Department of Civil Engineering

Full Module Specification

Module Title/Course Name Foundation Engineering
Module Code : CE 331
Module Level : BSc in Civil Engineering
Academic Year : 2017
Module Lecturer : Md. Abul Kalam Azad
Contact Address: 4th Floor, Civil Building, EUB
Counseling Hour: Before or after class or by
appointment
Module Credit 3
Pre Requisites : Principle of soil Mechanics
Co Requisites :
Duration of Module : 12 Weeks
Grading : As outlined in the University policy
Teaching Methodology Class room lecturer, multimedia
presentation ,discussion, group
study, assignment, presentation, etc.
Method of Evaluation Attendance =20
Continuous Assessment =20
Mid-term =30
Final =30
TOTAL =100
 Foundationing Engineering

 Introduction
Welcome to Foundation Engineering. This module is offered to the
students of Civil Engineering. It is evaluated on the basis of class tests, assignments,
discussions, presentations and the final examination.

 Objectives
On completion of this course, you will be able to:

 Conducting subsoil exploration program & able to know identify soil

capacity.
 Develop the understanding of bearing capacity of soil.
 Settlement Computation
 Detail Concept about Combined Footing and Mat foundation
 Details about pile foundations
 Causes of slope failure and the process of minimization of failure.
Message from the Teacher:

Course Contents:
Week Module Topics/Module/Chapter
 Introduction of sub soil exploration
1 Module 1 program. Course Teacher
 Process of collection of sample
 Problem associated with sub soil
2 Module 1
exploration.
 Bearing capacity of soil
3 Module 2
 Problem solve
4 Module 2  Problem solve
5 Module 3  Settlements and its types
6 Module 3  Problem solve
midterm
Week Topics/Module/Chapter Course Teacher
Module 4  Concept on combined footing and
7
mat foundation.
8 Module 4  Problem solve
9 Module 5  Pile foundation and its types
10 Module 5  Problem solve
11 Module 6  Slope stability
12 Module 7  Retaining wall
Final Exam
 Page 1

Module I
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
(Ref: CH-II, B. M. Das, Principles of Foundation Engineering)

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION (Geotechnical)

Sub-surface exploration (SSE) can be defined as a process or technique of identifying the layers of deposits of
soil/rock and obtaining their physical characteristics on which, through which, by the side of which or using which,
any proposed (*) structure will be built.

Explorations are done for obtaining information about surface and subsurface conditions at the site of
proposed construction. Generally SSE is required for every civil engineering project.

However, the purposes of subsurface explorations can be summarized as_____

 To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure

 To evaluate the load-bearing capacity of the foundation (shallow or deep)

 To estimate the probable settlement of the foundation

 To determine the lateral earth pressure for structures such as shorepiles, retaining walls, abutments etc.

 To determine the location of ground water table (GWT)

 To determine and solve potential foundation problems such as expansive characteristics of soils
 To select suitable construction techniques

 To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material

 To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest remedial measures

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAM

Geotechnical subsurface exploration program comprises of several steps/phases and can be summarized as : ----
(1) Collection of Preliminary Information
(2) Reconnaissance (Preliminary visual inspection)
(3) Field Investigation
(4) Laboratory Investigation
(5) Analysis and Recommendation
(6) Preparation of Subsurface Exploration Report

(*)
Subsurface exploration may also be necessary when additions and alterations to existing structures are planned
 Page 2

(1) Collection of Preliminary Information

This step involves obtaining preliminary information regarding the type of structure to be built and its general
use. For examples:------
For the construction of buildings following preliminary information should be available to prepare a standard
subsurface exploration report:--------
o Approximate column loads and their spacings
o Local building codes
o Basement requirements etc.

And for the construction of bridges following preliminary information should be available to prepare a standard
subsurface exploration report
o Span lengths of bridge
o Loading on piers
o Loading on abutments

(2) Reconnaissance
It involves preliminary visual inspection of the site prior to field investigation. The geotechnical engineer
should always make a visual inspection of the site prior to the field investigation part (Step III) of the PROGRAM.
This step involves observation during site visit and collection of information regarding:-
 General Topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches, abandoned dumps of debris, and
other materials or any other significant phenomenon present at the site
 Soil stratification from deep cuts such as those made for the construction highways or roads
 The type of vegetation at the site that may indicate the nature of the soil
 High watermarks on nearby buildings and bridge abutments
 Ground water levels that can be determined by checking nearby wells
 The types of structure nearby and the existence of any cracks in walls or other problems

(3) Field Investigation

The field investigation phase of the exploration program primarily consists of -------
(a) Planning
(b) Drilling and Logging
(c) Sampling
(d) In-situ testing
(e) Observing ground water table
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Planning
It involves planning of exploratory boreholes to be drilled at the project site. Planning primarily consists of
two steps:-------
 Selection of BH (Borehole) location and number
 Selection of BH depth
There is no hard-and-fast rules for planning of exploratory boreholes to be drilled. However, following general
guidelines can be used for planning purposes______
 Page 3

General guidelines (GG) for selection of BH location and number:

Project Type Spacing/ No.s of BH Comment

For projects consisting of smaller areas:

o Minimum of One BH at each corner Distribute BHs among the
entire site
Building For projects consisting of bigger areas:
o Minimum of One BH at each corner and
spacing ranging from 30 ft. to 100 ft.

Bridge At the location of bridge piers and abutments ---------

Road/Embankment Location of BHs should

800 ft. - 1600 ft. be along the longitudinal
alignment
Residential Distribute BHs among the
800 ft. - 1600 ft.
Subdivision entire site

Dam Location of BHs should

100 ft. - 200 ft. be along the longitudinal
alignment

General guidelines (GG) for selection of BH depth:

 Up to a depth where distributed induced (applied) stress becomes 10% of the distributed induced stress at
the foundation level
 Usually from the base of the foundation level to a depth of at least 2.5 times the minimum dimension of the
foundation

 In case of requirement of pile foundations, the depth of BHs should be extended up to the depth where hard
or relatively harder strata is encountered

 For normally constructed building projects (up to 5 or 6 storied) in Bangladesh the BH depths are usually
on the order of 50 ft. below EGL (Existing Ground Level). But if encountered soil during drilling and
logging are found to be of very loose (sand/silt) or soft (clay) in nature, BH depths requirement could be on
the order of even up to 100 ft.

 For any excavation project BH depths should be at least two times the excavation depth.
 For highway pavement subgrade project excavation depths should be in the range of 5 to 10 ft.

 For Embankment projects, BH depths could be on the order of 10 to even 100 ft., based on:-------
o Height of the embankment
o Experience and engineering judgment of the concerned personnel
o Preliminary information regarding the existing deposits
The above general guidelines (GG) can be used as a rule of thumb (ROT) for planning/estimation purposes
prior to field investigation.
Actual location/No.s and depths may have to be revised during field investigation based on:------
o Variability of deposits
o Any exceptionally loose/soft condition in conjunction with structural loads
 Page 4

Experience and proper engineering judgment of the concerned geotechnical engineer (GE) plays a vital role in case
any planning (spacing/no.s and depth of BH) is to be revised during drilling and logging.

(b) Drilling and Logging

(i) Drilling
It involves making of exploratory BHs in the field. Different boring/drilling techniques used are________
1) Auger Boring
2) Wash Boring
3) Rotary Drilling
4) Percussion Drilling

1) Auger Boring

(a) Hand-driven:---
 Posthole Auger  Maximum drilling depth is on the order of 10 to 15 ft.
 Helical Auger  Mostly used for highway pavement subgrades and smaller projects
 Cannot be drilled through rocks

(b) Power-driven Helical Auger:----

 Could be drilled deeper even up to 200 to 250 ft.
 For rotation high energy is required
 Cannot be drilled through rocks
 Page 5

2) Wash Boring (Extensively used in Bangladesh)

o Manual procedure
o Simple and economic

o Can be drilled through cohesive (clay) and cohesionless (sand/silt) soils

o Cannot be drilled through rocks

3) Rotary Drilling
o Mostly used in developed countries like Europe, USA etc.

o Expensive drilling bits are used for drilling

o Can be drilled through cohesive (clay) and cohesionless (sand/silt) soils and even rocks

4) Percussion Drilling

A very specialized type of drilling used for very hard soil and rock. A heavy drilling bit is used for drilling.

(ii) Logging

 Visually identifying and classifying soils in the field as drilling is in progress.

 Keeping systematic records of ____
o Classified soil
o Strata (layers of deposits)
o Description of collected samples
o Results of any field tests conducted during drilling operation
o Location of GWT (ground water table)
All these information are summarized in a field log. A systematic summarized field records obtained during field
investigation is known as borehole log or boring log or field log.
 Page 6

(c) Sampling
It involves collecting soil/rock samples at desired depths (usually at 5 ft. depth intervals). Two types of
Sampling:

(i) Undisturbed Sampling (or relatively undisturbed sampling):

-------- Applicable for cohesive soils (clay) only

Undisturbed
Sampling

Using Shelby Tube (ST) sampler Using Piston Sampler

o Used for moderately soft to hard cohesive soils o Used for very soft cohesive soils
o A Piston sampler is used for collecting
o A thin-walled Shelby Tube (ST) sampler is used for collecting samples (suction technique)
samples (push and rotation technique) o Not commonly used
o Commonly used
o Sampler Geometry:----
D0 = Outside diameter = 2 (50.8 mm) to 3 (76.2 mm) inches
Di = Inside diameter = 1-7/8 (47.63 mm) to 2-7/8 (73 mm) inches
L = Length of tube = 18 inches

(ii) Disturbed Sampling

-------- Applicable for cohesionless soils (sand/silt) only

Disturbed
Sampling

Using Split Spoon Sampler (SSS) Using Scraper Bucket (SB)

o Used for cohessionless soils having pebbles
o Used for cohessionless soils having sand/silt o A Scraper Bucket (SB) is used for collecting samples
o A Split Spoon Sampler (SSS) is used for o Not commonly used
collecting samples
o Commonly used
o Sampler Geometry____
D0 = Outside diameter = 2 (50.8 mm) inches
Di = Inside diameter = 1-3/8 (34.93 mm) inches
L = Length = 20 inches
 Page 7

(d) In-Situ Testing

Also known as “In-place Testing” or “Field Testing” or “ Situ Testing”

(i) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

(ii) Vane Shear Test (VST)

(iii) Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

(iv) Pressuremeter Test (PMT)

(v) Dilatometer Test (DMT)

(i) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Mostly used for cohessionless soils to collect disturbed samples and its in-situ strength (Provides very good
correlation for angle of internal friction of cohessionless soils). Also used for cohesive soils to have an estimation
of its in-situ strength (in-situ strength of cohesive soils, Cohesion, are not always reliable; so results of field tests
need to be verified in the laboratory by performing unconfined compressive strength test using undisturbed samples
obtained from Shelby Tube Sampler).
 Page 8

 A 140-lb hammer is used to be fallen on the drilling rod and maintain a drop of approximately 30 inches to
create a blow on the drilling rod. Due to the blow on the drilling rod the Split Spoon Sampler (SSS) attached to
the tip of the drilling rod penetrates into the soil. The test is conducted for 3 consecutive penetrations each
consisting of 6 inches. The first 6-inch penetration is ignored to avoid soil disturbances. The number of blows
(N) required for the last 12-inch (6 inches + 6 inches) penetration is considered as the SPT (Standard
Penetration Test) N value. This N value reflects degree of denseness (Relative Density) for cohesionless soils
(reliable) and also degree of firmness (Consistency) for cohesive soils (Not always reliable).
 Certain corrections are required for SPT-N values______
o 60% Standard Energy and Drilling Equipment/method correction, (CF60), is to be applied for both
cohesive (clay) and cohessionless (sand/silt) soils and Oberburden Correction, (CF1), is to be
applied for cohessionless (sand/silt) soils only

ii) Vane Shear Test (SPT):

 Used only for very soft to soft cohesive soils (clay)

 Not good for hard soils

 A certain torque is applied through an equipment named VANE.

o C = (T/K) Where,
C = Cohesion of Clay
T = Torque applied into vane
K = Constant
 Page 9

iii) Cone Penetration Test (CPT):

 Can be used for both cohesive and cohessionless soils

 Expensive

 Relative density and consistency can be obtained for the soils under exploration

 Angle of internal friction and cohesion can be obtained from the test
 No boreholes are necessary to perform the test

 Reliable results can be obtained

 Test results can be used for the interpretation of soil classification

iv) Pressuremeter Test (PMT):

 Can be used for both cohesive and cohessionless soils

 Expensive

 Pressuremeter modulus (Ep) and Cohesion (C) can be obtained from the test

 Boreholes are necessary to perform the test

 Test results cannot be used for the interpretation of soil classification

v) Dilatometer Test (DMT):

 Can be used for both cohesive and cohessionless soils

 Expensive

 Dilatometer modulus (ED) and Co-efficient of earth pressure at rest (K0) can be obtained from the test
 Boreholes are necessary to perform the test

 Test results can be used for the interpretation of soil classification

(e) Observing Ground Water Table

The presence of GWT near a foundation affects the foundation load-bearing capacity and settlement,
among other things. The water level changes seasonally. In many cases, establishing the highest and lowest possible
levels of water during the life of a project may become necessary.

(4) Laboratory Investigation (Under the scope of CE 342)

(5) Analyses and Recommendation (Based on I, II, III, IV and remainder of CE-441)

(6) Preparation of a Subsurface Exploration Report

(Should include professional representation of all of above)
 Page 10

Related Practice Problem in class (PPC)

PROBLEM -1: A geotechnical site investigation was conducted at a site in Dhaka. A hammer having efficiency of
58% was used during the drilling operation. The field blow counts and subsurface stratigraphy as obtained at the
site for a particular boring are summarized in the following figure below. Determine the Field SPT values for all
depths. Apply necessary corrections (60% energy/overburden) and calculate the corrected SPT values as required
(Use Appendix A, as necessary) from the field SPT values at various depths. Also determine cohesion and internal
friction of clay and sand deposits.

Notes: - The drilling crews (team) forgot to bring the liners and the entire site investigation (SPT tests) was
conducted without liner.
- Sampling rods used in the drilling operation were all 15-foot long.

Elevation
+/- 0.00 ft
γ = 100 Pcf γd = 90 Pcf
Dry Zone γsat = 120 Pcf
GWT

- 4.0 ft SILTY SAND

- 5.0 ft Blow Counts 2/3/4
γ = 100 Pcf
γd = 90 Pcf
γsat = 120 Pcf
- 10.0 ft Blow Counts 3/3/3
- 13.0 ft

- 15.0 ft Blow Counts 3/5/5

SATURATED γ = 110 Pcf
FAT CLAY γd = 95 Pcf
γsat = 125 Pcf
- 20.0 ft Blow Counts 4/5/6

- 25.0 ft
Subsurface Soil Stratigraphy

SOLUTION:

Depth (ft) Soil Type CF60 Nf N60 σvo' CF1 (N1)60 φo c

-5 7 6.9 417.6 2.188 15.1 37.38 ---
Sand
- 10 6 5.92 705.6 1.684 9.97 34.12 ---
0.986
- 15 10 9.8 1500
Clay Not required
- 20 11 10.846 1626.9

E m C B C S C R 0.58  1 1.2  0.85

CF60 =   0.986 N60 = CF60×Nf φ = 20 + 20  ( N1 ) 60
0. 6 0.6
= 0.986× 7 = 20 + 20  15.1
σvo'(-5) = 90×4 + (120 – 62.4) ×1 = 417.6 psf = 6.9 = 37.38o
(N1)60 = CF1×N60 C = 150 Nf
2000 = 2.188× 6.9 = 150×10
(CF1)-5 = = 2.188
417.6 = 15.1 = 1500
 Page 11

CHAPTER-1.1

SPT CORRECTION FACTORS

(N)60
(N)60 – Corrected SPT Values for 60 % ENERGY AND DRILLING EQUIPMENT/METHOD
Associated Parameters for 60% Energy and Drilling Equipment/Method Correction for Field SPT
Corrections to be applied both for COHESIVE AND COHESIONLESS SOILS

(N)60 = CF60×Nf

Where,
(N)60 = Corrected SPT values for 60% Energy and Drilling Equipment/Method
CF60 = Correction Factor for 60% Energy and Drilling Equipment/Method
Nf = Field SPT values (non-corrected)

E m C B CS C R
CF60 =
0.6

Where,
Em = Hammer Efficiency (Donut + Cathed) = 0.55 to 0.60

CB = Correction for Borehole Diameter = 1.0 (For diameter 2.5" – 4.5")

= 1.05 (For diameter of 6")
= 1.15 (For diameter of 8")

CS = Correction for Sampler = 1.0 Standard Sampler

= 1.2 Sampler without Liner

CR = Correction for Rod Length = 0.75 for L = (3 – 4) m

= 0.85 for L = (4 – 6) m
= 0.95 for L = (6 – 10) m
= 1.0 for L > 10 m
 Page 12

(N1) 60
(N1) 60 – SPT values corrected for Overburden Pressure Associated Parameter for Overburden
Correction for Field SPT Correction to be applied ONLY for COHESIONLESS SOILS

(N1)60 = (CF1) × (N)60

Where,
(N1)60 = Corrected SPT values for Overburden Pressure
CF1 = Correction Factor for Overburden Pressure

2000
CF1 = for vo′ in psf
 vo'

CF1 = 100 for vo′ in kPa (or kN/m2)

 vo'

vo′ = Effective Overburden Pressure at Corresponding Depth (depth at which field SPT value is to be
corrected)

C &  (of SUBSURFACE STRATA)

Estimation of Cohesion (C) & Friction Angle (or Angle of Internal Friction) of Subsurface Strata
using EMPIRICAL correlation to SPT Numbers (N-values)

C = (qunc/2)

qunc = 250 Nf (psf)

= 300 Nf (psf)
= 333 Nf (psf)

 = 17 + 20 (N 1 ) 60

 = 20 + 20 (N 1 ) 60
Md. Abul Kalam Azad
Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering, EUB
 Page 13
CHAPTER-02
MODULE– II

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Advantages of General Bearing Capacity Equation (GBCE) over Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Equations (TBCE)
 TBCE’s only for continuous, square and circular foundations only, they do not address the case of
rectangular foundations.
 The load on the foundation may be inclined
 TBCE’s do not take into account the shearing resistance along the failure surface in soil above the bottom
of the foundation.

Types of Shear Failure:

a) General Shear Failure
b) Local Shear Failure
c) Punching Shear Failure

General Shear Failure

Local Shear Failure

Punching Shear Failure

General Shear Failure:

 Page 14

Consider a strip foundation with a width of B resisting on the surface of a dense sand or stiff cohesive soil, as
shown below. Now, if a load is gradually applied to the foundation, settlement will increase. The variation of the
load per unit area, with the foundation settlement, on the foundation q, is also shown in the figure below. At a
certain point --- when the load per unit area equals qu ----- a sudden failure in the soil will extend to the ground
surface. This load per unit area, qu, is usually referred to as the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation. When
such sudden failure in soil takes place, it is called general shear failure.
B
Load/unit area, q

qu

Failure
surface
Fig: General Shear Failure in soil Settlement

Local Shear Failure:

If the foundation under consideration rests on sand or clayey soil of medium compaction (shown below), an
increase in the load on the foundation will also be accompanied by an increase in settlement. However, in this case
the failure surface in the soil will gradually extend outward from the foundation, as shown by the solid lines in
figure below. When the load per unit area on the foundation equals qu (1), movement of the foundation will be
accompanied by sudden jerks. A considerable movement of the foundation is then required for the failure surface in
soil to extend to the ground surface (as shown by the broken lines in the figure). The load per unit area at which this
happens is the ultimate bearing capacity, qu. Beyond that point, an increase in load will be accompanied by a large
increase in foundation settlement. The load per unit area of the foundation, qu (1), is referred to as the first failure
load (Vesic, 1963). Note that a peak value of q is not realized in this type of failure, which is called the local shear
failure in soil.
B
Load/unit area, q

qu(1)

qu

Failure
surface
Fig: Local Shear Failure
Settlement
Punching Shear Failure:
If the foundation is supported by fairly loose soil, the load-settlement plot will be like the one in figure below. In
this case, the failure surface in soil will not extend to the ground surface. Beyond the ultimate failure load, qu, the
load-settlement plot will be steep and practically linear. This type of failure in soil is called the punching shear
B
failure.
Load/unit area, q

qu(1)

qu qu

Failure
surface
Surface
footing

Fig: Punching Shear Failure Settlement

 Page 15

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

(A) TERZAGHI’S ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS

(Applicable For Dense/Stiff Soil Considering General Shear Failure)

c-part q-part -part

 qu = 1.3 c′Nc + qfNq + 0.4 bfBN (For Square Foundation)

 qu = 1.3 c′Nc + qfNq + 0.3 bfBN (For Circular Foundation)
 qu = c′Nc + qfNq + 0.5 bfBN (For Strip Foundation)

Table: Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors (General Shear Failure)

′ (Degree) Nc Nq N
0 5.7 1.0 0.0
10 9.61 2.69 0.56
20 17.69 7.44 3.64
30 37.16 22.46 19.13
35 57.75 41.44 45.41

(B) TERZAGHI’S MODIFIED ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS

(Applicable For Medium Dense/Stiff Soil Considering Local Shear Failure)

 qu = 0.867 c′Nc + qfNq′ + 0.4 bfBN ′ (For Square Foundation)

 qu = 0.867 c′Nc + qfNq′ + 0.3 bfBN ′ (For Circular Foundation)
 qu = 0.67 c′Nc + qfNq′ + 0.5 bfBN′ (For Strip Foundation)

Nc′, Nq′, N′ = Terzaghi’s Modified Bearing Capacity Factors (For Local Shear Failure) that are functions only
of the soil friction angle ′

Table: Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors (Local Shear Failure)

′ (Degree) Nc Nq N
0 5.7 1.0 0.0
10 8.02 1.94 0.24
20 11.85 3.88 1.12
30 18.99 8.31 4.39
35 25.18 12.75 8.35
 Page 16

(C) THE GENERAL BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION

qu = c′Nc Fcs Fcd Fci + qf Nq Fqs Fqd Fqi + 0.5 bfBN Fs Fd Fi

Where,
Fcs, Fqs, Fs = Shape Factors
Fcd, Fqd, Fd = Depth Factors
Fci, Fqi, Fi = Inclination Factors

Table: General Bearing Capacity Factors

′ Nc Nq N
0 5.14 1.00 0.00
10 8.35 2.47 1.22
26 22.25 11.85 12.54
28 25.80 14.72 16.72
30 30.49 18.40 22.40
32 35.49 23.18 30.22
34 42.16 29.44 41.06

Shape Factors
Fcs = 1+ (B/L) (Nq/Nc)
Fqs = 1+ (B/L) tan ′
Fs = 1 – 0.4 (B/L)
Where, L = Length of the foundation (L>B)

Depth Factors
For Df/B < or = 1
Fcs = 1+ 0.4(Df/B)
Fqs = 1+ 2 tan ′ (1 – sin ′)2 (Df/B)
Fs = 1

For Df/B > 1

Fcs = 1+ 0.4 tan –1 (Df/B)
Fqs = 1+ 2 tan ′ (1 – sin ′)2 tan –1 (Df/B)
Fs = 1
The factor tan –1 (Df/B) is in radians

Inclination Factors
Fci = Fqi = (1 – o/90o)2
Fi = (1 – o/ ′)2
 = Inclination of the applied load on the foundation with respect to the vertical
 Page 17

PROBLEM SOLUTION ON BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Problem-1: A square foundation is 2 m × 2m in plan. The soil supporting the foundation has a friction angle φ =
200, and c′ = 10 kN/m2. The unit weight of soil, γ = 15 kN/m3. Determine the allowable gross load with a factor of
safety of 3. Assume that the depth of the foundation (Df) is 1.0 meter. Determine the allowable gross load for both
general and local failure.

Solution:
From the Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation,
qu = 1.3 c'Nc + qf Nq + 0.4 γbfBNγ ------------------------ (i)
From the Table 1.1, Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors (General Shear Failure) for φ = 20o
Nc = 17.69, Nq = 7.44, Nγ = 3.64
Given,
From equation (i), B=L=2m
qu = 1.3 c'Nc + qf Nq + 0.4 γbfBNγ = 1.3×10×17.69 + 15×7.44 + 0.4 × 2×15× 3.64 c' = 10 kN/m2
φ = 20o
= 385.25 kN/m2 γ = 15 kN/m3
 qall = qu/FS = 385.25/3 = 128.4 kN/m2 FS = 3

Pall = pall × A
= qall × A [ pall = qall]
= 128.4×4
 Pall = 513.7 kN/m2

Problem -2: Using Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equation, design the size of the individual circular column footing
for the following condition. Use FS = 3 (Hints: D ranges from 7 to 8 feet).

P = 100 Ton
EGL

c = 400 psf
5 ft φ = 300
γ = 110 Pcf
Medium Stiff γsat = 125 Pcf
FAT CLAY D γd = 95 Pcf

D
GWT

Solution:
From the Terzaghi’s Modified Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation,
qu = 0.867 c'Nc' + qf Nq' + 0.3 γbfBNγ' ------------------------ (i)
From the Table 1.2, Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors (Local Shear Failure) for φ' = 30o
Nc' = 18.99, Nq' = 8.31, Nγ' = 4.39
qf = 110 × 5 = 550 psf = 0.55 ksf
From equation (i),
 Page 18

qu = 0.867 c'Nc' + qf Nq' + 0.3 γbfBNγ' = 0.867×0.4×18.99 + 0.55 × 8.31 + 0.3 × 0.110×D× 4.39
= 11.16 + 0.145 D -------------------------------------------- (ii)
Again,
qall = pall = Pall/A = 200/(π/4×D2) = 254.65/D2
Again, qu = qall×FS = (254.65/D2)×3 = 763.94/ D2 ------------------------- (iii)
From equation (ii) & (iii),
763.94/D2 = 11.16 + 0.145/D
 0.145 D3 + 11.16 D2 + 0×D – 763.94 = 0
 D = 7.88 ≈ 8 ft
Design size of the individual circular column footing, Ddesign = 8 ft

Problem – 8: 1n 2005, using general bearing capacity equation, an entry-level engineer designed a square
foundation for a column load of 150 kN for the soil conditions as shown in the following FIGURE (A). In his design
he did not consider the effect of ground water condition. Except that his calculations were correct and the footing
size was found to be 1.3 m × 1.3 m with a FS = 3.

His design was not properly reviewed and the structure was constructed. The site investigation revealed that the
GW was at the EGL. You are now involved in reviewing his design. Considering the actual GW condition (FIGURE
(B)), what would be the actual ultimate load (Qu) that the column can take? Also calculate the actual FS the
structure is having now.

EGL EGL
0
20 200
c = 0 c = 0
Df = 0.7 m φ = 300 Df = 0.7 m
γ = 18 kN/m 3 φ = 300
γsat = 19 kN/m3
B = L = 1.3 m B = L = 1.3 m

FIGURE (A) FIGURE (B)

Solution:
From the General Bearing Capacity Equation,
0
qu = c'Nc FcsF cdF ci + qf Nq FqsFqdFqi + 0.5 γbfBNγ FγsFγdFγi ------------------------- (i)

From the Table 1.3, General Bearing Capacity Factors (For φ = 30o)
Nc = 30.14, Nq = 18.40, Nγ = 22.40
 Page 19

Now,
qf = (19 – 9.81) × 0.7 = 6.433 kN/m2
Ultimate Load (Qu) = qu ×A
γbf = (19 – 9.81) = 9.19 kN/m2
= 139 × (1.3×1.3)
Fqs = 1 + (1.3/1.3) × tan (30o) = 1.58 = 234.91 kN
o o 2
q Fqd = 1 + 2 tan 30 (1 – sin 30 ) ×(0.7/1.3) = 1.16 Now,
Fqi = (1-20o/90o)2 = 0.60 qu P
 qall =  app = 139
FS A FS
Fγs = 1– 0.4×(1.3/1.3) = 0.6
 150 = 139
γ Fγd = 1 1.3  1.3 FS
Fγi = (1 – 20o/30o)2 = 0.11
 FS = 1.57
From equation (i),

qu = qf Nq FqsFqdFqi + 0.5 γbfBNγ FγsFγdFγi

= 6.433×18.40×1.58×1.16×0.60 + 0.5 × 9.19 ×1.3 × 22.40×0.6×1×0.11
= 139 kN/m2
 Page 20

Chapter-03
Module – III

Settlement Computation

Overburden Relief:

1. For a fully compensated condition (floating foundation), if the depth of the mat foundation is selected to be
25 ft below EGL, determine the number of stories that could be built. Consider uniform per floor load of
250 psf

Elevation
+/- 0.00 ft

SILTY CLAY γ = 90 Pcf

γsat = 105 Pcf

- 12.0 ft

γ = 95 Pcf
SAND γsat = 115 Pcf

GWT

- 23.0 ft
SATURATED γ = 100 Pcf
CLAY γsat = 120 Pcf
- 28.0 ft
SATURATED γ = 105 Pcf
SAND γsat = 125 Pcf
- 32.0 ft
Subsurface Soil Stratigraphy
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution:

We know,
(wi) (Nf) = γDf
 250/1000 × Nf = 90×12/1000 + 95×11/1000 + (120 – 62.4) × 2/1000

 Nf = 8.96

2. Using the credit of fully compensated condition (floating foundation), find the depth of a mat foundation
for a 15-storied building (Assume the average unit weight of the overburden soil is about 100 pcf and
consider uniform per floor load of 225 psf for the building)
Solution:
 Page 21

Bearing Capacity Based on Tolerable Settlement

1. A rectangular footing designed as per allowable bearing capacity based on shearing failure is shown in the
following figure. What is the allowable bearing capacity based on shear failure. Estimate the consolidation
settlement (Use one layer & increase in average stress at the center of the clay layer) for this allowable
bearing capacity for the foundation system shown below.

The tolerable foundation settlement for the structure is about 1 inch. Based on your result, mention whether you
can use this bearing capacity as design bearing capacity. If not, explain how design bearing capacity can be
attained.

Laboratory Test Results 3 ft

Depth of Consolidation Test Sample = 9' below EGL A

2 ft

Center
Line (CL)
A'
cr = 0.012
Column Load (P) = 120 kip
e cc = 0.11

EGL
Pc' = 1500 psf
log (Po')
γ = 84 Pcf
SILT Df = 4 ft

GWT

Initial moisture content (w) = 30 %

Specific Gravity (Gs) = 2.75

Hints:
wG s
e=
S γ = 110 Pcf
Saturated γsat = 122.4 Pcf
e = Void Ratio
CLAY
S = Degree of Saturation 10 ft

SEC A-A'
 Page 22

Solution:
Allowable Bearing Capacity based on shear failure,
120
qall = = 5 ksf
46
Existing Effective Overburden Pressure
(middle of the layer undergoing settlement),
po' = 84×4 + (122.4- 62.4)×5
= 636 psf = 0.636 ksf

120
ΔPt = = 5 ksf
46 4'
Top ΔPt = 5 ksf
120 4' × 6'
ΔPm = = 1.212 ksf
(4  5)  (6  5) 2 2
5'
1 1
ΔPm = 1.212
120 ksf
ΔPb = = 0.536 ksf Middle
(4  10)  (6  10)
5'

1 ΔPb = 0.536 ksf

ΔPavg = [5 + 4 × 1.212 + 0.536] = 1.731 ksf Bottom
6

 ΔP + Po' = 1.731 + 0.636

= 2.367 ksf
cr = 0.012

cc = 0.11
As Po' < Pc’ and Po' + ΔP > Pc'

 Over Consolidated Soil (OCS) and Cr and Cc is to be used in estimation.

wG s 0.3  2.75
eo = = = 0.825 po' = 0.636 pc' = 1.5 ΔP + Po ' = 2.367
S 1

Ho  Pc '  P ' P 
Sc = cr log  cc log o 
1  eo  Po '  P c ' 

10  12   1. 5   0.636  1.731 
=  0.012  log   0.11  log 
1  0.825   0.636   1. 5 
= 1.73" > 1"

As because the estimated Sc is more than tolerable Sc of 1", the allowable bearing capacity of 5 ksf (qall) can not be
used for design.

By trial and error, the footing size can be revised until Sc is less than 1". The stress for this revised (increased)
footing size then can be used as design allowable Bearing Capacity (qall(design))
 Page 23

Chapter-04
Module – IV
Combined Footing and Mat foundation
Types of Foundation
 Shallow Foundation
 Individual Column Footing
 Combined Footing
 Deep Foundation
 Pile foundation
Combined footings can be classified generally under the following categories:
 Rectangular Combined Footing
 Trapezoidal Combined Footing
 Strap Footing
 Mat or Raft Foundation----------- (i) Conventional Mat/Raft, (ii) Bouancy Mat/Raft (Overburden Relief)

Rectangular Combined Footing Trapezoidal Combined Footing

Q1 + Q2 Q1 + Q2
L2 L2 L1
x L1 x
L3 L3
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2

Section

L Section

B1
Plan B2
Property line
L
Fig: Rectangular Combined Footing

Plan Property line

Fig: Trapezoidal Combined Footing

 Page 24

Strap Footing Mat Foundation

Section

Strap
Section

Plan

Strap Plan

Fig: Strap Footing Fig: Mat Foundation

1. Design the size of the foundation for the condition shown below.
1.5'
12"× 12" Column

100 k

1.5'

B/2
c' = 1200 psf
γ = 120 pcf
Df = 5' φ' = 0

Solution:
Preliminary size (concentric condition)
qu = c'Nc + qf Nq
For φ' = 0,
= (1.2)×(5.14) + (0.6) × (1) Nc = 5.14
= 6.77 ksf Nq = 1

qu 6.77 qf = γ×Df = (0.120) × (5)

 qall =  = 2.71 ksf
FS 2. 5 = 0.6 ksf
Now, Papp = qall
P
 = 2.71
A
100
 = 2.71
A
 A = 36.9 ft2
 Page 25

Considering square foundation:----------- B2 = A2 = 36.9

 B = 6.07' ≈ 6'

Trial – 1:---------- (B × B = 6' × 6')

 e = B/2 – 1.5' = 6/2 – 1.5' = 1.5'

B/6 = 6/6 = 1' and B' = B – 2e = 6 – 2×1.5 = 3'

4 P 4 100
 e > B/6  qmax =    = 7.41 ksf
3 L( B  2e) 3 6  (6  2  1.5)
Again,
qu' = c'Nc FcsF cdF ci + qf Nq FqsFqdFqi
 3 1   5
= [1.2] × [5.14] × 1 +   × 1 + 0.4   × [1] + [0.6] × [1] × [1 + 0] × [1 + 0] × [1]
 6 5.14   6
= 9.6 ksf

Qu' = (qu') × (6 – 2×1.5) × (6) = 172.3 k

qu' 9.6
FS(q) =  = 1.3 < 2.5 (not OK)
qmax 7.41
Qu' 172.3
FS(Q) =  = 1.73 < 2.5 (not OK)
P 100

Trial – 2:---------- (B × L = 6' × 8') and B' = 3'

 3 1 
qu' = [1.2] × [5.14] × 1 +  ×[1.33] × [1] + 0.6
 8 5.14 
= 9.4 ksf

Qu' = (9.4) × (6 – 2×1.5) × (8) = 225.6 k

4 P 4 100
 qmax =    = 5.56 ksf
3 L( B  2e) 3 8  (6  2  1.5)
q' 9. 4
FS(q) = u  = 1.69 < 2.5 (not OK)
q max 5.56
Qu' 225.6
FS(Q) =  = 2.26 < 2.5 (not OK)
P 100

Trial – 3:---------- (B × L = 6' × 10')

 3 1 
qu' = [1.2] × [5.14] × 1 +  ×[1.33]× [1] + 0.6
 10 5.14 
= 9.31 ksf

Qu' = (9.31) × (6 – 2×1.5) × (10) = 279 k

4 P 4 100
 qmax =    = 4.44 ksf
3 L( B  2e) 3 10  (6  2  1.5)
 Page 26

qu' 9.31
FS(q) =  = 2.09 < 2.5 (not OK)
q max 4.44
Qu' 279
FS(Q) =  = 2.79 > 2.5 (OK)
P 100
Trial – 4:---------- (B × L = 6' × 12')
 3 1 
qu' = [1.2] × [5.14] × 1 +  ×[1.33]× [1] + 0.6
 12 5.14 
= 9.21 ksf

Qu' = (9.21) × (6 – 2×1.5) × (12) = 331.6 k

4 P 4 100
 qmax =    = 3.7 ksf
3 L( B  2e) 3 12  (6  2  1.5)
q' 9.21
FS(q) = u  = 2.49 ≈ 2.5 (OK)
q max 3. 7
Qu' 331.6
FS(Q) =  = 3.3 > 2.5 (OK)
P 100

 Design ----- B × L = 6' × 12'

2. Find the sizes of the trapezoidal foundation for the conditions shown below (qall = 2.5 tsf)

P1 = 150 k P2 = 100 k

1' 1'
6'
 Page 27

Solution: P1 = 150 k P2 = 100 k

150  0  100  6
X=
150  100
= 2.4 ft 1' 6' 1'

1' 2.4' 3.6' 1'

(B1 – B2)/2

B1 R B2

(B1 – B2)/2

Area of the foundation, From Figure,

Q  Q2 B1  B 2
A= 1 ---------------- (i) A= L ------------------------- (ii)
q all 2

From equation (i) & (ii),

B1  B 2 Q  Q2 B1  B 2 150  100
L = 1  8=
2 q all 2 2  2. 5

 B1 + B2 = 12.5 --------------------------------- (iii)

 B  2 B2  L
X+1=  1 
 B1  B 2  3

 B1  2 B2  8 Solving the equations (iii) & (iv),

 2.4 + 1 =   B1 = 9.06 ≈ 9 ft
 B1  B2  3 B2 = 3.44 ≈ 3.5 ft
 0.275×B1 – 0.725×B2 = 0 -------------- (iv)  B1(Design) = 9 ft
 B2(Design) = 3.5 ft
 Page 28

CHAPTER-05
Module – V

PILE FOUNDATIONS

When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations are
required to transfer the loads to deeper strata. Deep foundations are, therefore, used when surface soil is unsuitable
for shallow foundations, and a firm stratum is so deep that it can not be reached economically by shallow
foundations. The most common types of deep foundations are piles, piers and caissons. The mechanism of transfer
of the load to the soil is essentially the same in all types of deep foundations.
Necessity of Pile Foundations
Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:
 When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly compressible and very weak to support the
load transmitted by the structure.
 When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its outline and load distribution. It would cause non-
uniform settlement if a shallow foundation is constructed. A pile foundation is required to reduce
differential settlement.
 Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structural loads through deep water to a firm stratum.
 Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces in addition to support the vertical loads in earth-
retaining structures and tall structures that are subjected to horizontal forces due to wind and earthquake.
 Piles are required when the soil conditions are such that wash out, erosion or scour of soil may occur from
underneath a shallow foundation,
 Piles are used for the foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers, off-shore platforms,
which are subjected to uplift.
 In case of expansive soils, such as black cotton soil, which swell or shrink as the water content changes,
piles are used to transfer the load below the active zone.
 Collapsible soils, such as loess, have a breakdown of structure accompanied by a sudden decrease in void
ration when there is an increase in water content. Piles are used to transfer the load beyond the zone of
possible moisture changes in such soils.
Classification of Piles
(1) Classification according to material used
a) Steel Piles
b) Concrete Piles
c) Timber Piles
d) Composite Piles
(2) Classification based on Mode of Transfer of Loads
a) End-bearing Piles
b) Friction Piles
c) Combined end bearing and friction Piles
(3) Classification based on method on Installation
a) Driven Piles
b) Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles
c) Bored and Cast-in-situ Piles
d) Screw Piles
e) Jacked Piles
(4) Classification Based on use
a) Load bearing Piles
b) Compaction Piles
c) Tension Piles
d) Sheet Piles
e) Fender Piles
f) Anchor Piles
 Page 29

(5) Classification based on displacement of soil

a) Displacement Piles
b) Non-displacement Piles

FRICTIONAL (SKIN) RESISTANCE IN CLAY

λ-Method
This method, proposed by Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972), is based on the assumption that the displacement
of soil caused by pile driving results in a passive lateral pressure at any depth and that the average unit skin
resistance is


fav = λ(  o + 2Cu)

Where,

 o = mean effective vertical stress for the entire embedment length
Cu = mean undrained shear strength (φ = 0)

The value of λ changes with the depth of penetration of the pile (See Figure below). Thus, the total
frictional resistance may be calculated as
Qs = pLfav

Table: 5-1

λ
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

10
Pile embedment length, L (m)

20

30
40

50

60

70

80

90
 Page 30

EXAMPLE-1 (λ-Method):
A bored pile in clay is shown below. Calculate the allowable Capacity (P) of the pile for a factor of safety of 2.5 for
both skin resistance and end bearing.

Plan dia = 18 inches

(Pall)
EGL
4 ft GWT
Clay γ = 90 Pcf Cu (1) = 600 psf

Saturated Clay
8 ft γ = 110 Pcf Cu (1) = 600 psf

Saturated Clay
8 ft γ = 110 Pcf Cu (2) = 900 psf

Saturated Clay
5 ft γ = 115 Pcf Cu (3) = 1000 psf

Saturated Clay γ = 120 Pcf Cu (4) = 1200 psf

Section
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution:
σvo'

4 ft σvo ' = 0.09×2 = 0.18 ksf GWT

σvo ' = 0.09×4 + (0.11– 0.0624)×4

8 ft = 0.55 ksf

σvo ' = 0.55 + (0.11– 0.0624)×8

8 ft = 0.93 ksf

σvo ' = 0.09×4 + (0.11– 0.0624)×16 + (0.115 – 0.0624)×2.5

5 ft = 1.25 ksf

Psu = Ps1 + Ps2 + Ps3 + Ps4 L = 25/3.25 = 7.62 m

Using Table: 5-1
= [(As) (qs)]1 + [(As) (qs)]2 + [(As) (qs)]3 + [(As) (qs)]4 λ = 0.30

= [(As)× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]1 + [(As)× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]2 + [(As)× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]3 + [(As)× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]4
= [{(πD) × L1 } × λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]1 + [{(πD) × L2 } × λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]2 + [{(πD) × L3 } × λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]3
+ [{(πD) × L4 } × λ(σvo' + 2Cu)]4
= (πD) × [{L1× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)}1 + {L2× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)}2 + {L3× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)}3 + {L4× λ(σvo' + 2Cu)}4]
= (π×1.5) × [4× 0.3×(0.18 + 2×0.6) + 8× 0.3×(0.55 + 2×0.6) + 8× 0.3×(0.93 + 2×0.9) + 5× 0.3×(1.25 + 2×1)]
= 81.44 k
 Page 31

Psu 81.44 Pall = Psa + Pba

 Psa = = = 32.58 k
FS 2.5 = 32.58 + 7.63
 P 19.1
Pbu = (Ab) (qb) = (Ab) (9Cu) = [ × (1.5)2] × (9×1.2) = 19.1 k  Pba = bu = = 7.63 k = 40.21 k
4 FS 2.5
α – Method
According to α method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be represented by the equation:

f = α Cu Where, α = empirical adhesion factor

Table: 5-2
1.0

0.8
Adhesion Factor, α

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Undrained Shear Strength, Cu (kN/m2 )

 Table: 5-3
1.2 Page 32

1.0

0.8
Adhesion Factor, α

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Cu
 o'
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
1. A bored pile in clay is shown below. Calculate the allowable Capacity (P) of the pile for a factor of safety
of 3.0 for skin resistance and 2.5 for end bearing.
dia = 18 inches

Plan
(Pall)

Elevation
+/- 0.00 ft
2 C = 150×2 = 300 psf = 15 kN/m2, α = 1
2 C = 150×2 = 300 psf = 15 kN/m2, α = 1
4 C = 150×4 = 600 psf = 30 kN/m2, α = 1
3 C = 150×3 = 450 psf = 22.5 kN/m2, α = 1
– 22 ft
4 C = 150×4 = 600 psf = 30 kN/m2, α = 1
4 C = 150×4 = 600 psf = 30 kN/m2, α = 1
5 C = 150×5 = 750 psf = 37.5 kN/m2, α = 1
5 C = 150×5 = 750 psf = 37.5 kN/m2, α = 1
6 C = 150×6 = 900 psf = 45 kN/m2, α = 0.95
8 C = 150×8 = 1200 psf = 60 kN/m2, α = 0.72
8 C = 150×8 = 1200 psf = 60 kN/m2, α = 0.72
– 60 ft 8 C = 150×8 = 1200 psf = 60 kN/m2, α = 0.72
12 C = 150×12 = 1800 psf = 90 kN/m2, α = 0.50
16 C = 150×16 = 2400 psf = 120 kN/m2, α = 0.35
– 75 ft 16 C = 150×16 = 2400 psf = 120 kN/m2, α = 0.35
18 C = 150×18 = 2700 psf = 135 kN/m2, α = 0.32
20 C = 150×20 = 3000 psf = 150 kN/m2, α = 0.30
Section C = 150×20 = 3000 psf = 150 kN/m2, α = 0.3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Page 33

Solution:

Psu = (πD×ΔL) × ∑(α ×qs)

= (π×1.5×5) × [1×(0.3 + 0.3 + 0.6 + 0.45 + 0.6 + 0.6 + 0.75 + 0.75) + 0.95 × 0.9 + 0.72×(1.2 + 1.2 + 1.2)
+ 0.5 × 1.8 + 0.35 × (2.4 + 2.4) + 0.32 × 2.7 + 0.3 × 3]

= 262. 88 k 1.2  1.8  2.4  2.4  2.7  3

Cavg =
6
= 2.25
Psu 262.88
 Psa = = = 105.15 k
FS 2. 5

Pbu = (Ab) (qb) = (Ab) (9Cu) = [ × (1.5)2] × (9×2.25) = 35.77 k
4
Pbu 35.77
 Pba = = = 11.92 k
FS 3

Pall = Psa + Pba

= 105.15 + 11.92
= 117.07 k

2. A bored pile in clay is shown below. Calculate the allowable Capacity (P) of the pile for a factor of safety
of 2.5 for both skin resistance and end bearing.
dia = 18 inches

Plan

(Pall)

EGL

4 ft Clay γ = 90 Pcf Cu (1) = 600 psf GWT

Saturated Clay
8 ft γ = 110 Pcf Cu (1) = 600 psf

Saturated Clay
γ = 110 Pcf Cu (2) = 900 psf
8 ft

5 ft Saturated Clay
γ = 115 Pcf Cu (3) = 1000 psf

Saturated Clay γ = 120 Pcf Cu (4) = 1200 psf

 Page 34

Section
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution: Cu = 600/20 = 30 kN/m2
α=1
Cu = 600/20 = 30 kN/m2
Psu = Ps1 + Ps2 + Ps3 + Ps4 α=1
Cu = 900/20 = 45 kN/m2
= [(As) (qs)]1 + [(As) (qs)]2 + [(As) (qs)]3 + [(As) (qs)]4 α = 0.95
Cu = 1000/20 = 50 kN/m2
= [(As)×(α Cu)]1 + [(As)×(α Cu)]2 + [(As)×(α Cu)]3 + [(As)×(α Cu)]4 α = 0.90

= [{(πD) × L1 } × (α Cu)]1 + [{(πD) × L2 } × (α Cu)]2 + [{(πD) × L3 } × (α Cu)]3 + [{(πD) × L4 } × (α Cu)]4

= (πD) × {L 1  (  C u )1 {L 2  (  C u ) 2 {L 3  (  C u ) 3  {L 4  (  C u ) 4 

= (π×1.5) × 4     8     8   0.95  9   5   0.9  1

= 87.37 k

Psu 87.37
 Psa = = = 34.95 k
FS 2. 5


Pbu = (Ab) (qb) = (Ab) (9Cu) = [ × (1.5)2] × (9×1.2) = 19.1 k
4

Pbu 19.1 Pall = Psa + Pba

 Pba = = = 7.63 k = 34.95 + 7.63
FS 2. 5
= 42.58 k
 Page 35

GROUP PILES
In most cases, piles are used in groups, as shown below, to transmit the structural load to the soil. A Pile cap is
constructed over group piles. The pile cap can be in contact with the ground, as in most of the cases, or it may be
well above the ground, as in the case of construction of offshore platforms.
Pile cap

Water table
L

d d
Section
L
d d

Bg
Number of piles in group = n1 × n2 (Note: Lg  Bg)
Lg d Lg = (n1 – 1) d + 2 (D/2)
Bg = (n2 – 1) d + 2 (D/2)

Plan

The load carrying capacity of a pile group is not necessarily equal to the sum of the capacity of the individual
piles. Estimation of the load-carrying capacity of a pile group is a complicated problem. When the piles are spaced
a sufficient distance apart, the group capacity may approach the sum of the individual capacities. On the other hand,
if the piles are closely spaced, the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil may overlap, and this may reduce the
load-carrying capacity of the piles. For such a case, the capacity is limited by the group action.

Distance between two piles

o Friction Pile → 2.5 D
o End bearing Pile → 3 D
Where, D = diameter of the pile

2.5 D
3D

Fig: Spacing of Friction Piles Fig: Spacing of End bearing Piles

 Page 36

ARRANGEMENTS OF GROUP PILES

0.87 S S S

S
S
5 Piles
3 Piles 4 Piles

S
S

S S S

S S S
S S
8 Piles
6 Piles 7 Piles

S S S S S
S
S
S S
S
S

S S S S S S S
9 Piles 10 Piles 11 Piles

S S

S
W W
S S S

Single row for a wall S S S

Double row for a wall

S S S

S W
S

S S

Triple row for a wall

 Page 37

CHAPTER-06
Module– VI

STABILITY OF SLOPES

An earth slope is an unsupported, inclined surface of a soil mass. Earth slopes are formed for railway foundations,
highway embankments, earth dams, canal banks, levees, and at many other locations. Figure below shows some of
the examples of earth slopes.

Slope Slope

(a) Highway (b) Railway Track

Slope

(c) Canal Slope

Slope

(d) Earth Dam

Types of Slope failures

1. Rotational Failure
o Toe failure
o Slope failure
o Base failure
2. Translational Failure
3. Compound Failure
4. Wedge Failure
5. Miscellaneous Failures
Rotational Failure
 Page 38

(a) Toe failure (b) Slope failure

(c) Base Failure

Translational Failure

Fig: Translational Failure

Compound failure

Fig: Compound Failure

Wedge Failure
Plane of weakness
or interface

Wedge

Plane Surface

Fig: Wedge Failure

Md. Abul Kalam Azad

Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering, EUB
 Page 39

CHAPTER-06
Module – VII

RETAINING WALL
Conventional Retaining walls can generally be categorized as follows:
(I) Gravity Retaining Wall (Frequently Used)
(II) Semi-Gravity Retaining Wall
(III) Cantilever Retaining Wall (Frequently Used)
(IV) Counterfort Retaining Wall

۞ GRAVITY RETAINING WALL

 Constructed with plain concrete or stone masonry.
 Stability is primarily obtained from self weight of the wall and partially from the retained soil weight above
base slab
 Not economical for high walls
 Thick stem and base slab

Stem

Drainage

Toe Base Slab Heel

Fig: Gravity Retaining Wall

 Page 40

۞ SEMI GRAVITY RETAINING WALL

 Constructed with plain concrete
 A Small amount of steel is usually used for minimizing the size of the wall section
 Stability is primarily obtained from self weight of the wall and partially from the retainied soil weight
above base slab.
 Not economical for high walls
 Thick stem and base slab

Reinforcement
Stem

Drainage

Toe Heel
Base Slab

Fig: Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

۞ CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
 Constructed with reinforced concrete
 Self weight is not only the primary contributing agent to stability
 Thin stem and base slab
 Economical upto a height of about 20 to 25 feet.

Weep Hole

Stem

Reinforcement

Base Slab
Toe Heel
Fig: Cantilever Retaining Wall
 Page 41
۞ COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL
 Constructed with reinforced cement concrete
 Self weight is not only the primary contributing agent to stability
 Thin stem and base slab
 Very similar to cantilever retaining wall except ------------
At regular intervals, it has thin vertical concrete members known as counterfort that ties the wall and the
base slab together
 The purpose of the counterfort is to reduce the shear and bending moment near the top of the base slab

Counterfort

Fig: COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL

 Page 42
PROPORTIONING GEOMETRY OF RETAINING WALL
In designing retaining walls, an engineer must assume some of their dimensions, called proportioning, such
assumptions allow the engineer to check trial sections for the walls for stability.
If the stability checks yield undesirable results, the assumed/ proportioned sections can be changed and
rechecked. The following figures show the general proportions of various retaining wall components that can be
used for initial checks.
0.3 m 0.3 m
min min

Min Min
0.02 0.02

I I
H H

Stem

0.1 H
D D
0.12 to
Heel 0.1 H
Toe
0.17 H 0.1 H

0.5 to 0.7 H
0.12 to
0.17 H
0.5 to 0.7 H

(a) Gravity Retaining Wall (b) Cantilever Retaining Wall

0.3 m

0.3 to 0.7 H

(c) Counterfort Retaining Wall

 Page 43

For counterfort retaining wall, the general proportion of the stem and the slab is the same as for cantilever walls.
However, the counterfort members (slab) may be about 0.3 m (= 12") thick and spaced at center-to-center distances
of 0.3 H to 0.7 H.
Example- 1: The cross-section of a cantilever retaining wall is shown in the figure below. Calculate its stability
(Factor of safety) with respect to
(a) Overturning
(b) Sliding
(c) Bearing Capacity

10o
0.5 m
H1 = 0.458 m
5

1
Pv
Pa Layer I
10 o γ1 = 18 kN/m3
Ph φ′1 = 30o
C′1= 0
4 H2 = 6m

1.5 m = D 2

0.7 m 3 H3 = 0.7m

Layer II
0.7 m 0.7 m 2.6 m
γ1 = 19 kN/m3
φ′1 = 20o
C′1= 40 kN/m2

From the figure,

H′ = H1 + H2 + H3 = 2.6 tan 10o + 6 + 0.7 = 7.158 m

1
The Rankine lateral active force per unit length of wall, Pa = ( )(γ1)(H′2)(Ka)
2
For 1' = 30o and α = 10o
From table ------------------ Ka = 0.350

1
Pa = ( )(γ1)(H′2)(Ka)
2
1
= ( )(18×7.158)(7.158)(0.35)
2
 Page 44

= 161.4 kN/m

Pv = Pa sin 10o = 28.03 kN/m

Ph = Pa cos 10o = 158.95 kN/m

(a) FACTOR OF SAFETY (STABILITY) AGAINST OVERTURNING

Segment Area (m2) Wi/unit length Moment Arm Moment

kN/m Xi from Toe (m) kN-m/m
1 6×0.5 = 3 70.74 0.7 + 0.7 – 0.25 = 1.15 81.35
2 1/2×0.2×6 = 0.6 14.15 0.7 + 2/3 ×0.2 = 0.833 11.79
3 4 × 0.7 = 2.8 66.02 4/2 = 2 132.04
4 6 × 2.6 = 15.6 280.8 1.4 + 1/2×2.6 = 2.7 758.16
5 1/2 × 2.6 × 0.458 = 0.595 10.71 1.4 + 2/3×2.6 = 3.13 33.52
Pv = 28.03 4 112.12
ΣV = 470.45 Σ MR(i) = 1128.98

MR = Moment Resisting = ΣMR (i) = ΣWi × i = W1x1 + W2x2 + W3x3 + W4x4 + W5x5 = 1128.98 kN-m/m

Mo = Moment Overturning = (Ph)(H′/3) = 158.95 × (7.158/3) = 379.25 kN-m/m

M R 1128.48
 FS (overturning) =  = 2.98 > 2 (Ok) [Usual ranges 2 to 3]
Mo 379.25

(b) FACTOR OF SAFETY (STABILITY) AGAINST SLIDING

Sliding Resistance from Sand

Ff = Frictional Resistance = Ff (s) + Ff (c) Sliding Resistance from Clay

= N tanδ + Afs(c)

= Σ V [tan (k1φ′)] + (B×1) (k2C′2) values of k1 and k2 ------- 1/2 to 2/3

Ff = [(470.75) (tan (2×20/3)] + [(4×1)(2×40/3)]

= 111.6 + 106. 67

= 218.27 kN/m

Again, Pp = Resistance from passive earth pressure

= ½ × (γ2 ×D) (D) kp + 2c′2 k p (D)

 2' 20
Where, kp = Passive lateral earth pressure co-efficient = tan2 (45 + ) = tan2 (45 + ) = 2.04
2 2

Pp = 1/2 × (19×1.5) (1.5)(2.04) + 2 × 40 × √2.04 × 1.5 = 215.04 kN/m

 Total sliding Resistance, Rs = Ff + Pp = 218.27 + 215.04 = 433.31 kN/m
 Page 45

Now, Total Induced Sliding Force = Ph = 158.95 kN/m

Rs 433.31
FS (sliding) =  = 2.73 > 1.5 (OK) [Recommend FS (sliding) = 1.5 minimum]
Ph 158.95

Md. Abul Kalam Azad

Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering, EUB