Electronic Engineering Materials :

22217

Chapters:
1. Conductivity of Materials
2. Dielectric Materials
3. Magnetic Properties of
Materials
4. Semi Conductor Materials
5. Micro electronic
components and special
Materials
Electronic Engineering Materials :
22217
Course Outcomes:
• Choose relevant metal on basis of conductivity
property.
• Interpret the properties of dielectric materials.
• Select relevant magnetic materials for the specified
electronics application.
• Select relevant semiconductor device fabrication
materials.
• Select material for the relevant applications.
 Chapter 4

Semiconductor
Materials
Weightage: 12 Marks
 Semiconductor Materials

The Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-
conductors or insulators (such as ceramics). Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure
elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the theories, properties and mathematical approach
governing semiconductors.

Examples of Semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used in
electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
 Energy Band in semiconductor materials

Energy Band in semiconductor materials

• The material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator is called as
semiconductor. Silicon, germanium and graphite are some examples of semiconductors.
• In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band and conduction band is very small. It has a
forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV).
• At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and conduction band is empty
because the electrons in the valence band does not have enough energy to move in to conduction band.
Therefore, semiconductor behaves as an insulator at low temperature.
• However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence band gains enough energy in the form of
heat and moves in to conduction band.
• When the temperature goes on increasing, the number of valence band electrons moving in to conduction band
is also increases.
• This shows that electrical conductivity of the semiconductor increases with
increase in temperature. i.e. a semiconductor has negative temperature co-
efficient of resistance.
• The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
 Holes and Electrons

• The Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for
the flow of current in semiconductors.

• Holes (absence of electrons) are the positively charged electric charge

carrier whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles.

• Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.

• In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the

holes. It is mainly because of their different band structures and scattering
mechanisms.

• Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence
band.

• The elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells results
in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes experience
stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons, holes have lower
mobility.
Types of Semiconductor
 Types of Semiconductor

Intrinsic Type of Semiconductor:

• An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very

pure chemically. It is made up of only a single type of element.

• The number of holes and electrons is therefore determined by the

properties of the material itself instead of the impurities.

• In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of excited electrons is equal

to the number of holes; n = p.

• They are also termed as undoped semiconductors or i-type

semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are examples of i-type
semiconductors.
 Types of Semiconductor

Extrinsic Type of Semiconductor:

• Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific

impurities. The impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and
makes it more suitable for electronic devices such as diodes and transistors.
• While adding impurities, a small amount of suitable impurity is added to pure
material, increasing its conductivity by many times. Extrinsic semiconductors are
also called impurity semiconductors or doped semiconductors.
• The process of adding impurities deliberately is termed as doping and the atoms
that are used as an impurity are termed as dopants. The impurity modifies the
electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for electronic
devices such as diodes and transistors.
• The dopant added to the material is chosen such that the original lattice of the pure
semiconductor is not distorted. Also, the dopants occupy only a few of the sites in
the crystal of the original semiconductor and it is necessary that the size of the
dopant is nearly equal to the size of the semiconductor atoms.
• An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into:
N-type Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor
 Types of Semiconductor

Some Commonly Used Dopants

While doping tetravalent atoms such as Si or Ge, two types of dopants are used, and they are:
Pentavalent atoms: Atoms with valency 5; such as Arsenic (As), Phosphorous (Pi), Antimony (Sb), etc.
Trivalent atoms: Atoms with valency 3; such as Indium (In), Aluminium (Al), Boron (B), etc.

Pentavalent impurities are also called as donner impurities

Trivalent impurities are also called as acceptor impurities
 Types of Semiconductor
N type Extrinsic Type of Semiconductor:

• In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an

impurity atom such as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline
structure making it extrinsic (impurities are added). These atoms have five outer
electrons in their outermost orbital to share with neighbouring atoms and are
commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities.
We already know that phosphorus consists of 5 electrons at its valence shell. When it is doped with pure silicon
• This allows
having 4 four out ofat
electrons thethe
fivevalence
orbital electrons
shell thentoitbond
formswith its neighbouring
4 covalent bonds. This leads to the presence of an
silicon atoms
unbounded leaving
electron one
that is “free
held electron” to become
free to move into themobile when anband.
conduction electrical
This electron is known as a free electron
voltage is applied (electron andflow). As each impurity
its movement raisesatom “donates” oneof the material.
the conductivity
electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as “donors”.
We already know that phosphorus consists
of 5 electrons at its valence shell. When it is
• Antimony (symbol Sb) as well as Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used doped with pure silicon having 4 electrons at
as a pentavalent additive to silicon. the valence shell then it forms 4 covalent
bonds. This leads to the presence of an
unbounded electron that is held free to move
• The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of current-carrying into the conduction band. This electron is
electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as an N- known as a free electron and its movement
type material with the electrons called “Majority Carriers” while the resulting raises the conductivity of the material.

holes are called “Minority Carriers”.

 Types of Semiconductor
P type Extrinsic Type of Semiconductor:

• When a pure or intrinsic semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurity

like boron, gallium, aluminium etc. that these are known as the p-type
extrinsic semiconductor. These are called so because doping these elements will
lead to the presence of an extra hole in the valence shell of the atom.

We already
• As there isknow
now athat
holephosphorus
in the silicon consists
crystal, aofneighbouring
5 electrons electron
at its valence shell. When it is doped with pure silicon
is attracted
tohaving
it and 4
willelectrons
try to move
at theinto valence
the hole shell
to fill then
it. However,
it formsthe4 electron
covalentfilling the This leads to the presence of an
bonds.
hole leaves
unbounded anotherthat
electron holeis behind it asto
held free it moves.
move into This the
in turn attracts another
conduction band. This electron is known as a free electron
electron which in turn creates andanother hole behind
its movement it, and
raises the so forth givingofthethe material.
conductivity As we know that an aluminium atom contains
appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the crystal 3 electrons at its valence shell. Also, silicon
structure (conventional current flow). contains total of 4 electrons at its valence
shell. So, 3 valence electrons of aluminium
• As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally atom make covalent bonds with 3 electrons
of silicon. However, in this case, a vacancy of
known as “Acceptors” as they are continually “accepting” extra or free an electron (or a hole) appears. The
electrons. movement of this hole is mainly responsible
for the conduction in the p-type
semiconductor to take place. Hence, in this
• In a P-type material with the positive holes being called “Majority Carriers” case, charge carriers are holes rather than
while the free electrons are called “Minority Carriers”. electrons.
 Types of Semiconductor

Parameter P-Type N-Type

Impurity doped Trivalent impurity Pentavalent impurity
Also known as Acceptor atom because of presence of Donor atom due to the existence of additional
additional hole. electron.

Doped group Group III elements. For eg - boron, gallium, Group V elements. for eg - arsenic, antimony,
indium, aluminium etc. bismuth, phosphorus etc.
We already know that phosphorus consists of 5 electrons at its valence shell. When it is doped with pure silicon
having 4 electrons at the
Majority carriers Holes
valence shell then it forms 4 covalentElectrons
bonds. This leads to the presence of an
unbounded electron that is held free to move into the conduction band. This electron is known as a free electron
Minority carriers Electrons Holes
and its movement raises the conductivity of the material.
Conductivity Due to presence of holes. Due to presence of electrons.

Presence of fermi level Fermi level appears closer to the valence than Fermi level is present nearer to the conduction
the conduction band. band than the valence band.

Concentration of Low Very high as compared to p type

electrons semiconductor

Concentration of holes High Comparatively less than p type semiconductor.

 Diffusion in Semiconductor

Process of diffusion in Semiconductors:

• When some voltage is applied to a semiconductor bar, the holes move towards the
negative terminal and electron move towards positive terminal, this movement of
holes and electron constitute electric current which is known as drift current.
We already know that phosphorus consists of 5 electrons at its valence shell. When it is doped with pure silicon
having
• Even 4 electrons
in absence at the
of applied valence
voltage flow ofshell then
electric it forms
current 4 covalent
in semiconductor is bonds. This leads to the presence of an
unbounded electronconcentration
possible provided that is heldgradient
free toexist.
move into the conduction band. This electron is known as a free electron
and its movement raises the conductivity of the material.
• A concentration gradient exists when either number of electron or holes is greater in
one region of a semiconductor as compared to other region.
• When concentration gradient exist, the carriers (either electron/holes) move from the
region of higher concentration to lower concentration this process is called as
diffusion and the electric current produced due to diffusion is known as diffusion
current.
 Hall effect in Semiconductor
• When a semiconductor material carrying current is placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field, an emf is induced across the two opposite edges of that semiconductor.
• Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type
semiconductor material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), passing a continuous current
through itself.
• When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a
force on the semiconductor material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and
holes, toknow
We already eitherthat
side of the semiconductor
phosphorus slab.
consists of 5 electrons at its valence shell. When it is doped with pure silicon
• This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience
having 4 electrons at the valence shell then it forms 4 covalent bonds. This leads to the presence of an
passing through the semiconductor material.
unbounded electron
• As these thatand
electrons is held
holes free
move to move
side into
wards a the conduction
potential band.
difference This electron is known as a free electron
is produced
between the two sides ofand its movement
the semiconductor raises the conductivity of the material.
material.

Application:
• Determine the Type of Semiconductor: By knowing the direction of the Hall Voltage, one can determine that the given
sample is whether n-type semiconductor or p-type semiconductor. This is because Hall coefficient is negative for n-type
semiconductor while the same is positive in the case of p-type semiconductor.
• Calculate the Carrier Concentration
• Automotive and Automotive Safety: Sensing seat and safety belt position for air-bag control, Monitoring and controlling
wheel speeds in anti-lock braking systems (ABS), Regulating voltage in electrical systems.
• Monitoring flow rate and valve position for manufacturing, water supply and treatment, and oil and gas process
operations.
• Building Automation: Automatic hand dryers, Building and door security systems, Elevators
 Materials used in Semiconductor fabrication

Substrate Metals Capacitance Junction coating Device potting Packaging

Material
Glass or Ceramic Gold SiO, ZnS, SiO2. Resins of highly Silicon fluids dielectric Metal cans and
plastic Silver purified silicon gel sealed glass
aluminum containers

1)Because of the 1)It is process of filling a 1)For safety

We already know that1)Actphosphorus
1)Glass or Ceramic - as
consists of
1)High dielectric
5 electrons
satisfactory at its valence
complete electronic
shell. When it is doped with pure silicon
2) satisfy the
deposition of metals for capacitor plate, constant.
having 4 electrons at the valence
resistors and capacitors. Resister legs. 2) Ability to
shell performance
then it and
long life.
forms
device4with
covalent
Gelatinous bonds.
extreme This leads to the presence of an
compound requirements of
unbounded
2) Plasticelectron
substrate – that is held withstand
2)As heat free thermal
to move into the for conduction
resistance of shock band.spaceThis
and electron is known as a free electron
deposition of thin film
and stress.
dissipater as a
its movement raises the andconductivity
vibrations, exclusion of
of moisture and
the material.
military users.
solar cells mechanical
support. corrosive
agents
 Hysteresis Loop

From the hysteresis loop, we can conclude different magnetic properties of a material such as:

https://byjus.com/physics/extrinsic-semiconductors/

https://byjus.com/jee/semiconductors/

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_1.html