝑐𝑚3
Where: 𝑛: free electrons concentration.
𝑛𝑖2 (1.5× 1010 )2
𝑝: free holes concentration. 𝑝≈ = = 2250/𝑐𝑚3
𝑁𝐷 1017
ND: donors concentration.
𝑛𝑖 : intrinsic concentration (denotes the concentration of free electrons
or holes in intrinsic silicon at a given temperature)
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
N-Type Semiconductors:
❑ Majority and Minority Carriers: Since most of the current
carriers are electrons, silicon (or germanium) doped with
pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor (the n stands for
the negative charge on an electron). The electrons are called
the majority carriers in n-type material.
❑ Although the majority of current carriers in n-type material are
electrons, there are also a few holes that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These holes are
not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity
atoms. Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
P-Type Semiconductors:
❑ To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent
impurity atoms (acceptor atom) are added. These are atoms
with three valence electrons such as boron (B), indium (In), and
gallium (Ga).
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
P-Type Semiconductors: Example:
Consider p-type silicon with free electrons
concentration 3000 /𝑐𝑚3 and 𝑛𝑖 =4.18× 1011 /𝑐𝑚3 .
𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝐴 Calculate acceptor concentration.
Solution:
𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 𝑛≈
𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝑖2
𝑛≈ 𝑁𝐴 =
𝑛𝑖2
=
(4.18× 1011 )2
𝑁𝐴 𝑛 3000

𝑁𝐴 = 5.82× 1019 /𝑐𝑚3

Where: 𝑛: free electron concentration.
𝑝: free holes concentration.
𝑁𝐴 : Acceptor concentration.
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
P-Type Semiconductors:
❑ Majority and Minority Carriers: Since most of the current
carriers are holes, silicon (or germanium) doped with trivalent
atoms is called a p-type semiconductor. The holes are the
majority carriers in p-type material.
❑ Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material are
holes, there are also a few conduction-band electrons that are
created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated.
These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the
addition of the trivalent impurity atoms. Conduction-band
electrons in p-type material are the minority carriers.
N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Cont.
Semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrinsic
N-type P-type

𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖
𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝐴
𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝐷
𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
𝑝≈ 𝑛≈
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴
 THANK YOU
ANY QUESTIONS ?!?!