TYPES OF FOUNDATION

Shallow Foundation System

• Isolated Pad Foundation
• Spread Foundation
• Mat / Raft Foundation

Deep Foundation System

• Pile
• Diaphragm wall
• Pile walls
• Caissons

PILED RAFT
SHALLOW FOUNDATION

A shallow foundation is a type of building foundation that transfers building loads to the earth very
near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep
foundation. Shallow foundations include spread footing foundations, mat-slab foundations, etc.

Advantages
• Cost (affordable)
• Construction Procedure (simple)
• Material (mostly concrete)
• Labour (does not need expertise)
SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATION
• Known as a footer or footing
• It is an enlargement at the bottom of a column/ bearing wall that spreads the applied structural
loads over a sufficiently large soil area.
• Each column & each bearing wall has its own spread footing, so each structure may include
dozens of individual footings.
• Under normal conditions, square and rectangular footings are economical for supporting columns
and walls. However, under certain circumstances, it may be desirable to construct a footing that
supports a line of two or more columns. These footings are referred to as combined footings.
COMBINED FOOTINGS
• Rectangular combined footing
• combined footing
• Strap footing
• When more than one line of columns is supported by a concrete slab, it is called a mat foundation.
SURFACE SPREAD / MAT / RAFT FOUNDATION
• Surface spread foundations consist mainly of rafts and are generally used where the normal ground bearing
sub-strata is relatively poor and the depth to suitable loadbearing soils is excessive or the load-carrying
capacity of the soil deteriorates with depth.
• Surface spread foundations are therefore employed to distribute the superstructure/substructure loads over a
large area of the ground thus reducing the contact bearing pressure.
• Mat foundations are commonly used to support heavy loads from multiple columns. Mats may bear on
competent soil, on soil with a low bearing capacity, or be supported on piles or drilled shaft foundations
(caissons).
• Rafts are most often used these days when the strata is unstable or (because of this) a normal strip foundation
would cover more than 50% of the ground area beneath the building. There are also situations (usually in
areas where mining has occurred) where there may be areas of movement in the strata.
• Mat foundations are generally used with soil that has a low bearing capacity.
• Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the
structure.
• They are used when column loads or other structural loads are close together and individual pad foundations
would interact.
• A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It may be
stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.
• Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists
differential movements between loading positions.
• They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a
larger area.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Raft foundations tend to be cheaper and quicker to use than traditional footings. There are a number of reasons
why this is the case:

• The foundation and floor slab is combined, which saves time and materials

• Less excavation is required

Other reasons that make raft foundations preferable to footings are due to their engineering benefits. They are
ideal for poor ground condition where normal footings would not cope well as they cannot spread the load as
effectively.

Raft foundation can be suitably used in difficult site conditions. It is mostly preferred for the erratic, soft and marshy
sites. It bridges the erratic deposits and reduces the differential settlement.

The load is uniformly distributed on the entire foundation area. The intensity of pressure on the foundation soil is
considerably decreased due to the distribution of total load over a large area.

Related to this is that raft foundations can reduce differential settlement, where settlement occurs at different rates
across the ground surface of the building, which reduces cracking and other more serious problems.

The main disadvantage is that they can be prone to edge erosion if they are not treated properly. They are not
effective if the load of the building is going to be focused on a single point, although this is rare in domestic
construction.
TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS

On the basis of structural systems

1] Plain Slab / Flat Plate Rafts

2] Beam & Slab Raft
3] Cellular Raft

Based on the methods of their support

1] Raft supported on soil

2] Raft supported on pile
3] Buoyancy Raft
Based on the methods of their
support
1] Raft supported on soil
2] Raft supported on pile
3] Buoyancy Raft
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

The raft slab is projected at a distance of 30 cm to 40 cm on every side of the outer walls of a structure. Thus
the area of excavation becomes slightly greater than the area of the structure. The entire area is then
excavated to its required depth and consolidated.

The foundation bed is then compacted by ramming

Lay reinforcement on spacers over the foundation bed

Pour the concrete over the reinforcement

The foundation may stiffened by ribs or beams built in during construction which will add extra strength and
rigidity.

All the necessary precautions should be taken during the construction of RCC structures. Further construction
should be started after the curing of the raft.
DESIGN AND REINFORCEMENT

Depending on the total load applied to the mat and underlying foundation system, the thickness of mat
foundations can vary from 1 ft (0.3 m) to more than 20 ft (7 m). The reinforcing system in the mat can be quite
substantial, with heavy reinforcing bar mats in the bottom, top, or both locations within the mat depth.

The mat depth is normally set by shear strength requirements. The amount of reinforcement for the top and
bottom reinforcing layers is set by meeting Code requirements for flexural strength, minimum flexural
reinforcement, and shrinkage and temperature reinforcement.

Once this reinforcement quantity is calculated, a suitable bar size and spacing can be selected. Depending on the
layout configuration, the reinforcing bars can be placed in two layers (one mat) or four layers (two mats) at both
the top and bottom. As per Code, the bar spacing is limited to five times the slab thickness or 18 in (450 mm).
Code also sets the maximum spacing of mat reinforcement at 18 in.
Bars that are placed in the interior layers should follow the same spacing patterns as the main, outer
reinforcement so that all bars in different layers are aligned.
This provides clear passage for concrete placement, which helps to reduce voids. It’s considered good practice
to select the size of the bars in the interior layers equal to or smaller than the outer layer reinforcing bars.
Some designers prefer to specify bars in the interior layers with diameters different than the bars in the outer
layer of reinforcement so they can be more easily identified and checked in the field.
By a note or a section on the design drawing, the engineer should specify those bars that will be placed in the
outer layer and the ones in the inner layer.
It’s recommended that a clear spacing of at least 3 in(75 mm) (more for deeper mats) be provided between the
bars to facilitate concrete placement.
For deep foundation mats requiring worker access inside the cage, it’s also good practice to provide openings in
the top reinforcement. This can be accomplished by bundling the bars and providing additional steel around the
resulting opening.

“.... Specification of placement sequence is very important.”

Standees for supporting the top layers of reinforcement should be sturdy and stable enough to support the
weight of the top steel, workers, and equipment.
In addition, diagonal bracing bars may be required to ensure stability of the entire reinforcing bar assembly.
Bundling of bars
 It’s preferable to extend column
and wall dowels all the way down to
the bottom mat of reinforcement.
The dowels should incorporate a
90-degree hook at the bottom end,
so the tail of the hook can be used
for support and elevation control.
This also allows the dowels to be
tied to both the top and bottom
mats of reinforcement for stability,
as the two tie points will properly
secure the dowel bars from
Displacing.

Column dowels should be hooked and extended to

the bottom mat of reinforcement to provide support
 If the mat depth cannot accommodate
the elevator or sump pit, the mat
will have to be locally thickened to
provide the necessary flexural
capacity.

A schematic of an elevator pit. In a deep mat, a thickened

slab may not be required
 If the horizontal bars must be
anchored at the mat edges, it may
be necessary to tilt hooks so that
hook extensions fit within the
geometric depth of the footing
(this may require additional
horizontal bars in the depth of the
footing to hold the hooks at the
proper angle). As an alternative,
U-bent bars could be lapped with
straight bars in the top and bottom
Layers. Depending on the specific
reinforcement layout and spacing,
hairpins may be more constructible
than individual hooks.

Consider using U-bars (hairpins) in place of hooked bars

for each bar layer at the edge of a mat foundation
RAFT FOUNDATION WITH HIDDEN BEAM
RIBBED RAFT FOUNDATION

WWR placed between the
top reinforcing bar layers
allows the workers to safely
walk on the mat before and
during concrete placement:
(a) Trump Tower, Chicago,
IL;
and (b) Roosevelt University,
Chicago, IL (photos courtesy
of Jack Gibbons, CRSI)
It’s common practice to place
sheets of welded wire
reinforcement (WWR) between
the two layers of reinforcing steel
within the top mat. The WWR will
allow laborers to walk on the mat
before and during concrete
placement (when the top bars will
be buried in the concrete),
preventing them from falling
through the mat. The WWR is
sacrificial and is not usually
considered in the structural
design computations.
Raft foundation
reinforcements
and pile heads
Blanket raft
Since most structures also require a ground floor slab it is usually economic to incorporate it with the foundation
into one structure/element. This can be done by making the upper surface of the raft foundation coincide with the
top surface of the floor slab.

Surface spread raft foundations are often adopted in areas of active mining as the best means of resisting
excessive distortion, tensile and compressive forces, etc., resulting from the ground subsidence. These and other
types of surface spread foundations are discussed in the following sections.

It should be noted that rafts do not necessarily distribute the loads as a uniform contact pressure to the sub-
strata, on the contrary, most rafts are relatively flexible foundations and will have higher contact pressure under
loaded points and edge thickenings than below the main slab areas.
The jacking raft is used in areas where the expected
subsidence would tilt or distort the structure to an
unacceptable degree and where re-levelling of the raft
produces an economic and viable foundation for the
design conditions.

The jacking raft is used in locations of excessive or

unpredictable subsidence, for example, in areas subjected
to brine or other mineral extraction.
The beam strip raft consists of (ground-bearing) down stand beams in two or more directions which support
the heavy uniform or point loads from the structure. The beams are tied together by a ground-bearing slab
supported on the hard cored dumplings, i.e. the raised areas of hardcore protruding up between the beam
lines.

This raft is mainly used in areas of either mining activity or soft alluvial deposits where a stiffened beam is
required on the main load lines. The tying of the ground floor slab into the beams prevents lateral distortions
of the beam and evens out any local differential settlements. This type of raft is more economic than the
cellular form and is used where conditions are not as severe.
The lidded cellular raft is very similar in profile to the cellular raft and is used in similar locations, i.e. severe
mining conditions, areas of poor ground where the raft will be subjected to large bending moments, etc. The
main difference however is the use of a lighter form of upper slab designed to be separate to the main
foundation.

The detail at the seating of the upper floor depends upon the need for re-levelling and the possible number of
times adjustments to line and level may be necessary.
A cellular raft consists of an arrangement of two-way
interlocking foundation beams with a ground bearing
slab at the underside and a suspended slab at the
top surface. The upper and lower slabs are usually
incorporated within the beams to form I sections. The
intersecting beams effectively break the large slab
into two-way spanning continuous small panels.

The top slab is cast using precast soffits or other

forms of permanent formwork such as lightweight infill
blocks.

These rafts are used on sites subject to severe

mining activity or in areas of poor ground where large
bending moments are to be resisted. They are also
used in locations where a valuable increase in
bearing capacity can be achieved by the removal of
the overburden and where deep foundation beams
are required.
The slip-plane raft consists of a concrete raft constructed on a slip-plane layer, such as sand of known
friction or shear resistance, which is located between the raft and the substrata. The slip-plane is
constructed in sufficient thickness to ensure that a straight failure plane could occur under excessive
longitudinal ground strain. The depth of penetration of the raft into the ground is kept to a minimum to avoid
picking up loading from ground strains.
However, the depth below finished ground level must take account of potential frost heave.

The uplift of soil or other surface

deposits due to expansion of
groundwater on freezing.
The blanket raft consists of a concrete crust raft constructed on a stone blanket which in turn is built up in layers
off the reduced sub-strata level. The crust raft and blanket interact to support and span the loading over any
localized soft spots or depressions. The main difference between this and the crust raft is the introduction of the
stone blanket. This blanket effectively disperses any heavy point and edge loads or imbalance of load.
Composite action between the crust raft and the stone blanket is the basis of the action and design of this
foundation system.
Nominal crust raft
A nominal crust raft is basically a ground-
bearing reinforced concrete floor slab with
nominal thickenings around the edges. Internal
thickenings are sometimes incorporated in the
raft.

The slab acts as a surface crust to the sub-

strata thus evening out any small local
differential settlement movements which could
result from variations in imposed loading on the
top of the slab and/or local variations in
settlement characteristics of the sub-soil. The
design is generally carried out either by sizing
the raft from previous experience or by
calculation based upon nominal assumptions.
Buoyancy Rafts or Hollow Box Foundations or Floating Foundations in Building Construction
Buoyancy rafts or hollow box foundations also known as the floating foundations is a type of deep foundation is
used in building construction on soft and weak soils. Types of buoyancy foundations, their construction
methods, and advantages are discussed in this article.
The decision of construction of a deep foundation is taken when the load has to be distributed to an area either
with soft weak compressible soils or to reach strata that have strong soil or rock or any other special concerns.
One such generally used a type of deep foundation is called as Hollow box foundations or buoyancy rafts
foundation.
These types of foundations are designed such a way that they behave as buoyant (floating) substructures for
the net loading over it. Hence reducing the load intensity over the soil.
A buoyancy raft is similar to a cellular raft and is a deep raft with large voids. The main weight of removed earth
is replaced with practically weightless voids of the raft. Basement accommodation can be provided in this form
of construction. Basement slabs together with retaining walls form the raft.
It is used for heavily loaded structures in areas of low ground-bearing capacity.
Buoyancy Rafts or Hollow Box Foundations
The buoyancy raft foundations are also known as compensated
foundations or deep cellular rafts. Whatever be the name they are
known for, they come under the category of floating foundations.
These are known as fully compensated foundations as during their
construction the soil underneath the foundation is removed, whose
weight is equal to the weight of the whole superstructure. Hence the
weight removed from the soil is compensated by the weight of the
building.
The buoyancy rafts are adopted under the following cases:
The soil bearing capacity is very low
The estimated building settlement is more than the safe limit
Need for Buoyancy Rafts in Building Construction
Those areas with soft soil, layer in a huge depth is observed, it is
economical to go for floating foundation. No other foundation like pile
foundation cannot be an efficient replacement for these.
Occupants in low-altitude areas face the problem of high floods resulting
in the collapse of houses. The construction of buoyant foundation would
help in increasing the elevation of the house.
This arrangement is a flexible method, as the building would remain on
the ground under the normal conditions. When flood approaches, the
building would rise to a necessary height.
A blinding concrete plate is a base layer of concrete (with a minimal thickness of 50 mm) cast into a footing
trench before any reinforcement for the foundations is installed. The blinding concrete of a higher thickness
levels the surface of the footing trench.