DESIGN CONCEPTS OF SUBSTRUCTURES (May/June 2010)

1(a). What are the steps involved in standard penetration test for sub soil exploration?
What corrections are required to the observed SPT values in cohesion less soils?

ANS.

The standard penetration test is conducted in a borehole using a standard split-spoon Sampler.
(i) When the borehole (55 to 150 mm in dia.) has been drilled to the desired depth, the drilling
tools are removed and the split-spoon sampler attached to standard drill rods of required length is
lowered to the bottom of the borehole and rested at the bottom.

(ii) The split-spoon sampler is then driven into the soil for a distance of 450 mm in three stages
of 150 mm each by blows of a drop hammer of 63.5 kg mass falling vertically and freely through
a height of 750 mm at the rate of 30 blows per minute (IS 2131 –1981). The number of blows
required to penetrate every 150mm is recorded while driving the sampler. If full penetration is
obtained, the blows for the first 150 mm is retained for reference purposes, but not used to
compute the SPT value because the bottom of the boring is likely to be disturbed by the drilling
process and may be covered with loose soil that may fall from the sides of the boring. The
number of blows required for the next 300 mm of penetration is recorded as the SPT value. The
number of blows is designated as the “Standard Penetration Value” or “Number” N.

(iii) The slit-spoon sampler is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods. The split barrel
is disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling. The soil sample collected inside the split
barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the natural moisture content and transported to the
laboratory for tests. Sometimes, a thin liner is inserted within the split-barrel so that at the end of
the SPT, the liner containing the soil sample is sealed with molten wax at both its ends before it
is taken away to the laboratory.

Usually SPT is carried out at every 0.75m vertical interval or at the change of stratum in a
borehole. This can be increased to 1.5 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to the presence of
boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In such a
case, the N value can be recorded for the first 300-mm penetration. The boring log shows refusal
and the test is halted if:
(i) 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration
(ii) 100 blows are required for 300 penetrations
(iii) 10 successive blows produce no advance.

SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected before they are used in empirical
correlations and design charts. IS: 2131 – 1981 recommends that the field value of N corrected
for two effects, namely,

(a) Effect of overburden pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy

(a) Correction for overburden pressure:

Several investigators have found that the overburden pressure influences the penetration
resistance or the N value in a granular soil. If two granular soils possessing the same relative
density but having different confining pressures are tested, the one with a higher confining
pressure gives a higher N value. Since the confining pressure (which is directly proportional to
the overburden pressure) increases with depth, the N values at shallow depths are underestimated
and the N values at larger depths are overestimated. Hence, if no correction is applied to
recorded N values, the relative densities at shallow depths will be underestimated and at higher
depths, they will be overestimated. To account for this, N values recorded (NR) from field tests
at different effective overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden
pressure.
The corrected N value is given by
Where, N
c = corrected value of observed N value
CN = correction factor for overburden pressure
NR = Recorded or observed N value in the field
The correction proposed by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn (1974) is given by the equation:
Where, = Effective overburden pressure at the depth at which N value is recorded, in kPa

(b) Correction for dilatancy:

Dilatancy correction is to be applied when Nc obtained after overburden correction, exceeds 15
in saturated fine sands and silts. IS: 2131 1981 incorporates the Terzaghi and Peck recommended
dilatancy correction (when Nc > 15) using the equation
Where Nc = final corrected value to be used in design charts. Nc > 15 is an indication of a dense
sand, based on the assumption that critical void ratio occurs at approximately Nc = 15. The fast
rate of application of shear through the blows of a drop hammer is likely to induce negative pore
water pressure in saturated fine sand under undrained condition of loading. Consequently, a
transient increase in shear resistance will occur, leading to a SPT value higher than the actual
one.

1(b). Describe the general procedure used for making boring and obtaining soil samples for
classification and testing of soils.

Ans.

EXPLORATORY BORINGS IN THE FIELD

Auger boring is the simplest method of making exploratory boreholes. Figure 2.10 shows two
types of hand auger-the past hole auger and the helical auger. Hand augers cannot be used for
advancing holes to depths exceeding 3-5 m (10-16 ft). However, they can be used for soil
exploration work for some highways and small structures. Portable power-driven helical augers
(76-2 mm to 304.8 mm in diameter) are available for making deeper boreholes. The soil samples
obtained from such borings are highly disturbed. In some noncohesive soils or soils having low
cohesion, the walls of the boreholes will not stand unsupported. In such circumstances, a metal
pile is used as a casing to prevent the soil from caving in.
 Figure 2.10 Hard tools:
(a) post hole auger;
(b) helical auger

When power is available, continuous-flight augers are probably the most common method used
for advancing a borehole. The power for drilling is delivered by truck or tractor-mounted drilling
rigs. Boreholes up to about 60-70 m (200-230 ft) can be easily made by this method. Continuous
flight augers are available in sections of about 1-2 m (3-6 ft) with either a solid or hollow stem.
Some of the commonly used solid stem augers have outside diameters of 66.68 mm (258in.),
82.55 m (314in.), 101.6 mm (4 in.) and 114.3 mm (412in.). common hollow stem augers
commercially available have dimensions of 63.5 mm ID and 158.75 mm OD (2.5 in.×6.25 in.),
69.85 mm ID and 177.8 OD (2.75 in.×in.), 76.2 mm ID and 203.2 OD (3 in.×8 in.) and 82.55
mm ID and 228.6 mm OD (3.25 in.×9 in.).
Wash boring is another method of advancing boreholes. In this method, a casing about 2-3 m (6-
10 ft) long is driven into the ground. The soil inside the casing is then removed by means of a
chopping bit attached to a drilling rod. Water is forced through the drilling rod and exists at a
very high velocity through the holes at the bottom of the chopping bit (figure 2.11). The water
and the chopped soil particles rise in the drill hole and overflow at the top of the casing through a
T connection. The washwater is collected in a container. The casing can be extended with
additional pieces as the borehole progresses; however, that is not required if the borehole will
stay open and not cave in.

Figure 2.11 Wash Boring

Rotary drilling is a procedure by which rapidly rotating drilling bits attached to the bottom of
drilling rods cut and grind and soil and advance the boreholes. There are several types of drilling
bit. Rotary drilling can be used in sand, clay, and rocks (unless badly fissured). Water, or drilling
mud, is forced down the drilling rods to the bits, and the return flow forces the cuttings to the
surface. Boreholes with diameters of 50.8-203.2 mm (2-8 in.) can be easily made by this
technique. The drilling mud is slurry of water and bentonite. Generally it is used when the soil
encountered is likely to cave in. When soil samples are needed, the drilling rod is raised and the
drilling bit is replaced by a sampler.
Percussion drilling is an alternative method of advancing a borehole, particularly through hard
soil and rock. A heavy drilling bit is raised and lowered to chop the hard soil.The chopped soil
particles are brought up by circulation of water. Percussion drilling may require casing.

2(a).What are the basic requirements for the satisfactory performance of a foundation?

Ans;

The major requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below,

1. The foundation, including the underlying soil and rock, must be safe against a structural
failure that could result in collapse.

2. During the life of the building, the foundation must not settle in such way as to damage the
structure or impair its function.

3. The foundation must be feasible both technically and economically and practical to build
without adverse effect to surrounding property.

2(b).What factors determine whether a foundation type is in the shallow or deep

foundation category?

Ans. The primary factors that affect the choice of a foundation type for a building are:

1) Subsurface soil and groundwater conditions.

2) Structural requirements Including;
 Foundation load.
 Building configurations.
 Depth of Foundation.
The secondary factors that may be important include
1) Construction methods, including access and working space.
2) Environmental factors, including noise, traffic, and disposal of earth and water.
3) Building codes and regulations.
4) Impact on adjacent property.
5) Time available for construction.
6) Construction risks.
3(a) Explain with sketches, the modes of shear failures of a shallow foundation. What
empirical adjustment to shear strength parameters C and φ required ?

Ans.

Figure 2: Nature of bearing capacity failure in soils:

(a) General shear failure (b) local shear failure (c) Punching shear failure

Consider a strip foundation resting on the surface of a dense sand or stiff cohesive soil, as
shown in figure 2(a), with a width of B. Now, if load is gradually applied to the foundation,
settlement will increase. The variation of the load per unit area on the foundation, qc, with the
foundation settlement is also shown in figure 3.1a. At a certain point-when the load per unit area
equals qu− a sudden failure in the soil supporting the foundation will take place, and the failure
surface in the soil will extend to the ground surface. This load per unit area, qu, is usually
referred to as the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation. When this type of sudden failure in
soil takes place, it is called the general shear failure.

If the foundation under consideration rests on sand or clayey soil of medium compaction
(figure 2b), an increase of load on the foundation will also be accompanied by an increase of
settlement. However, in this case the failure surface in the soil will gradually extend outward
from the foundation, as shown by the solid lines in figure 3.1b. When the load per unit area on
the foundation equals qu(1), the foundation movement will be accompanied by sudden jerks. A
considerable movement of the foundation is then required for the failure surface in soil to extend
to the ground surface (as shown by the broken lines in figure 2b). The load per unit area at
which this happens is the ultimate bearing capacity, qu. beyond this point, an increase of load
will be accompanied by a large increase of foundation settlement. Note that a peak value of q is
not realized in this type of failure,, which is called the local shear failure in soil.

If the foundation is supported by a fairly loose soil, the load-settlement plot will be like
the one in figure 3.1c. In this case, the failure surface in soil will not extend to the ground
surface. Beyond the ultimate failure load, qu, the load-settlement plot will be steep and
practically linear. This type of failure in soil is called the punching shear failure.

3(b). How do you determine the bearing capacity of footing on layered soils?

ANS.

BEARING CAPACITY OF LAYERED SOILS-STRONGER SOIL UNDERLAIN BY

WEAKER SOIL
The bearing capacity equations presented in the preceding sections involve cases in
which the soil supporting the foundation is homogeneous and extends to a considerable depth.
Cohesion, angle of friction, and unit weight of soil were assumed to remain constant for the
bearing capacity analysis. However, in practice, layered soil profiles are often encountered. In
such instances, the failure surface at ultimate load may extend through two or more soil layers.
Determination of ultimate bearing capacity in layered soils can be made in only a limited number
of cases. This section features the procedure for estimating bearing capacity for layered soils
proposed by Meyerhof and Hanna (1978) and Meyerhof (1974).

Figure 1 shows a shallow continuous foundation supported by a stronger soil layer

underlain by a weaker soil, which extends to a great depth. For the two soil layers, the physical
parameters are as follows:
 At ultimate load per unit area (𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢), the failure surface in soil will be as shown in figure
1. If the depth H is relatively small compared to the foundation width B, a punching shear failure
will occur in the top soil layer followed by a general shear failure in the bottom soil layer. This is
shown in figure 1a. However, if the depth H is relatively layer, then the failure surface will be
completely located in the top soil layer, which is the upper limit for the ultimate bearing
capacity. This is shown in figure 1b.

Figure1. Bearing capacity of a continuous foundation on layered soil

The ultimate bearing capacity, 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢, for this problem as shown in figure 3.20a can be given as

Where
𝐵=width of the foundation
𝐶𝑎=adhesive force
𝑃𝑝=passive force per unit length of the faces 𝑎𝑎’ and bb′
𝑞𝑏=bearing capacity of the bottom soil layer
𝛿=inclination of the passive force 𝑃𝑝 with the horizontal

4(a). Write down the expression for allowable bearing pressure for raft foundation in
granular soil and cohesive soils and explain the terms?

For saturated clays with 𝜙=0 and vertical loading condition, equation gives

Where
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢=undrained cohesion
From table 5 (chapter 3) for𝜙𝜙=0,

Substitution of the preceding shape and depth factors into equation (8) yields

Hence the net ultimate bearing capacity is

For 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹=3, the net allowable soil bearing capacity becomes

The net allowable bearing capacity for mats constructed over granular soil deposits can be
adequately determined from the standard penetration resistance numbers. From equation (53
chapter 4), for shallow foundations,
4(b). Define co-efficient of subgrade reaction?What are the factors effecting the value of co-
efficient of sub-grade reaction?
Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction is Ratio of load per unit area ( applied through a centrally
loaded rigid body) of horizontal surface of a mass of soil to corresponding settlement of the
surface. It is determined as the slope of the secant drawn between the point corresponding to zero
settlement and the point of 1'25 mm settlement, of a load-settlement curve obtained from a plate
load test on a soil using a 75 cm diameter or smaller loading plate with corrections for size of
plate used.
It depends on shape, rigidity and size of footing, depth of embedment
and type of soil

5(a). How is ultimate bearing capacity of a driven pile in cohesion less soils determined?
Ans.
COYLE AND CASTELLO’S METHOD-ESTIMATION OF 𝑸𝒑 IN SAND
Coyle and Castello (1981) analyzed twenty-four large-scale field load tests of driven piles in
sand. Based on the test results, they suggested that, in sand,
𝑄𝑝=𝑞′(𝑁𝑞∗)𝐴𝑝
Where
𝑞′=effective vertical stress at the pile tip
𝑁𝑞∗=bearing capacity factor

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE (𝑸𝒔) IN SAND

It was pointed out in equation (12) that the frictional resistance (𝑄𝑠) can be expressed as
𝑄𝑠=Σ 𝑝 Δ 𝐿f
The unit frictional resistance, f, is hard to estimate. In making an estimation of f, several
important factors must be kept in mind. They are as follows:

1. The nature of pile installation. For driven piles in sand, the vibration caused during pile
driving helps densify the soil around the pile. Figure 8. 17 shows the contours of the soil friction
angle, 𝜙𝜙, around a driven pile (Meyerhof, 1961). Note that, in this case, the original soil
friction angle of the sand was 32°. The zone of sand densification is about 2.5 times the pile
diameter surrounding the pile
 .

2. It has been observed that the nature of variation of f in the field is approximately as shown in
figure 8. 18. The unit skin friction increases with depth more or less linearly to a depth of L’ and
remains constant thereafter. The magnitude of the critical depth L’ may be 15 to 20 pile
diameters. A conservative estimate would be
𝐿′≈15𝐷.

3. At similar depths, the unit skin friction in loose sand is higher for a high displacement pile as
compared to a low-displacement pile.

4. At similar depth, bored, or jetted, piles will have a lower unit skin friction as compared to
driven piles.

Where
𝐾=effective earth coefficient
𝜎′𝑣=effective vertical stress at the depth under consideration
𝛿=soil−pile friction angle
Where
𝜎′ =average effective overburden pressure
𝛿=soil−pile friction angle=0.8𝜙

5(b).How is " Efficiency of Pile " group determined?

Ans.
In many cases, piles are used in groups, as shown in figure 8.50, to transmit the structural
load to the soil. A pile cap is constructed over group piles. The pile cap can be contact with
the ground, as in most cases (figure 8.50a), or well above the ground, as in the case of
offshore platforms
Determining the load-bearing capacity of group piles is extremely complicated and has not
yet been fully resolved. When the piles are placed close to each other, a reasonable
assumption is that the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil will overlap (figure 8.
50c), reducing the load-bearing capacity of the piles. Ideally, the piles in a group should be
spaced so that the load-bearing capacity of the group should not be less than the sum of the
bearing capacity of the individual piles. In practice, the minimum center-to-center pile
spacing, 𝑑𝑑,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2.5 𝐷𝐷, and in ordinary situations, is actually about 3−3.5𝐷.
The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as

Where,
n =Efficiency
Qg(u) = Ultimate load - bearing capacity of group pile.
Qu = Bearing capacity of individual pile.

6(a). How the lateral stability of well foundation is determined using elastic theory method?

Ans. Elastic Theory

Step 1: Determine the values of W, H and M under combination of normal loads without
wind and seismic loads assuming the minimum grip length below maximum scour level,
Where,
W = total downward load acting at the base of well, including the self weight of well.
H = external horizontal force acting on the well at scour level.
M = total applied external moment about the base of well, including those due to tilts and
shifts.
Step 2 : Compute IB and IV and I

Where,
I = IB + mIv (1+2μ’ α)

IB = moment of inertia of base about the axis normal to direction of horizontal forces
passing through its C.G.
Iv = moment of inertia of the projected area in elevation of the soil mass

offering resistance = LD 3/12

where,
L = projected width of the soil mass offering resistance multiplied by appropriate value of
shape factor.
Note: The value of shape factor for circular wells shall be taken as 0.9. For square or
rectangular wells where the resultant horizontal force acts parallel to a principal axis, the
shape factor shall be unity & where the forces are inclined to the principal axis, a suitable
shape factor shall be based on experimental results :
D = depth of well below scour level
m= KH / K : Ratio of horizontal to vertical coefficient of subgrade reaction at base. In the
absence of values for KH and K determined by field tests m shall generally be assumed
as unity.
μ’ = Coefficient of friction between sides and the soil = tan δ, where δ is the angle of wall
friction between well and soil.
α = B/(2*D) for rectangular well
= (Ddiameter)/(π*D) for circular well.
Step 3 : Ensure the following :
H > rM (1+ μ μ’) - μ W
and H < M/r (1- μ μ’) + μ W
where,
r = (D/2) (I / m Iv )

μ = coefficient of friction between the base and the soil. It shall be taken as tan φ
φ = angle of internal friction of soil.

Step 4 : Check the elastic state

mM/I not greater than γ (Kp – KA)

If mM/ I is > γ (Kp – KA), find out the grip required by putting the limiting value

mM/ I = γ (Kp – KA)

Where,
γ = density of the soil (submerged density to be taken when under water or below water
table)
K & K = passive and active pressure coefficients to be calculated using Coulomb’s
p A
theory, assuming ‘δ’ the angle of wall friction between well and soil equal to 2/3 φ but
limited to a value of 22-1/20
Step 5 : Calculate
σ1/σ2 =(W - μ P)/A ± (MB/(2I))
 where,
σ1 & σ2 = max. and min. base pressure respectively.

A = area of the base of well.

B = width of the base of well in the direction of forces and moments.
P = M/r
P = horizontal soil reaction.
Step 6 : Check σ2 not smaller than 0 i.e. no tension

σ1 not greater than allowable bearing capacity of soil.

Step 7 : If any of the conditions in Steps 3, 4 and 6 or all do not satisfy, redesign the well
accordingly.
Step 8 : Repeat the same steps for combination with wind and with seismic case
separately.

6(b).Give the salient features of design of well cap.

Ans.
A well cap is needed to transfer the loads and moments from the pier to the well. The shape
of the wall cap is normally kept the same as of the well with a possible overhang of 150 mm. The
top of the well cap is usually kept at about the low water level in case of perennial rivers. The
well cap is designed as a two-way reinforced concrete slab resting over the top of well. The
support conditions are taken partially restrained. The design of the well cap is carried out by
assuming that the load from the pier acts on an imaginary circle having an area equal to the area of
dispersion of the loads transferred from the pier to the well cap. Since the well-cap is assumed to be
partially restrained by the steining, the moments in the well-cap are calculated for circular patch
loading and for U.D.L. (self-weight of well cap)for the following two conditions:

 1.Well cap freely supported on steining

 2.Well cap fully clamped on steining
The resultant moments for the design of the well-cap section at mid-span and at supports can be
found out as follows.

M centre = (Mean radial moment due to patch loads beneath the loaded area)+ 
(Mean radial moment due to U.D.L. at the centre of well-cap)+ 
(moment at the centre of well cap due to moments transferred from pier)

M edge = (Mean radial moment due to patch loads beneath unloaded area)+ 

(Mean radial moment due to U.D.L. at the support of well-cap)+ 
(moment at the edges of well cap due to moments transferred from pier)
Hence, the reinforcement at the centre of the well-cap is calculated for the moment M centre
 and the reinforcement at the edges of well-cap is calculated for the moment M edge.Half of the
main tension reinforcement at the centre and at the support sections of the well cap is provided
on the compression face. All reinforcement in the well-cap is provided as an orthotropic mesh.
The well-cap is finally checked for punching shear as per IS: 456-2000

7(a)Explain the various forces acting on the tower foundation with reference to normal and
broken wire condition?

The foundation of towers are normally subjected to three types of forces. These are:

(a) The compression or downward thrust.

(b) The tension or uplift.

(c) The lateral forces of side thrusts in both transverse and longitudinal directions.

The magnitude or limit loads for foundations should be taken 10% higher than these for the
corresponding towers. The base slab of the foundation shall be designed for additional moments
developing due to eccentricity of the loads.

The additional weight of concrete in the footing below ground level over the earth weight and the
full weight of concrete above ground level in the footing and embedded steel parts also be taken
into account; adding to the down-thrust.

7(b) with neat sketches, explain any two types of tower foundation.

1) Under cut type

These types of foundations are shown in figures 8.4(a), (b), (c). These are constructed by
making under-cut in soil / rock at foundation level. This type of foundation is very useful in
normal dry cohesive soil, hard murrum, fissured / soft rock, soils mixed with clinker, where soil
is not collapsible type i.e. it can understand by itself. A footing with an under-cut generally
develops higher uplift resistance compared to that of an identical footing without under-cut. This
is due to hte anchorage in un disturbed virgin soil. The size of under-cut shall not be less than
1.50mm. At the discretion of utility and based on the cohesiveness of the normal dry soil, the
owner may permit undercut type of foundation for normal and cohesive soil.

2) R.C.C. spread type

Typical types of R.C.C spread footings are shown in figure 8.2. It consists of a R.C.C base slab
or mat and requires a square chimney. There are several types of R.C.C spread footings which
can be designed for tower foundations. The three most common types of these are shown in
figure 8.2(a), (b) and (c). As shown in figures, this type of foundation can be either single step
type or multiple step type and / or chamfered step type. The R.C.C spread type footing can be
suitably designed for variety of soil conditions. R.C.C footings in some situations may be higher
in cost although structurally these are the best.

8(a)Principles of design of strap footing?

 Combined footings and strap footings are normal used when one of columns is subjected
to large eccentric loadings. When two columns are reasonably close, a combined footing is
designed for both columns as shown in Figure 3.1. When two columns are far apart, a strap is
designed to transfer eccentric moment between two columns as shown in Figure. The goal is to
have uniform bearing pressure and to minimize differential settlement between columns.

Design assumptions

1. Strap does not provide bearing.

2. Strap is ridge enough to transfer moment from one footing to the other.

Design procedure

Service load design:

1. Determine the length of exterior footing and its eccentricity, e.

2. Determine eccentric moment, M = Pa*e.

3. Determine shear force, V = M / L

4. Determine footing reaction, Ra = Pa+V, and Rb = Pb-V

5. Determine footing sizes for both A & B.

Structural analysis

1. Calculate factored column loads, Pua & Pub

 2. Calculate factored eccentric moment Mu = Pua*e

3. Calculate factored shear, Vu = Mu / L

4. Determine factored reactions, Rua & Rub.

5. Perform structural analysis, determine factored shear and moment on footings and
strap.

Reinforced concrete design

1. Design exterior footing. Check shear stresses and design flexural reinforcement.

2. Design interior footing. Check shear stresses and design flexural reinforcements.

3. Design footing strap as a reinforced concrete beam.

8.(b) Laterally loaded piles, tension piles, and batter piles.

1) Laterally loaded piles

Piles are commonly used to transfer vertical (axial) forces, arising primarily from gravity (e.g.,
the weight of a superstructure). Examples of structures where piles are commonly used as
foundations are tall buildings, bridges, offshore platforms, defense structures, dams and lock
structures, transmission towers, earth retaining structures, wharfs and jetties. However, in all
these structures, it is not only the axial force that the piles carry; often the piles are subjected to
lateral (horizontal) forces and moments. In fact, there are some structures (e.g., oil production
platforms, earth retaining structures, wharfs and jetties) where the primary function of piles is to
transfer lateral loads to the ground. Wind gusts are the most common cause of lateral force
(and/or moment) that a pile has to support.

The other major cause of lateral force is seismic activity. The horizontal shaking of the ground
during earthquakes generates lateral forces that the piles have to withstand. Certain buildings are
also acted upon by lateral earth pressures, which transmit lateral forces to the foundations. That
apart, depending on the type of structure a pile supports, there can be different causes of lateral
forces. For tall buildings and transmission towers, wind action is the primary cause. For offshore
oil production platforms, quays, harbors, wharfs and jetties, wave action gives rise to lateral
forces. In the case of bridge abutments and piers, horizontal forces are caused due to traffic and
wind movement. Dams and lock structures have to withstand water pressures which transfer as
horizontal forces on the supporting piles. Defense structures often have to withstand blasts that
cause lateral forces. In the case of earth retaining structures, the primary role of piles is to resist
lateral forces caused due to the lateral pressures exerted by the soil mass behind the retaining
wall. Sometimes, piles are installed into slopes, where slow ground movements are taking place,
in order to arrest the movement. In such cases, the piles are subjected only to lateral forces. Piles
are used to support open excavations; here also, there is no axial force and the only role of the
piles is to resist lateral forces.

2) Tension piles

Structures such as tall chimneys, transmission towers and jetties can be subject to large
overturning moments and so piles are often used to resist the resulting uplift forces at the
foundations. In such cases the resulting forces are transmitted to the soil along the embedded
length of the pile. The resisting force can be increased in the case of bored piles by under-
reaming. In the design of tension piles the effect of radial contraction of the pile must be taken
into account as this can cause about a 10% - 20% reduction in shaft resistance.

3) Batter piles
 The ability to install driven piles on an angle, or batter, gives them a distinct advantage
with respect to their ability to carry lateral loads. Batter piles carry lateral loads primarily in axial
compression and/or tension while vertical deep foundations carry lateral loads in shear and
bending. When subjected to lateral loading, batter piles will therefore generally have a greater
capacity and be subject to smaller deformations than vertical piles of the same dimensions and
material. Large shear and moment loads induced at the pile head have been a source of
performance problems with batter piles in some cases. However, these problems can be
mitigated by appropriate design and detailing of the pile-structure connection.

Until the 1990s, batter piles were a common means for carrying lateral loads, particularly
when the lateral loads were large, there was a large unsupported length, or there were weak soils
at the ground surface. Examples of such situations include seismic design of bridges and design
of marginal wharfs and other port and harbor structures. In the 1990s, following the poor
performance of batter piles in a series of earthquakes, some engineers began advising against the
use of batter piles. However, once the reason for the poor performance of batter piles was
understood, engineers developed design strategies to address these problems. Using these
strategies, batter piles have once again become an important weapon in the engineer’s arsenal for
designing foundations subject to lateral loads.