1.

Periodic motion

If a particle moves such that it repeats its path regularly after equal intervals of time , it's motion is said to be periodic. The interval of time required to complete one cycle of motion is called time period of motion. If a body in periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path then the motion is said to be viberatory or oscillatory. Examples of such motion are to and fro motion of pendulum , viberations of a tuning fork , mass attached to a spring and many more. Every oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion is not oscillatory for example motion of earth around the sun is periodic but not oscillatory. Simple armonic !otion "or S !# is the simplest form of oscillatory motion.

S ! arises $hen force on oscillating body is directly proportional to the displacement from it's equilibrium position and at any point of motion , this force is directed to$ards the equilibrium position.

2. Simple Harmonic Motion (or SHM)

S ! is a particular type of motion very common in nature. In S ! force acting on the particle is al$ays directed to$ards a fixed point kno$n as equilibrium position and the magnitude of force is directly proportional to the displacement of particle from the equilibrium position and is given by %& 'kx $here k is the force constant and negative sign sho$s that fforce opposes increase in x. This force os kno$n as restoring force $hich takes the particle back to$ards the equilibrium position , and opposes increase in displacement. S.I. unit of force constant k is ()m and magnitude of k depends on elastic properties of system under consideration. %or understanding the nature of S ! consider a block of mass m $hose one end is attached to a spring and another end is held stationary and this block is placed on a smooth hori*ontal surface sho$n belo$ in the fig.

!otion of the body can be described $ith coordinate x taking x&+ i.e. origin as the equilibrium position$here the spring is neither stretched or compressed. ,e no$ take the block from it's equilibrium position to a point - by stretching the spring by a distance .-&/ and $ill then release it. /fter $e release the block at point -, the restoring force acts on the block to$ards equilibrium position . and the block is then accelerated from point to$ards point . as sho$n belo$ in the fig.

(o$ at equilibrium position this restoring force $ould become *ero but the velocity of block increases as it reaches from point - to .. ,hen the block reaches point . it's velocity $ould be maximum and it then starts to move to$ards left of equilibrium position .. (o$ this time $hile going to the left of equilibrium position spring is compressed and the block moves to the point 0 $here it's velocity becomes *ero.

The compressed spring no$ pushes the block to$ards the right of equilibrium position $here it's velocity increases upto point . and decreases to *ero $hen it reaches point -. This $ay the block oscillates to and fro on the frictionless surface bet$een points - and 0. If the distance travelled on both sides of equilibrium position are equal i.e. , .-&.0 then the maximum displacement on either sides of equilibrium are called the /mplitude of oscillations.

3. Equation of SHM

1onsider any particle executing S ! $ith origin as it's equilibrium position under the influence of restoring force %&

kx , $here k is the force constant and x is the displacement of particle from the equilibrium position. (o$ since %& 'kx is the restoring force and from (e$ton's la$ of motion force is give as %&ma , $here m is the mass of the particle moving $ith acceleration a. Thus acceleration of the particle is a&%)m &'kx)m but $e kno$ that acceleration a&dv)dt&d 2x)dt2 d2x)dt2&'kx)m "3# This equation 3 is the equation of motion of S !. If $e choose a constant 4&5"k)m# then equation 3 $ould become d2x)dt2&'42x "2# This equation is a differential equation $hich says that displacement x must be a funcyion of time such that $hen it's second derivative is calculated the result must be negative constant multiplied by the original function. Sine and cosine functions are the functions satisfying above requirement and are listed as follo$s x&/ sin6t "7a# x&/ cos6t "7b# x&/ cos"6t84# "7c# each one of equation 7a, 7b and 7c can be submitted on the left hand side of equation 2 and can then be solved for varification. 1onvinently $e choose equation 7c i.e., cosine form for representing displacement of particle at any time t from equilibrium position. Thus, x&/ cos"6t84# "9# and / , 4 and 4 are all constants. %ig belo$ sho$s the displacement vs. time graph for phase 4&+.

4. Characterstics of SHM
ere in this section $e $ill learn about physical meaning of quantities like /, T, 6 and 4.

(a) mplitude 0uantity / is kno$n as amplitude of motion. it is a positive quantity and it's value depends on ho$ oscillations $ere started. /mplitude is the magnitude of maximum value of displacement on either side from the equilibrium position.

Since maximum and minimum values of any sine and cosine function are 83 and '3 , the maximum and minimum values of x in equation 9 are 8/ and '/ respectively. %inally / is called the amplitude of S !.

(!) "ime period Time interval during $hich the oscillation repeats itself is kno$n as time period of oscillations and is denoted by T. Since a particle in S ! repeats it's motion in a regular interval T kno$n as time period of oscillation so displacement x of particle should have same value at time t and t8T. Thus, cos"6t84#&cos"6"t8T#84# cosine function cos"6t84# $ill repeat it's value if angle "6t84# is increased by 2: or any of it's multiple. /s T is the pime period "6"t8T#84#&"6t84#82: or, T&2:); & 2:5"m)k# "<#

Equation < gives the time period of oscillations. (o$ the frequency of S ! is defined as the numberof complete oscillations per unit time i.e., frequency is reciprocal of time period. f&3)T & 3)2:"5"k)m## "=# Thus, 6&2;)T & 2;f "># This quantity 6 is called the angular frequency of S !. S.I. unit of T is s "seconds# f is * "hert*# 6 is rad s'3 "radian per second#

(c) Phase 0uantity "6t84# in equation "9# is kno$n as phase of the motion and the constant 4 is kno$n as initial phase i.e., phase at time t&+, or phase constant. ?alue of phase constant depends on displacement and velocity of particle at time t&+.

The kno$ledge of phase constant enables us to kno$ ho$ far the particle is from equilibrium at time t&+. %or example, If 4&+ then from equation 9 x&/ cos6t that is displacement of oscillating particleis maximum , equal to / at t&+ $hen

the motion $as started. /gain if 4&;)2 then from equation 9 x&/ cos"6t8;)2# &/sin6t $hich means that displacement is *ero at t&+.

?ariation of displacement of particle executing S ! is sho$n belo$ in the fig.

#.$elocit% of SHM

,e kno$ that velocity of a particle is given by v&dx)dt

In S ! displacement of particle is given by x&/ cos"6t84# no$ differentiating it $ith respect to t v&dx)dt& /6"'sin"6t84## "@# ere in equation @ quantity /6 is kno$n as velocity amplitude and velocity of oscillating particle varies bet$een the limits A6. %rom trignometry $e kno$ that cos2B 8 sin2B&3 /2 sin2"6t84#& /2' /2cos2"6t84# .r sin"6t84#&C3'x2)/2D "E# putting this in equation @ $e get,

%rom this equation 3+ $e notice that $hen the displacement is maximum i.e. A/ the velocity v&+, because no$ the oscillator has to return to change itFs direction. %igure belo$ sho$s the variation of velocity $ith time in S ! $ith initial phase 4&+.

&.

cceleration of SHM
/gain $e kno$ that acceleration of a particle is given by a&dv)dt $here v is the velocity of particle executing motion. In S ! velocity of particle is give by, v& '6sin"6t84# differentiating this $e get,

or, a&'62/cos"6t84# "33#

Equation 33 gives acceleration of particle executing simple harmonic motion and quantity 62 is called acceleration amplitude and the acceleration of oscillating particle varies bet$en the limits A6 2/. -utting equation 9 in 33 $e get a&'62x "32# $hich sho$s that acceleration is proportional to the displacement but in opposite direction. Thus from above equation $e can see that $hen x is maximum "8/ or '/#, the acceleration is also maximum"'62/ or 862/#but is directed in direction opposite to that of displacement. %igure belo$ sho$s the variation of acceleration of particle in S ! $ith time having initial phase 4&+.

'. "otal ener(% in SHM

,hen a system at rest is displaced from its equilibrium position by doing $ork on it, it gains potential energy and $hen it is released, it begins to move $ith a velovity and acquires kinetic energy. If m is the mass of system executing S ! then kinetic energy of system at any instant of time is G&"3)2#mv2 "37# putting equation @ in 37 $e get,

%rom equation "39# $e see that Ginetic Energy of system varies periodically i.e., it is maximum "& "3)2#m62/2# at the maximum value of velocity " A6/# and at this time displacement is *ero. ,hen displacement is maximum "A/#, velocity of S ! is *ero and hence kinetic energy is also *ero and at these extreme points $here kinetic energy G&+, all the energy is potential. /t intermediate positions of lying bet$een + and A/, the energy is partly kinetic and partly potential.

To calculate potential energy at instant of time consider that x is the displacement of the system from its equilibrium at any time t. ,e kno$ that potential energy of a system is given by the amount of $ork required to move system from position + to x under the action of applied force. ere force applied on the system must be Hust enough to oppose the restoring force 'kx i.e., it should be equal to kx. (o$ $ork required to give infinitesimal displacement is dx&kx dx. Thus, total $ork required to displace the system from + to x is

thus,

$here, from equation < 6&5"k)m# and displacement x&/ cos"6t84#. '%rom equation 39 and 3< $e can calculate total energy of S ! $hich is given by,

Thus total energy of the oscillator remains constant as displacement is regained after every half cycle. If no energy is dissipated then all the potential energy becomes kinetic and vice versa. %igure belo$ sho$s the variation of kinetic energy and potential energy of harmonic oscillator $ith time $here phase 4 is set to *ero for simplicity.

). Some simple s%stems e*ecutin( SHM ( ) Motion of a !od% suspended from a sprin(

%igure "=a# belo$ sho$s a spring of negligible mass, spring constant k and length l suspended from a rigid support. ,hen a body of mass m is attached to this spring as sho$n in figure ="b#, the spring elongates and it $ould then rest in equilibrium position such that up$ard force %up exerted by spring is equal to the $eight mg of the boby.

If the spring is extended by an amount Il ater attachment of block of mass m then in its equilibrium position up$ard force equals %up&kIl also in this equilibrium position %up&mg or, kIl&mg /gain the body is displaced in up$ards direction such that it is at a distance x above equilibrium position as sho$n in figure ="c#.

(o$ extansion of spring $ould be "Il'x#, thus up$ard force no$ exerted on the body is %up&k"Il'x# ,eight of the body no$ tends to pull the spring do$n$ards $ith a force equal to its $eight. Thus resultant force on the body is %&k"Il'x#'mg &mg'kx'mg or, %&'kx "3># %rom equation 3> $e see that resultant force on the body is proportional to the displacement of the body from its equilibrium position. If such a body is set into vertical oscillations it oscillates $ith an angular frequency 6&5"k)m# "3@#

(+) Simple pendulum

Simple pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by inextensible $eightless string in a uniform gravitational field. Simple pendulum can be set into oscillatory motion by pulling it to one side of equilibrium position and then releasing it. In case of simple pendulum path ot the bob is an arc of a circle of radius l, $here l is the length of the string. ,e kno$ that for S ! %&'kx and here x is the distance measured along the arc as sho$n in the figure belo$.

,hen bob of the simple pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position . and is then released it begins to oscillate.

Suppose it is at - at any instant of time during oscillations and B be the angle subtended by the string $ith the vertical. mg is the force acting on the bob at point - in vertically do$n$ard direction. Its component mgcosB is balanced by the tension in the string and its tangential component mgsinB directs in the direction opposite to increasing B . Thus restoring force is given by %&'mgsinB "3E# The restoring force is proportional to sinB not to The restoring force is proportional to sinB, so equation 3E does not represent S !. If the angle B is small such that sinB very narly equals B then above equation 3E becomes %&'mgB since x&lB then, %&'"mgx#)l $here x is the displacement .- along the arc. Thus, %&'"mg)l#x "2+# %rom above equation 2+ $e see that restoring forcr is proportional to coordinate for small displacement x , and the constant "mg)l# is the force constant k. Time period of a simple pendulum for small amplitudes is

1orresponding frequency relations are

and angular frequency 6&5"g)l# "27#

(otice that the period of oscillations is independent of the mass m of the pendulumand for small oscillations pperiod of pendulum for given value of g is entirely determined by its length.

(c) "he compound pendulum

1ompound pendulum is a rigid body of any shape, capable of oscillating about a hori*ontal axis passing through it. %igure belo$ sho$s vertical section of rigid body capable of oscillating about the point /.

Jistance l bet$een point / and the centre of gravity K is called length of the pendulum. ,hen this compound pendulum is given a small angulr displacement B and is then released it begins to oscillate about point /. /t angular displacement B its center of gravity no$ takes ne$ position at K'. ,eight of the body and its reaction at the support constitute a reactive couple or torque given by L&'mg K'M &'mglsinB "29# Equation 29 gives restoring couple $hich tends to bring displaced body to its original position. If N is the angular acceleration produced in this body by the couple and I is the moment of inertia of body about hori*ontal axis through / then the couple is IN&'mglsinB if B is very small then $e can replace sinB B, so that N&'"mgl)I#B "2<# %rom above equation "2<# $e se that pendulum is executing Simple !otion $ith time period armonic

,. -amped .scillations

%ractional force, acting on a body opposite to the direction of its motion , is called damping force. Jamping force reduces the velocity and the Ginetic Energy of the moving body. Jamping or dissipative forces generally arises due to the viscosity or friction in the medium and are non conservative in nature. ,hen velocities of body are not high, damping force is found to be proportional to velocity v of the particle i.e., %d&'Ov "2># $here, O is the damping constant. If $e take damping into consideration for an oscillator then oscillator experiences "i# Pestoring %orce Q' %&'kx "ii# Jamping %orce Q' %d&'Ov $here, x is th edisplacement of oscillating system and v is the velocity of this dispalcement. Thus equation of motion of damped harmonic oscillator is

$here,r&"O)2m# and 62&k)m

Solution of above equation is of the form x&/e'rtcos"6't84# "2E# $here, 6'&5"62'r2# "7+# is the angular frequency of the damped oscillator. In equation 2E , x is a function of time but it is not a periodic function and because of the damping factor e'rt this function decreases continously $ith time.

1/. -ri0en or 1orced Harmonic oscillator

If an extra periodic force is applied on a damped harmonic oscillator, then the oscillating system is called driven or forced harmonic oscillator, and its oscillations are called forced oscillations. Such external periodic force can be represented by %"t#&%+cos6ft "73# $here, %+ is the amplitude of the periodic force and 6 f is th e frequency of external force causing oscillations.

Jifferential equation of motion under forced oscillations is

In this case particle $ill neither oscillate $ith its free undamped frequency nor $ith damped angular frequency rather it $ould be forced to oscillate $ith angular frequency 6f of applied force. ,hen damped oscillator is is set in forced motion, the initial motion is combination of damped oscillation and forced oscillations . /fter certain amount of time the amplitude of damped oscillations die out or becomec so small that they can be ignoredand only forced oscillationd remainand the motion is thus said to reached steady state. Solution of equation 72 is x&/cos"6ft84# "77# $here / is the amplituse of oscollation of forced oscillator and 4 is the initial phase. In case of forced oscillations both amplitude / and initial phase 4 are fixed quantities depending on frequency 6f of applied force. 1alculations sho$ sthat amplitude

and initial phase tan4&'v+)"6fx+# $here, x+ is displacement of particle at time t&+, the moment driven force is applied and v+ is the velocity of the particle at time t&+.

,hen 6f is very close to 6, then m"62'"6f#2 $ould be much less than 6fO, for any reasonable value of O, then equation 79 becomes /&%+)O6f "7<# Thus the maximum possible amplitude for a given driven frequency is governed by the driving frequency and the damping ,and is never infinity. This phenomenon of increase in amplitude $hen the driving force is close to natural frequency of oscillator is called PES.(/(1E. Thus resonance occurs $hen frequency of applied force becomes equal to natural frequency of the oscillator $ithout damping.